1.
2 FRAME OF REFERENCE
A system of co-ordinate axes which defines the position of
a particle in two or three dimensional space is called a frame of
reference. The simplest frame of reference is the familiar Cartesian
system of co-ordinales, in which the position of the particle is
specified by its three co-ordinates xyz, along the three perpendicular
axes. In Fig. 1.l we have indicated two observers O and O' and a
particle P. These observers use frames of reference XYZ and X* Y'Z
respectively. If O and 0' are al rest, they will observe the same
motion ofP. But ifO and O'are in relative motion, their observation
of the motion of Pwill be dilferent.
Unaccelerated reference frames in uniform motion of translation
relative to one another are called Galileanframes or inertialframes. Fig. 1.1
Accelerated frames are called non-inertial frames.
Definitions
() Inertial frame of reference
An lnertial fYame of reference is one in which Newton's first law of motion holds. In such
Irame, an object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion continues to move at constant
at
velocity (constant speed and direction) if no force acts on it. Any frame of teference that moves
constant velocity relative to an inertial frame is itselfan inertial fame.
frames of reference.
Special theorny ofrelativity deals with the problems that involve inertial
() Non-inertial frame of reference
Newton's laws of motion are not
A non-inertial frame ofreference is the one in which the
yalid i.e., a body is accelerated when no external force acts on it.
1.8 THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS
We have to introduce new transformation equations which are consistent with the new concept
of the invariance of light velocity in free
space. Thc new transformation equations
were discovercd by Lorentz, and are
known as "Lorentz transformations".
Derivation. Consider two observers
Oand O'in two systems Sand S. System
S' is moving with a conslant velocity v
relative to system S along the positive
X-axis. Supposc we make measurcments
of time from the instant when the origins
of Sand Sjust coincide, Le., t= 0 when
Oand O' coincide. Suppose a light pulse
is emited uhen o and cnincide. The Flg. 1.4
B MODERN PHYSICs
light pulse produced at 0 will spread out as a growing sphere. The radius of the wave-front
note that the light
produced in this way will grow with speed c. Afer a time t, the observer O willpoint
the distance of the P is given by
has reached a point Pa.y2) as shown in Fig. 1.4, For him,
r ct. From figure,
Hence,
rcachcd the same point
Similarly, the observer O will note that the light has
the samc velocityc. Som ct.
8/26
both the observers are at the centre of the same
Now, equations (1) and (2) must be equal since
expanding wavefront.
..3)
.
yyand 2z.
Since there is no motion in the Yand Zdirections,
Equation (3) becomes,
.(4)
and' can be written as,
The transformation cquation relating to x
k(r-v) ..(5)
Here, k isa constant. reduce to Galilean
above relation is that, the transformation must
The reason for trying the(v<<c
transformation for low speed
Similarly, let us assume that
t a ( t - bx) (6)
Here, a and b are constants.
Substituting these values for and in equation (4), we have,
Le., ..7)
Equating the coefficients of corresponding terms in equation (7).
.8)
ky-edb = 0 ..9)
.(10)
Solving the above equations for k, a and b, we get,
1
k=am ..11)
and ..(12)
Substituting these values of k, a and b in (5) and (6) we have,
and r'=
Therefore, the Lorentz transformation equations are
-(n/e) .(13)
THEORY OF RELATIVITY
The inverse Lorentz 9
transformation
and replacing vby -rin the above. equations are obtained by interchanging the
coordinates
..14)
These cquations convert
ExAMPLE 1. Shaw that mcasurements
f
made in frame S into those in frame S.
1.9 LENGTH CONTRACTION
Consider two coordinate systems
S and S' with their X-axes coinciding at
time = 0. S' is moving with a uniform
relative speed y with nrespect to S in the
positive X-direction. Imagine arod (AB),
at rest relative to S (Fig. 1.5).
Let x, and r, be the coordinates of
the ends of the rod at any instant of time
in S. Then,
.1)
since the rod is at rest in frame S.
