SIR ADNAN QURESHI ____ PAKISTAN STUDIES-HISTORY-CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 1: RELIGIOUS THINKERS

HAZRAT SHAH WALIULLAH (1703-1762)

Shah Wali Ullah was born on 21st February 1703 during the reign of Aurangzeb his real name was
Qutub-ud-din but became famous as Shah WaliUllah his father was Shah Abdul Rahim who founded
Madrassa Rahimiya in Delhi. In 1724 Shah WaliUllah went to Arabia to perform Hajj and returned to
Delhi in 1732.

He believed that the Muslims were facing decline not because of weak leadership but because of
Muslim community itself. He believed that many Muslims did not have complete knowledge of
Quranic teachings. A major problem was that Muslims were divided into Shias and Sunnis and fought
with themselves. It was necessary to follow Islamic teachings into every aspect of life.

He translated Quran into Persian because many people were unfamiliar with Arabic. Later his sons,
Shah Abdul Qader and Shah Rafi, translated Quran into Urdu so more and more people could gain
Islamic knowledge. He wrote fifty-one books in Persian and Arabic. Amongst the most famous were
Hujjatullah-ul-Baligha and Izalat-al-Akhfa. He also wrote an account of the first four caliphs of Islam in
a way that was acceptable to both Shias and Sunnis. In economics he emphasised the need for social
justice and for peasants and craftsmen to be truly valued for their contribution to the economy.

His most important contributions to the Muslim community was his organization of opposition to the
Marathas, who were threatening to over-run the Mughal Empire from the south. It was to call
together the divinities among Muslims and unite them for Jihad. He wrote a letter to Afghan King
Ahmad Shah Abdali and joined local forces with local Muslim leaders and defeated the Marathas in
the Battle of Panipat in 1761. However, despite encouragement from Shah Wali Ullah, the Muslim
leaders did not unite to take advantage of the defeat of the Marathas. Perhaps if they had done so,
the Muslims would not have soon found themselves under Non-Muslim rule.

Shah Wali Ullah was one of the first thinkers to state that the decline of Mughal Empire and the
vulnerable position of the Muslims were due to a neglect of the principles of Islam. He showed how
this regeneration might take place. The Madrassa continued to play a vital role in teaching Islamic
principles and researching Islamic thought. He believed that Muslims could prosper if they followed
proper Islamic customs and did not indulge in social evils. His writing gave large number of Muslims a
chance to study their religion and understand its teachings.

SYED AHMED SHAHEED BARELVI (1786-1831)

Syed Ahmad was born in a small town of Rai Bareli near Lucknow. He moved in Delhi in 1806 and
Studied in Madrassa Rahimiya for two years. In 1810 in joined a Pathan Military l, Amir Khan, leader
and learned to use European weaponry. In 1817 He returned to Delhi trying to make Islam to its
original purity.

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He believed that Muslims could achieve their freedom by having arm struggle against the British and
Sikhs. He believed that the evil in the Islamic Society had to be cured. He called for Jihad Movement to
over throw the non-Muslim force which was oppressing them.

In 1821 He went for Hajj and returned from Arabia in 1823 ready for action. At this time Punjab and
NWFP was in the control of Sikh and Muslims were unable to live according to their faith. In 1826
Syed Ahmad established his headquarters near Peshawar and sent a messenger asking Ranjit Singh
the ruler to allow Muslims follow their religion but the request was turn down so he had no choice
but to attack at Okara on 21st December 1826 and after that Hazarothe and defeat the Sikhs. He was
successful military leader and the mujahedeen force soon reached 80,000 men. When Syed Ahmad
was about to attack the Fort of Attock he encountered the army of Sikh of 35000 men. What he did
not know was that Yar Muhammad Khan, a Pathan chief was bribed by the Sikh and even his servant
tried to poison him. Then Yar Muhammad deserted him on the battle field along his men and thus this
creates chaos and lead to defeat. Syed Ahmad had no choice but to move his headquarters to safety
of Panjtar near Kashmir but was again betrayed when a person in his army told the British a secret
way to attack them. In Battle of Balakot 1831 a surprise attack was led by Sikh and Six hundred
Muslims were killed along with Syed Ahmed.

