Student Selected Module 2005/2006 (SSM-0032) 1st December 2005

Relativity

Outline :
• The Principle of Relativity
• Galilean Relativity
• Electromagnetism & Relativity
• Time Dilation
• Length Contraction
• Mapping Space-Time
• E=mc2
• Antimatter

Principle of Relativity
Symmetries are fundamental to physics.
For example, the results of an experiment do not depend on the spatial orientation of the
laboratory : isotropy.
The principle of relativity refers to the symmetry between observers in co-moving
inertial reference frames.

Inertial reference frame :

A frame in which test particles with no external forces acting upon them move at a
constant speed in a straight line.

The frame in which the imaginary array of particles is at rest is also

! an inertial frame,
with a velocity relative to frame S of v. All inertial frames are related to each other in this
way. 2
 Principle of Relativity
With this definition, the principle of relativity takes the following simple form :

The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames

Weak : Strong :
Only the form of the physical law is Not only the form but the constants
invariant. appearing in our physical laws are
invariant.

This is what we currently assume.

Galilean Relativity
Newton's Laws :
(1) Objects remain at rest or in a state of uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force.
(2) Force = mass ! acceleration
(3) Action and reaction are equal and opposite.

Galilean Relativity : y y'

We know the force law in frame S :
2
v
dx
F = ma = m " S S'
dt 2 x,x'

For an observer in a relatively moving frame S':

dx' dx d 2 x' d 2 x
x'= x "!vt " = "v " = 2
dt dt dt 2 dt
Assuming the same force in both frames :
2 2
! F' = F = m "!d x = m " d x' = !ma' " Force law is the same in all
2 2
dt dt inertial frames.
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!
 Galilean Relativity
It also seemed natural that forces were invariant between different inertial frames :

r GM1 M 2
r FGRAVITY = (directed along the line
r2 between the two bodies)

r r
r1 ! r2
But under Galilean transformations :
! x'= x " vt
y'= y
! ! z'= z
the separation is invariant :
r '2 r2
! hence the force is the same in all inertial frames.
This is a consequence of the force NOT depending on velocity.

In Newtonian mechanics, Galilean relativity is regarded as a consequence of the underlying

theory. The modern view is that invariance under transformations between inertial reference
frames is a pre-requisite of any theory. 5

Electromagnetism
As soon as Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism were formulated, it was clear that they
were not invariant under Galilean transformations.

They predict a constant light speed in vacuum, c. The Lorentz force law :
But according to the Galilean transformations, I r r r r
ought to be able to "chase a light beam" and so end (
FELECTROMAGNETIC = q E + v " B )
up in a frame in which the light travels at a speed depends on
different to c.
r the velocity of the moving
charge, v.

Speed = !
c ! The proof of Galilean invariance that we
saw for Newton's gravity will necessarily
fail.
Speed = v
!
!In pilot's restframe, light would have Speed = c -v

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 Electromagnetism
In the face of the non-invariance of Maxwell's equations under Galilean transformations,
we have two choices :

Abandon Relativity Impose Relativity

There is a preferred rest-frame in Find different transformations between
the universe, in which the speed of inertial reference frames that preserve
light is c and is isotropic. This is the Maxwell's equations and the speed of
rest frame of the "luminiferous light.
ether" which carries electromagnetic These transformations, the Lorentz
waves. transformations, were known at the
Maxwell's equations are true only in same time as Maxwell's equations, but
this special frame. their interpretation was unclear.
Search for the ether. Einstein in 1905 provided the first clear
space-time interpretation.

The Constancy of the Speed of Light

Every important consequence of special relativity flows from the assertion that :

The speed of light is constant (c) for all

observers in all inertial reference frames.

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 Time Dilation
Consider a "light clock" :
"tock"

mirrors stationary clock

light pulse

"tick"
"tock" "tock"

"tick" "tick"

moving clock : light travels further between "ticks" at the same speed.
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Time Dilation
Time between “tick” and “tock” :
"tock" CLOCK REST FRAME MOVING CLOCK

h2 + d2
h "t = h /c "t'=
c
# h & 2 # v"t' & 2
"t'= % ( + % (
$c' $ c '
!"tick" !
"tock" # v"t' & 2
2
"t'= "t + % (
$ c '

h
"t
"t'= = "t * +
v2
1) 2
"tick" d c
!
“moving clocks run slow” 10

! !
 Lorentz # Factor

1
"=
v2 Lorentz # Factor
1# 2
c

Approaches $ in the ultra-

relativistic limit v % c .

Approaches 1 in the non-

v c
relativistic limit v << c .
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Time Dilation & Proper Time

The time elapsed in the rest frame of an object is called the proper time.
The proper time is the amount of time that the object has "aged", regardless of the time indicated
in other inertial frames.

person's
rest frame 1 Jan 2000 ... 2 Jul 2090

some other 1 Jan 2000 ... 4 Oct 3052

inertial
frame

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 Time Dilation & Time Travel
Time dilation implies that it is possible to travel into the future.
You just have to travel fast !

Synchronise two clocks before leaving clock S on

earth and taking clock S' on a space voyage.
S: 00:00.00
S': 00:00.00
S: 02:00.00
S': 01:59.00
S: 04:00.00
S': 03:58.00
When the travelling clock arrives back, it reads an
earlier time than the clock left on earth.