Fig. 1.5
Similarly, let x, and x, be the
10 MODERN PHYSICs
coordinates of the ends of the rod at the same instant of time in S.
Then ..(2)
lis the length of the rod, measured relative fo S
According to Lorentz transformations,
.3)
and 4)
Subtracting equation (4) from (3)
or 4
5)
From equation (5) we see that /<l Therefore,
to the observer in Sit would appear that the length Reterence
trame at
of the rod (in S) has contracted by the factor rest
For example, a body which appears to be
spherical to an observer at rest relative to it, will frame in
rto be an oblate spheroid to amoving observer. motion (+)
Similarly a souare and a circle in one appear to the
observer in the other to be a rectangle and an ellipse Fig. 1.6
respectively (Fig. 1.6).
1.10 TIME DILATION
Imagine a gun placed at the position (x,y, ) in S(Fig. 1.7).
S S
Clock 1 Clock 2
t=h-4
vt
Fig. 1.7 Amoving clock ticks more slowty than a clock at rest
Suppose it fires two shots at times t,' and t,' measured with respect to S'. In S' the clock is at
rest relative to the observer. The time interval measured by a clock at rest relative to the observer is
called the proper time interval. Hence, t, =,-4' is the time interval between the two shots for the
observer in S'.
Since the gun is fixed in S", it has a velocity vwith respect to Sin the direction of the positive
Xaxis. Let t=h-4, represent the time interval between the two shots as measured by an observer
in S.
From inverse Lorentz transformations, we have
4= and
or
or >lg
Thus, the time interval, between two events occurring at a given point in the moving frame S
appears to be longer to the observer in the stationary frame S; Le., a stationary clock measures a
longer time interval between events occurring in a moving frame of reference than does a clock in
themoving frame. This effect is called time dilation.
12 MODERN PHYSICS
The Twin Paradox. Consider two exactly identical twin brothers. Let one of the twins go to a
on the carth. The clock in
long space journey at a high speed in a rocket and the other stay behind
he moving rocket will appear to go slower than the clock on the surface of the carth (in accordance
younger
with Therefore, when he returns back to the carth, he willfind himself
than the twin who staycd behind on the carth! istaruale ofl second as observed by an
1.12 ADDITION OF VELOCITIES
Suppose the system S mnoves with a uniform velocity v
esrtiele is moving in the common relative to the system S, Suppose a
direction of the x and x axes. Let its
by an observer in S' be .velocity, measured by an
chserver in the system S, be and as measured as
Then we have, t and
dt dt
Using inverse Lorentz x+v' and 'le
transformations, we have, xm
Difierentiating. de de' +vd and d d+vd'l
Thus de +yd
dt
di'+
u'+y
I+u'vle
If we put u'c and ycie., photon is moving with a velocity c in frame S' and S' is moving
with velocity c relative to S, then
c+c
l+eec.
Thus, the addition of any velocity to the velocity of light c merely
light. Hence, the velocity of light is the
reproduces the
maximum attainable velocity. 13/26
1.14 MASS ENERGY EQUIVALENCE
Derivation. Force is defined as rate of change of momentum Le.,
F (m)
THEORY OF RELATIVITY
17
According to the theory of relativity, both mass and
velocity are variable. Therefoe,
F- (m)m 2)
Let the force Fdisplace the body through a dist:nce .
Then, the increase in the kinctic energy (dE;) of the body
is cqual to the work done (Fdk).
lence, db, F d md d
d
or dEmv dvt dn 3)
According to the law of variation of mass with velocity
..(4) Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
Einstcin almost single-handedly created
and so occupies a spccial
Squaring both sides,
or
"nodcbject
place in the
Relativity and the quantum theory depend
on Einstein.
Differentiating. 2m dm m2v de + 2m dm
or e dm my dv +vdm .5)
From equations (3) and (5), dE, =dm ...6)
Thus, achange in K.E. dE, is directly proportional to achange in mass dm.