HAJI SHARIATULLAH (1781-1840)

He was born in 1781 in Faridpur district in East Bengal. His family was poor. In 1799 He went to Arabia
on pilgrimage and stayed there for nineteen years. He was greatly influenced by the teaching of
Sheikh Muhammad Abdul Wahab.

He believed that the miserable condition of the Muslims in India led to the country being Dar-Ul-Harb
(Country under Foreign Rule). He wanted Muslims to return to what he thought was the proper
observation of Islamic duties called Faraizi. This was why he started his movement was called Faraizi
Movement. The Faraizi Movement supported the idea of Jihad against the non-Muslims who were
undermining the true principles of Islam.

He started Faraizi movement to restore the Pride of the Muslims and remove what he thought were
the Hindu practices. Emphasis was placed on praying for past sins and promising to lead a righteous
life in the future which had crept into their worship. The success of this movement caused British and
Hindu Landlord’s and they drove Haji out of the reign to Nawabganj in Dhaka where he died in 1840.
He divides East Bengal into circle under control of each Khalifa to carry out religious activities. He
helped the peasants to oppose land taxes and he threatened to declare Jihad against the British so he
was captured and put in prison where he died in 1860.

Work of Haji Shariat Ullah was important to Faraizi Movement because it gave encouragement to
Muslims at a time when they demoralised by oppression suffered from Hindus and British. It also
brought about a spiritual revival which led to a revival in Islamic religion in East Bengal. Hindu
influences were removed from Islamic practices. It might be said that some seeds for the Pakistan
Movement were sown by the Faraizi Movement.

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COMPARISONS OF RELIGIOUS THINKERS

Islam was widely spread in subcontinent by Shah Wali Ullah Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi and Haji
Shariat Ullah.

Shah Wali Ullah was a religious scholar. He taught Islamic teachings in the Madrassa Rahimiya. This
produced a number of scholars in the sub-continent and therefore increased spread of Islam. Shah
Wali Ullah also translated the Quran in Persian. Arabic was not very much understood in the
subcontinent so translating Quran revived Quranic teachings in the subcontinent because Muslims
and also other people could understand Quranic teachings. Shah Wali Ullah also wrote to all Muslim
leaders in the subcontinent to unite and defeat the Marathas it was partly due to his persuade that
Ahmed Durrani came to subcontinent and defeated the Marathas. Thus by writing letters he
decreased the non-Muslim influence of Marathas and united Muslim leaders which revived Islam in
subcontinent. Shah Wali Ullah wrote several books about 51. These books were extremely popular.
These not only converted many people to Islam and increase understanding of religion for Muslims of
Islam but also united the different Muslim sectarian such as the Shias and Sunnis.

Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi also played part in reviving Islam. He started the Jihad Movement. The
Jihad Movement was a Movement started by Muslims to defeat the non-Muslim oppressors. The
Movement united all the different Muslim against one common enemy. This showed the power of the
Muslims and united the Muslim community which spread Islam.

Haji Shariat Ullah started the Faraizi Movement. It indicated that Muslims should return to their
religious teaching and perform their religious obligations. This particularly became popular in Bengal
and Muslims were revived back to their religious teachings. His movement also united the Muslims of
Bengal.

However, there were failures

Shah Wali Ullah was not able to bring Muslim power back to subcontinent and Muslims were still
being oppressed by Marathas who prevented them from obeying their religions law.

Syed Ahmed eventually failed to defeat the British and the oppressing Sikhs and Muslims once again
returned to their torturing lives.

Haji Shariat Ullah could only bring rejuvenation in Bengal and so could not reach the entire
subcontinent. The failure of the Jihad Movements discouraged Muslims to rise up against the enemy
which weakened Islam.

