postulates of the special theory or relativity e negative result of the Michelson - Morley experiment reveals following facts: The form of the physical laws remains the same in all inertial frames, at is the laws of physics are the same in all inertial teferance frames. , The velocity of light in free space (vacuum) is constant in all the irections and it is independent of the relative motion between the urce and the observer. These facts form the postulates of the special theory of relativity veloped by Albert Einstein. The above postulates are based on the result of one experiment onducted by Michelson and Morley (1887) to detect the presence of(34 ute fram sen the idea of absolute frame of refer, ctor ant hence 0 eli ie theeisna ann cao showed only negative Fo eh ues and velocity of ight in fre space is corstan Lorentz transformation equations 2 Lorentz derived a set of transformation equations for coordinates of an event, making use of the postulates of the special theory of relativity. ies velocity of light is ty assumed to be a constant, aes lependent of the relative i motion between the frames of reference. Let S and S" be two inertial frames, in which the S' frame moves with velocity v along positive X- rection with respect to the frame S. Let © and O' be two observers atthe origin of each coordinate frame, Let the coordinates of an event P in the S frame be (x, y, z, f) and those in the S’ frame be (x',y’, 2, ). Letthe origins coincide at t=¢ =0. Let a source of light be located at O and that a flash of light is emitted at ¢ The flash spreads out as a spherical wave with centre at the origin in S frame. According to the postulates of the theory of relativity, the flash spreads out as spherical wave in S' frame also, with origin at 0’. Ifthe velocity of light be c, the equation tothe wavefront in S is Bayete and in the frame S' itwill be given by deytegtadit -0) To find the relation connecting x’ and x, y’ and y, 2' and 2; ané 4, we assume that the transformation as linear. x= kw ()yee 135 po AU Be mo ann B and k ate constants to be deter 6) oh of a" 2” and” in equation (2), ined. Putting the «8 WW RG wey Ee eS 8 pe Ate 8 “2Pat tRPP +a? o ¢ @eBAes yee = (BOB) 242 (ABs Bry x 7 nparing this with equation (1) 7+)? 422 = 2?, ye find (PB) = 1 (4t+ Bry ?(AP+ 2B Bay CHP +2 bBo Boe (Be - Pv) = ABC + Py = 0 romequation (4), = Bo = en From equation (5), 42¢? - Ky? = 3 Aid = e+ ke gL cf +key? - ce? + k2v? cme ®) ee cat kave ee Puting these values in eqn. (6).136 AB + by = 0 2 | | FPA) sey ao 7 c rex (ery eo = CP Squaring, (P=1)(2 + P7) = Base By = BP eee P@-v) =e 1 For “0 | 2 +key? : Putting this in equation (8), A = 4|——y . 1 = (v2 /e?) From (9) and (10), we find that A =k. Putting A =k in equation (6s ABe+ ev = 0 KB + Ry = 0 k(Be* + kv) =0 © Be+kv=0 .B= - ¢137 ne constants are the yt ky = 3 Bem ak 1 (v2 /e2y 2 . ing these values in equation (3), x = k(x- vt) 0st x-vt ve hw le vee oe (11) yay (12) y He F780 Gots et, AE a (13) y= Att+ Bx fae ob fe h - (v2 70) 2 t vx/e? etre V-@ 705 (t-vx/c?) 7 0 ore eats (14) bh ithe set of equations (11) throu iransformation equations for spa mowing x, y, z and ¢ for an eve; toordinates x’, y’, z’ and ¢’ in S! shove transformation equations. igh (14) are known as Lorentz ice and time coordinates, Thus, nt in S frame, the Corresponding frame can be calculated using theLength contraction (Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction) S and S’ are two inertial frames in which S' frame moves with uniform velocity v along the positive X-direction, with respecttos Let the origin O and O' of the frames coincide at the instant t =0,139 sinc arod ABotTength 2, aresin the fan, et length” ofthe od and sare thee known potted inthe S Fame at any inant ene Ly=*,>%, . sent Ly of an object in its rest frame is called its and x; be the co-ordinates ofthe ends ofthe HA25 frame at the same instant of time. ‘Then, a smeasured in the S frame along the line of ra Proper length, tod as observed the length of the ight will be ding to Lorentz transformation equation, @ =v) (x, ~ vt) and x!,= “hore tT l= OMe) (, - x) re "t= @? 7c) L ies b= Foe ey 2 L= 1, Jl-(? le?) is seen that the'length of a moving rod (L,) fora stationary observer fame) is less than its proper length (L,) by afactor fi —(»2/e) ie, there is length contraction only in the direction of motion. The traction is most significant at speeds near the speed of light. This nomenon is known as Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction. When the lave velocity v= 0, we find that L = L,. This length is called the Perlength, Itis the length of an objecta rest relative toan observer. hus to.an outside obsever, a space craft is shorter in light than fn Und, but it is narrower, since only lengths inthe direction mtiot undergo contraction. For the same reason, a circular ring ation appears as an ellipse with its minor axis along the direction Fmotion,140 Example 1, The length of a proper length, What is th at rest? Let 1, be the proper length. Then = 1,22 (ior) = 95 1-@/2)= 025 viet =1- 0.25 =0.75 vic = 0.866, = 0,866 c. This gives the speed of the rod. is measured 10 be exactly hay, , t apec of te rod, relative (0 the obser! moving rod 2, Avector in S’frame is represented by 8i + 6j. How can the sector be represented in frame S, while S’ moves with veloc (0.8) i with respect to S frame; i and j are unit vectors along th respective directions. §' frame is moving relative to S frame with velocity 0.8 c along the X-axis, So, the length of the vector along the X axis will change but there will be no change along the Y-axis. The length ofthe vector in S frame along X-axis is (proper length) /, = 8 metre. v=08e avic=08 vic 1.64 According to Lorentz.contraction, != 1, 1 -(v?