When a body is at rest, its velocity is zero, (K.E -0) and m=m When its velocity is v, its mass
becomes m. Therefore, integrating equation (6),
E, me-me 7)
This is the relativistic formula for K.E.
When the body is at rest, the internal energy stored in the body is me. m,c is called the rest
mass energy. The total energy (E)of the body is the sum of K.E. (E) and rest mass energy (m,c).
E- E,+ my-(me -me) +mye =mc.
E mC
This is Einstein's mass-energy relation.
CONTINUUM
1.15 MINKOWSKI'S FOUR DIMENSIONAL SPACE-TIME
Space is three dimensional in the sense that it is possible to describe the position of a point by
in which we live
three coordinate numbers as in Euclidean geometry. But the truth is that theofworld
relativity.
is a four-dimensional space-time continuum. This is revealed by the theory
by the four coordinates x, y, z, .
Any event in any frame of reference S can be represented with uniform velocity v relative to
Suppose the same event is observed in another frame S movingcoordinates
Salong the X-axis and coinciding with S at t=t= 0. Then its in S' will be x,y, 1, t,
satisfying the equation
It is possible to characterise the Lorentz transformations more elegantly if we insert x, =x,
-y, x, -z and x, = -lt= ict for the system Sand similarly for S'. The resulting form of
cquation (1) is
.(2)
The imaginary time coordinate x, appears here in exactly the same way as the space coordinates
X, K, and x This four dimenisional manifold which appears as a linking together of space and
time is known as the "Minkowski world" or the 'four dimensional space-time continuum". Here
the four coordinates are x, y, z and ict, and time is equivalent to an imaginary length. The world of
Minkowski involves space and time inextricably bound with each other. Apoint in such aspace
time system is known as the "worldpoint", and the motion of aparticle in it may be represented by
a "world line".
Ifs be the distance between two points with co-ordinates (, X, x) and (x',,x) in
the four dimensional space, then
This can be shown to remain invariant Le., unaltered in form in all systems by the use of the
transformation equations. For a"worldline element" this invariant form of equation is
d d +d +d +dË =d² +dy² +de? -e d
This means that the distance between two points, L.e., a length, is not defined by the threc
dimensions dr, dy, d alone, but in addition, by a fourth dimension of time dt.
For ds minimum, we get a straight line between two world points.
This straight world line is called ageodesic, for which
THEORY OF RELATIVITY
21
1.15.1. Four-vector
The four coordinates, x. y, z, ict definea vector in space-time.
This four-vector remains fixed in space-time regardless of any shift in point of
view from one
'inertial frame Sto another S".
Another four-vector whose magnitude remains constant under Lorentz transformations has the
components p, P,- P iElc. Here p,, P,. P. are the components of the linear momenturn of a body
whose total energy is E. Hence p; +p.+p-(E'lc) is invariant though p,. P,+ P, and E may be
separately different.
posilon velotly, momtntun, aculvali
fore u yor veclor ho taHon end tho,
and
4owkormittns
The velolg fouy vechr,
da
t t
-a
d das dtdy dt Uy
d dtdt dr
ds dtdz t
dy dt dcict)1 ic
e
Nhec u-d uttuy+v
d
Vechor
2
hus Uu Vu a LoTen tz inva£ ont ie
=-(ut4u-ue)
-tham
Engy-momentum fou
3)Mo mntm 4-Vethb
a
A veehor s
The nomantum
NOw
mb
mu, P
imc ic E
subtitting theye in eam Co me howe
Vec hon.
Noud -he quae e the mag nitud o the foua momanku
As, pemoc
(9A cCaluration fout - eehr
Accelcaon fouot vechoY s oefnid as
dt
dT
.2ud
dt
u dy
d
aby 4sb
NoLO
Juy
kdt
lc
c- tee
dimensonel
le pa hee the A
Cetia)) R
Coordinat: our
fhy
rame sometwies
pur pasltin the
vecor
er
or
eent peint
In A
kouosK Min
ime auspace
Positim Foot-
ay