COMPARISON OF THEIR WORK

There were many Muslims reformers at that time. Shah Wali Ullah was one of them. He believed that
the Muslims were not able to understand Islam because they weren’t able to understand the Holy

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 Quran because it was in Arabic. He translated Holy Quran from Arabic to Persian. Later it was
translated to Urdu by his sons. He wrote 51 books. They include Hujjatullah-ul Baligha and Izalat al
Akhfa. He also wrote an account on the four Caliphs of Islam to decrease differences between Sunnis
and Shias. (he also fought against the Marathas)

Another reformer was SASB. He was a man of action. He was a great Muslim warrior. He gathered an
army of mujahideen to fight against the Sikhs and Ranjit Singh’s forces. He did Jihad against the Ranjit
Singh army at many times. Although many people left him he still continued the fight against the
Sikhs. He fought the Battle of Balakot in 1831. It was the first example of a movement formed to free
Muslims from non-Muslims leaders. It was a uniting force for the Muslims and inspiration for future
Muslims.

Another reformer was HSU. He believed that the country was now Dar-Ul Harb where non-Muslims
ruled. He also believed that the Muslims had moved away from true Islamic practice so he started a
movement called the Faraizi Movement. It supported the idea of Jihad Movement. The Faraizi
Movement was started to restore the pride of Muslims and remove non-Muslim practices in Islam.
This Movement encouraged the Muslims. It brought a spiritual revival. It also had much economic
impact. The Bengal peasants became united in opposition to the British and became aware of their
rights and unity became to grow between them and they realised their rights that should have been
given.

Conclusion

I think Shah Wali Ullah was the most important reformer because he was one of the first persons to
realise the main thing of Muslims problems. He did the major thing of translating Holy Quran to
Persian so that more people could understand it.

Mohsinuddin Ahmed:
 Haji Shariatullah’s son, Mohsinuddin, also known as Dadhu Mian, succeeded after Shariatullah’s death
in 1840.
 He was born in 1819 and died in 1860.
 He made the Faraizi Movement more popular and organized by making proper circles and deputed
khalifas to preach Islamic obligations.
 He opposed the taxes imposed by the landlords on Muslim peasants for the decoration of the image of
Durgah.

Titu Mir:

 Mir Mithar Ali Nisar Ali (1782-1830) known as Titu Mir in an important who was unhappy by the
sufferings of the Muslims in Bengal. He was a disciple of Shariatullah.
 After returning from pilgrimage, he devoted his life to the cause of his country.
 Many peasants supported him and they started a rebel against the British.

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 The British sent an army of 100 officers and 300 sepoys to fight against them.
 Titu Mir died in 1830 fighting against the British.

PAST PAERS PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

1. WHO WAS SHAH WALIULLAH? [4]

2. WHO WAS SYED AHMED BARELVI SHAHEED? [4]
3. WHAT WAS JIHAD MOVEMENT? [4]
4. WHO WAS HAJI SHARIATULLAH? [4]
5. WHAT WAS FARAIZI MOVEMENT? [4]
6. WHO WAS DADHU MIAN? [4]
7. WHO WAS TITU MIR? [4]
TH
8. WHY THE REFORMERS OF 19 CENTURY WISH TO REVIVE ISLAM IN THE SUBCONTINENT?
[7]
9. ‘SHAH WALIULLAH CONTRIBUTED MORE THAN ANY OTHER REFORMER IN THE SUBCONTINENT FOR
THE SPREAD OF ISLAM.’ DO YOU AGREE? GIVE REASONS FOR YOUR ANSWER.
[14]
10. ‘THE REFORMERS OF 19 CENTURY WORKED MORE THAN THE REFORMER OF 18TH CENTURY IN THE
TH

SPREAD OF ISLAM. ‘DO YOU AGREE? GIVE REASONS FOR YOUR ANSWER.
[14]

Q: Why did Shah Waluillah wish to revive Islam in the subcontinent? [7]

Ans:

He believed that most of the problems of Muslims was due to their incomplete Knowledge and
understanding of the Holy Quran. As the Holy Quran is in Arabic whereas common Muslims knew
Persian. He wanted that the Quranic teachings be made accessible to the common people so they
may act on them

The Muslim community was divided into sects, such as Sunni and Shia. Thus they were vulnerable to
attacks on their religion. Shah Wali Ullah wanted them to put aside their differences o that a more
united and strong community could be created.