/e?) 1= 8x J1-0.64 =8x06=48. This is along the X-axis of the S frame. In S frame, the vector ma) be represented as 4.8/+ 6. Time dilation (relativity of time) Relative motion affects time intervals between two event al ic. the time intervel between two events (such as flashes of igh) recorded in one inertial frame of reference is different from the ttt interval recorded in another inertial frame.‘a Y s vO 4) (G4) pe A Ot) (x, ) x) Fig. 80 4 and S! be two inertial frames, in which the $* frame tha velocity v along the positive X-direction, relative tothe pve, Anvent an oecuenc that happens at particular point frat a particular time. Letan event ake pace inthe frame at SF 4) i 0 fash of light occurs in" frame and the time is “gas f, bythe observer 0’. After an interval of time, let there =teond fash flight athe same place in Lethe time recorded se obsrver ©’ ber’ Thetime interval (At), = (¢,-r,)iscaled oper time interval. It is defined asthe time interval between ents, cUTiNg at points at rest relative to the observer. ‘re source of light is moving with velocity v along with the S' «, with respect to the observer O. The time of events recorded by bserver O are Zand f, respectively i., relative to O, the events urat two different places and at times f, and f, respectively. ‘The time interval between the events for O is At= (1,-1,). By tz inverse transformation equation, t+ (x'/c?) a2 24 (v2x'/e?) 5A. and = i-@?/c) \l-(?/c) have used inverse transformation since the flash of light takes in the same place in S' (same x’) with respect to O" ht “(At = Yi- 0? /e%) (a (400 (710?)142 As the velocity (v time interval (Af) to a stationa enlarged (dilated). This relativist (O1)> (AD), : ; ‘The observer O measures a longer time interval than O" (BE) goign > (BE) vt ‘As a result of the time dil slower rate than the stationary clock on observer on the ground. i frame ) inc the moving clock ( S — » oF onary observer (S FFAME) appears ic effect is called time- dilation be ion, a moving clOck appears to tick a the ground, as seen by Example 1. What is the speed of a spacecraft slow per hour relative to a clock on the earth? ‘A moving clock will appear to run slow for a stationary observ, ‘One hour = 60 x 60 = 3600 second is the proper time interval The moving clock that runs slow, will take 3601 second to comple, one hour time interval. whose clock runs one secong (ADo From time dilation formula, (Ad) (7/0?) (A1)q _ 3600 (an ~ 3601 -vie= 3800)" «oso wvte™ (3601) ~ 2 5 = 1-0.9994 = 0.0006. v = 0.0245 0.0245 x 3 x 10®= 0.0735 x 10° 7.35 x 10° m/s This gives the velocity of the spacecraft. 2. What is the duration of time between successive flash of signals observed in the ground station, if the signals are transmitted from?M3 paceship, at regular interval of 1 second as observed hy the ronan? Given, velocity of spaceshi 3x 10’ mis. 1-7 e+) = 1-0.01=0.99 (At) =| second —— (AD, =? feted = 0.995 v=3x 10" m/s (Do 1 7 (a) = eo y 23x Ly Ce Oe 2 ae (At) = 1.008 second. Yd coo c* 100 the Twin Paradox ‘Asa result of time dilation, a moving clock appears to tick at a slower rate than the stationary clock on the ground, as seen by an sbserver on the ground, ie, (At) vy? Je?) (ap) (A) > (Ah) (AD perin > (A% se The observer O measures a longer time interval than O' Equations for time dilation suggest an apparent paradox called the twin paradox. Consider identical twin astronauts named Eartha and Astrid, Eartha remains at earth while her twin Astrid takes of ona high-speed trip through the galaxy. Because of time dilation, Eartha sees Astrid’s heartbeat and all other life processes proceeding ‘more slowly than her own. Thus to Eartha, Astrid ages more slowly; * aed Astrid returns to earth she is younger (has aged less) than artha, c Now here is the paradex: All inertial frames are equivalent: ‘n't Astrid make exactly the same arguments to conclude that144 Eartha is in fact the younger? Then each twin-measures the other to be younger when they are back together, and that is paradox. To resolve the paradox, we recognize that the twins are not identical in all respect. Eartha remains in an approximately inertial frame at all times. Astrid must accelerate with respect to that inertial frame during part of her trip in order to leave, turn around and retum to earth. Eartha’s reference frame is always approximately inertial, Astrid’s is often far from inertial. Thus there is real physical difference between the circumstances of the two twins. Careful analysis shows that Eartha is correct. When Astrid returns she is younger than Eartha. The space travellers who go out and return will always be the younger.