However, the effect is usually tiny, e.g. Apollo spacecraft to the moon travelled at & 10,000 ms-1 :
1
"= $ 1.0000000005 Clocks on earth would have gained 1 second after a
v2 journey of 60 years !
1# 2
c 13

Length Contraction
Consider the fate of muons, created in the upper atmosphere and travelling towards earth.
They have a lifetime of a few microseconds and travel at close to the speed of light; say,
with a gamma factor of 100.
Analysing this in the Earth’s rest frame :

µ
'TEarth : L/c = 10-4 s
L v&c
'Tµ = 'TEarth/# [ Time Dilation ]

Hence 'Tµ : 10-6 s " The muons reach

earth before decaying

Earth

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 Length Contraction
But in the muon’s rest frame, there is no time dilation.
What’s the explanation of the muon’s survival in the muon rest frame ?

'TEarth : L/c = 10-4 s

'Tµ : L’/c = 10-6 s " L' = L/#

Length Contraction

Hence 'Tµ : 10-6 s " The earth reaches the

muons before they
decay.
µ

L'
v&c
Earth

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Lorentz Transformations
More formally, time dilation and length contraction (and other consequences of relativity)
follow from a new set of coordinate transformations :

x'= " (x # vt)

1
y'= y "=
v2
z'= z 1# 2
c
t'= " (t # vx /c 2 )

Lorentz Transformations
!
!

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 Speed of Light as a Limiting Speed

"t
"t'= = "t $ % ! Time dilation : moving clocks run slow.
v2
1# 2
c

v2 ! Length contraction : moving objects are

! L'= L " 1# 2 = L / $
c compressed

v > c would not make sense : no body can move faster than the speed of light.
! No signal or cause can move faster than the speed of light.

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Mapping Space-Time

ct x2 y2
"future" :
set of space-time points
influenced by O

"present" :
no causal contact with O O

"past" :
No unique definition of set of space-time points
simultaneity. The end of that can influence O
the concept of absolute
time (see advanced notes).
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 Accelerating Bodies
So what happens when we try to accelerate bodies beyond the speed of light ?

Animation

Newton :

Einstein :

" constant force

Particles start at rest
with m (inertial mass)
equal to 1.0
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E=mc2
Where does the energy go ?
Consider accelerating a body moving with v & c. Since the velocity cannot increase, it must
be the mass that changes :

work = force ! distance momentum = mass ! velocity

"p d
"E = F # d = # d = "m # c # = "m # c # c = "mc 2
"t "t
force = rate of change of momentum speed = distance / time

! Einstein then made the leap to suggest all mass is equivalent to energy :

E = mc 2
… including that which a body would have at rest. In fact “m” is now speed dependent :

E = "m0c 2
!
gamma factor rest mass 20

!
 E=mc2
What does this equation mean ?

Example applications.

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Antimatter
2 2 m 0c 2
E = mc = "m 0c =
v2
1# 2
c
Every square root has a negative solution as well as a positive solution .
Can I just ignore the negative energy solutions ?
!
It was a curiosity for some years, until Paul Dirac realised that those negative energy
solutions were actually required in order to be able to extend quantum mechanics to describe
relativistic (fast moving) electrons.

What does it mean ?

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 How to Interpret Negative Energies ?
But a (negatively charged) electron with negative energy and momentum behaves exactly like a
(positively charged ) positron with positive energy and momentum.

For example, imagine a nucleus absorbing a negative energy electron :

Before : - After :
Charge = Z Z -Ee Charge = Z-1 Z-1
Energy = E Energy = E-Ee

This is exactly the same as emitting a positive energy positron :

Before : After : +
Charge = Z Z Charge = Z-1 Z-1 Ee
Energy = E Energy = E-Ee

Some nuclei (e.g. 64Cu) decay in exactly this manner.

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Antimatter
So, relativity and quantum mechanics together predict the existence of antimatter particles
corresponding to every known matter particle.

Matter Antimatter

electron e" e+ positron

proton p p anti-proton
! !

neutron n n anti-neutron
! !

! Same mass and size !

Opposite charge (and some other "quantum numbers")
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 Summary

The principle of relativity states that :

The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames

Newton's laws are invariant under Galilean transformations between inertial reference frames :
x' x vt
y' y
z' z
t' t

The laws of electromagnetism, with their prediction of a constant light speed, violate Galilean
relativity. But they are invariant under a new set of coordinate transformations - the Lorentz
transformations. Highly counter-intuitive consequences flow from these transformations :
Different observers do not agree on which spatially separated events are simultaneous.
The end of Newtonian absolute time.
Moving clocks run slow by a factor of # .
Moving objects appear contracted by the same factor # .

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Summary

Einstein’s famous equation

E = mc 2 = "m 0c 2
tells us that mass and energy are equivalent. Mass can be converted into energy
(nuclear reactor) and energy can be converted into mass (particle accelerator).

The negative! energy solutions are interpreted as describing antimatter. We’ll discuss
antimatter in more detail in the particle physics session.

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 Exercises
1) A train 110m long passes a station platform 100m in length. Use the length contraction
formula L'= L / " to calculate how fast the train must be moving in order to fit into the
station. What happens if the train stops to let passengers off ?
2) A time traveller is prepared to leave earth and travel for 1 year of his own time, in order to
!arrive back on earth 2 years into the future :
i. How fast must he travel ?

ii. What energy is required to accelerate his spaceship to the required speed (as a
multiple of its rest mass energy) ?

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Exercises
3) The nuclear reaction powering the sun is :
4( 1 H ) " 4
He + 2e + + 2 neutrinos + energy
The masses of the hydrogen and helium atoms are :
m(H) = 1.00794 amu
!
m(He) = 4.002602 amu
where 1 amu = 1.66 "10#27 kg
!
i. What
! is the energy liberated in this reaction ? (You can ignore the positrons and neutrinos)
! that this reaction takes place 1038 times per second, at what rate is energy generated
ii. Given
inside the sun ?

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