Many un-Islamic practices had engrossed in Islam due to constant interaction with Hindus and other
no Muslim communities. Thus they had forgotten the moral and spiritual principles of Islam. Hence
Shah Wali Ullah wished to revive Islam to purify the Islamic Society.

Q: Why did Syed Ahmed launch the Jihad Movement? [7]

Ans:

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The Sikh rulers of Punjab were not letting the Muslims practice their religious freely and even the
Azaan was banned. This angered SASB and he launched the Jihad movement against the Sikhs for
Muslim religious freedom.

He launched it against the two main anti Muslim forces, British in Bengal and Sikhs in Punjab. He was
aware that British were hard to defeat as a superpower, and thus hard to defeat. Therefore, he
launched the Jihad against the Sikhs first as they were a relatively weaker force and he thus was more
likely to win against them.
SASB knew that Punjab was surrounded by Muslim tribes, which encouraged him to fight against the
Sikhs as these could help him.

Q: Why did Syed Ahmad Shaheed Barelvi wish to revive Islam in the subcontinent? [7]

Ans:

Syed Ahmed believed that India was a Dar-ul-Harb due to the presence of British in the
subcontinent. He was against the British power in India and to try to ensure that the Muslims were
ruled by fellow Muslims. He believed that the freedom of the Muslims could only come Because of
armed struggle against the foreign and non-Muslim forces, which were oppressing them. This is why
he asked Muslims to migrate to a country which was ruled by Muslims. He himself served as a prayer
leader in Amir Khan’s army.

Syed Ahmed believed that Muslims were facing problems due to their distance from real Islamic
practices. Consequently, even when he served as an army officer he surrounded himself with the men
of great piety who were prepared to reject worldly Wealth and work for improving the moral and
intellectual lives of Muslims. Syed Ahmad believed that there was a need to end the evils that had
corrupted Islamic society. He believed that once this was done Islam could be rejuvenated and
rescued from beliefs and customs contrary to Islamic beliefs which had crept into everyday Life.

Muslims of the Punjab were in deprived condition due to the brutality of Ranjit Singh. As a man of
action, Syed Ahmad was an ideal person to act as leader to work. The British had ensured that the
Mughal emperors had little real power and the Sikhs were dominant in the Punjab. Syed Ahmed
founded the Jihad Movement, which Called for armed struggle to overthrow non-Muslim oppression
and restore Muslim Power. He fought bravely against the army of British and Ranjit Singh and was
martyred in 1831 at Balakot.

Q: Why did Haji Shariatullah wish to revive Islam in the subcontinent? [7]

Ans:

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He believed that Muslims of the sub-continent were leading miserable lives because they had started
following Hindu practices due to their interaction with them. Thus they started the Faraizi Movement
to purify the Islamic society.

Muslims in Bengal were surprised by the Hindu landlords. HSU wanted to end this tyranny. Thus he
started the Faraizi Movement to create a sense of Jihad in Muslims so that they could fight for their
rights.

Muslims had forgotten the basic principles of Islam and did not practice religious obligations i.e.
Faraizi prayer and fasting. Thus he started the Faraizi movement to insist upon them to follow the
pillars of Islam

Q: Was the work of Shah Waliullah the most important factor in the revival of Islam in subcontinent
in 1700 – 1850? [14 marks]

Ans:

The three reformers of 18th and 19th Centuries worked for the revival of Islam in their own manner
and were all very successful. Shah Waliullah remained more successful than the other two for his
immense work.

Shah Waliullah was one of the first Muslim thinkers to state the decline of Mughal Empire and the
vulnerable position of the Muslims was due to the neglect of the principles of Islam. He worked hard
to ensure that he was a role model for other Muslims. His deep understanding about the Quran,
Hadith, Fiqah, and Tasawuf made him a highly knowledgeable scholar at an early age.

Since he believed that, an emphasis on Quranic teachings was vital to Muslims so Shah Waliullah
translated the Holy Quran into Persian, which was the language of educated Muslims at that time. He
also wrote 51 books to explain the principles of Islam. He wrote an account about the first for Caliphs
of Islam in a way in which it was acceptable to both Shias and Sunnis. He hoped that this would help
to heal the divisions between them. His writings brought him great fame and prestige and enabled
him to have influence in other areas too.

He advised the Muslims to give up extravagance and wasteful expenditure on marriages, deaths,
births, and other occasions. Wealthy Muslims were asked to look after the poor and the needy. Shah
Waliullah wrote letters to the rulers of Muslim states asking them to unite and rise against non-
Muslim forces. He invited the Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali to deal with Marathas who were
threatening Muslims in Delhi and Punjab. Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas in the battle of
Panipat in 1761 so they were never able to rise again. Shah Waliullah gave the concept of social
justice and advised the Muslims that due importance and value should be given to peasants and
artisans.

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On the other hand, Syed Ahmad Barelvi Shaheed was greatly impressed by the preaching and
thoughts of Shah Waliullah and his two sons. Therefore, Syed Ahmad Shaheed started preaching true
Islam (as Shah Waliullah did). However, he was of the opinion that there should be a political power
behind the preaching for the revival of Islam and Muslim power in India.

He worked as a prayer leader when he was in Amir Khan’s army and worked hard to unite the
Muslims He founded the Jihad Movement for the restoration and revival of Muslim power in India. His
main objective was the establishment of an Islamic state on proper Islamic principles. In addition, the
aim of the Jihad Movement was to liberate the Muslims of the Punjab and N.W.F.P from the Sikh rule
of Ranjit Singh.

Muslims were facing great difficulty for their religion. Therefore, Syed Ahmad chose Punjab and
N.W.F.P for his activities. He also expected help from the Afghan and Pathan tribes of N.W.F.P. Syed
Ahmad established his headquarters at Peshawar and then Nowshera. His first encounters against the
Sikh forces took place at Akora and then at Hazarothe in which the Mujahidin were successful. The
Jihad Movement ended in 1831, but it was a brave and determined movement effort for the revival of
Islam and Muslim power. Syed Ahmad’s example continued to inspire the future Muslim generations.
The work of Syed Ahmad was important but the work of another two reformers was also very
important for a number of reasons.

Similarly, Haji Shariat Ullah’s contribution towards religion was also very important. He started the
Faraizi Movement to restore the pride of the Muslims and to remove what he thought were the Hindu
practices had crept into their worship. The Faraizi Movement was important because it gave
encouragement to the Muslims at the time and brought about a spiritual revival, which led to a revival
in the Islamic religion in East Bengal. It also had an important political and economic impact. The
Bengal peasants became united against the harsh treatment they received. They became aware of
their rights and the political unity began to grow amongst them.

With the help of the give statements, it can be justifies that all the three reformers worked very hard
for the revival of Islam but among them the work of Shah Wali Ullah was the most important because
of his translation of Quran in Persian language as it laid a strong foundation of their basic beliefs
which is still benefitted in an Islamic Society.

Q: Why did Haji Shariat Ullah wish to revive Islam in the subcontinent?
[7]

Ans:

Early eighteenth century was a miserable period for the Bengali Muslims. They were economically,
socially and educationally crippled under the British rule. They were also oppressed and tortured by
Hindu landlords.

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It was in such conditions that Haji Shariat Ullah was born in Faridpur district of Bengal in 1781. He left
for Mecca at an early age and stayed there for a period of nineteen years. On his return, he called
upon Bengali Muslims to follow the basics of Islam.

His first message was to give up un-Islamic practices and to stick to duties towards religion. His
followers were called Faraizi by virtue of his emphasis on duties towards religion (Faraiz). He was
deadly against relationship between Mystics and their disciples (Pirs and Murids). He banned a
number of un-Islamic rituals and urged Muslims to prepare themselves for Jihad which made Hindu
and British landlord displeased with him.

He declared his area “Dar-ul-Harb” where it was impossible for Muslims to perform their religious
obligations. His call for Jihad against the oppression of Hindu zamindars made him face further
cruelties at the hands of non-Muslims. He was forced to leave Dhaka and he retired to his hometown
Faridpur from where he continued with his teachings.

Haji Shariat Ullah’s “Faraizi Movement” was taken over by his son Mohsin-ud-Din Ahmad on his death
in 1840 who divided Bengal into administrative units called the ‘circles’ with a Khalifa. These Khalifas
were made responsible for the running of the movement in their respective areas.

Mohsin-ud-Din Ahmad forbade his followers from paying illegitimate taxes to Hindu property owners.
They were asked to pay taxes levied only by the government and to have an armed struggle. The
Faraizi Movement ended with his death in 1860.

Q: Who was Mohsinuddin? / Who was Dadhu Miyan? [4]

He was the son of Haji Shariat Ullah. He was born in 1810 and was popularly known as “Dadhu
Miyan”. It was under him that the “Faraizi Movement” was turned into a religious-political
movement. He divided Bengal into administrative units for an efficient and systematic running of the
movement. His deputies known as “Khalifas” were appointed in each of those units. These Khalifas
were made responsible for the running of the movement in their respective areas. Mohsin-ud-Din
Ahmad forbade his followers from paying illegitimate taxes to Hindu property owners. They were
asked to pay taxes levied only by the government. He persuaded and eventually prepared his
followers for an armed struggle. Mohsin-ud-Din Ahmad was arrested during the War of Independence
of 1857 but was released after the war was over. He died his natural death in 1860.

Q: Who was Titu Mir? [4]

His real name was Mir Mithar Ali. Titu Mir was a rebel against the Zamindars and British colonial
system in 19th century Bengal, a part of British India. He rebelled against them and put up an armed
resistance. Along with his followers, he built a Bamboo fort (Bansher-Kella in Bengali) which passed

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into Bengali folk legend. After the storming of the fort by British soldiers, Titu Mir died of his wounds
on November 19, 1831.

Q: Was Syed Ahmad Barelvi the most important thinker to revive Islam in India by 1850? Give
reasons for your answer. [14]
The three reformers of 18th and 19th Centuries worked for the revival of Islam in their own manner
and were all very successful. The work of Syed Ahmad had been the very important factor in the
revival of Islam because of many reasons. Syed Ahmad Barelvi Shaheed was greatly impressed by the
preaching and thoughts of Shah Waliullah and his two sons.

Syed Ahmed wanted restoration of Muslim rule in India and for this purpose, he founded the Jihad
Movement to liberate the Punjab and NWFP from the dreadful role of Ranjit Singh. He collected the
army of 80,000 Mujahedeens from Punjab and NWFP and made them strong as community.

Syed Ahmed was made Ameer-ul-Momeneen (Leader of the Muslims) in 1827 when he captured
Peshawar in 1830, he established Islamic Sharia it he occupied area because he believed in the
rejuvenation of Islam through among the Muslims. He banned evils to purify the society and through
a big chance in the lives of Muslims. He made Peshawar and then Nowshera his headquarters in 1826
and was able to defeat the Sikhs in a few better but he was defeated in the battle of Balakot in 1831.

Likewise, Shah Waliullah noticed that Muslims were involved in un-Islamic activities, which were not
favorable for the Muslim of India. He firstly thought that these all activities are due to not to follow
Islamic teachings and Holy Quran was also not understood by the people of that time so he translated
Holy Quran into Persian language for the easiness of the Muslims of Subcontinent. This made the
Muslims strong on their faith and they kept themselves away from un-Islamic practices.

Shah Waliullah also wrote altogether fifty-one different books according to the teaching of Islam and
tried his best to communicate people about Islam. In his books he highlighted the condition of the
Muslim society and has a remedy to correct them. His books brought different sects of Muslims to
come together and work as a single unit.

The Marathas were gaining power day by day and thinking to defeat Muslims because the Mughal
Empire was going toward downfall. Therefore, Shah Waliullah was very much worried about this. He
then wrote a letter to Ahmad Shah Abdali to defeat the Marathas and give Muslims freedom once
again. The famous Battle of Panipat by Abdali in 1761 ended the Marathas movement towards Delhi
and the Mughal Empire was secured from them.

Similarly, by the start of 19th century the Muslims of Bengal ha also goes away from Islam by the
living with the non-Muslims. They had accepted their Way. Haji Shariatullah was highly grieved and
disturbed to see the Muslims now they were living the life they laid foundation of Faraizi Movement,
which reminded them for their basic obligations. His efforts brought brunt and many Muslims shaped
their lives according to Islam.

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During the days the peasants were living a miserable life the most of the property owners in the
Bengal were Hindus who had atrocious treatment with the Muslims. They would usurp the rights and
would not give their equal share in the production HSU awoke the Muslims and advised their not to
be silent for their rights. He played a vital role in creating awaking and awareness among the poor
Muslim peasants for the protection of their rights.

It can be proven with the help of given statements that the duties and works performed by the three
reformers remained witnessed in the eyes of Muslims, however Syed Ahmed’s contribution remained
more successful than the other two due to the feelings of struggle given to Muslims. Although he
could not restore the Muslims rule in India but he kindled a flame of freedom in the heart of Muslims
who continued their struggle for the independence and were able to establish Pakistan in 1947.

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 SIR ADNAN QURESHI PAKISTAN STUDIES-HISTORY-CHAPTER 2__

CHAPTER 2: DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE AND ARRIVAL OF THE BRITISH

The Mughal Empire was once believed to be the largest empire in the entire world. It started from
Zahiruddin Mohammad Babur (1526) and later was succeeded by Humayun. Jalaluddin Akber was
next in the list whose strong policies made the empire stronger. After Akber, Jehangir succeeded and
due to a number of administrative mistakes from here on, Jehangir, Shah Jehan and then Aurangzeb
Alamgir sowed the seeds of trouble in the empire.

Decline of Mughal Empire:

The Mughal Empire began to decline after the rule of Aurangzeb in 1707. In fact, the decline began
during the last days of Aurangzeb. There were many causes for the downfall of this great dynasty. Let
us view the causes that hastened the fall of the Mughal Empire after Aurangzeb.

Aurangzeb’s policies:

Aurangzeb’ s forty-nine-year rule was largely responsible for the downfall of the empire. His
predecessors did a lot to win over the loyalties of their subjects, particularly the Rajputs and the
Hindus. But Aurangzeb was a fanatic and could not tolerate the non-Muslims. He imposed Jizya tax
and forbade the celebration of Hindu festivals. Being a fanatic Sunni Muslim, he could not tolerate
even the Shias. They too turned against him. He laid too much stress on simplicity and was against
singing, dancing and drinking which were common habits of the Muslim nobles. Aurangzeb, thus
“himself gave a green signal to the forces of decay” and so after his death the mighty empire
disintegrated into smaller states. He spent highly on luxurious palaces which became a burden on an
already declining economy. This created a feeling of hatred, injustice, resentment and disloyalty
among the Hindu population against the Emperor which had always been creeping up since years.

No definite law for Successors:

The Mughal Empire was considerably weakened by the absence of an acknowledged and systematic
law of succession. Only Akber came to the throne without fighting a war with other contenders when
a question of legal heir came. When Shah Jen fell ill in 1657, a war broke out amongst his four sons,
Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, Shah Murad and Aurangzeb and seven battles were fought in which many
princes and trained soldiers were killed. This led to not only the loss of trained soldiers and princes
but also many states and areas kept going out of their hands. The next chain of leaders was
incompetent to rule the empire.

Weak Successors of Aurangzeb:

After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, there was no major emperor who could hold the empire.
Instead of being active, strong and industrious they became lazy, incompetent and luxurious. Most of
them remained lost in wine and women and left the government matters on their ministers who

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gradually became self centered and disloyal. Shah Alam II remained the only prominent Mughal
leader after Aurangzeb.

Degeneration of Nobility and local rebellions:

The Mughal’s nobility degenerated into a pleasure seeking a sinful group of individuals who were now
mostly selfish and treacherous. Under the later Mughals the immense wealth, luxury and leisure
softened their character and made them dangerously opposed. They used to go in palanquins to the
battle field. As the result of that, many groups were able to bring problems within the empire. The
invaders like Nadir Shah (Nadir Quli Beg) came from Persia and plundered into Sindh and Multan in
1738 and took away Shah Jahan’s Peacock Throne and Koh-i-Noor.

Poor Economy:

The economic stability of the empire was ruined because of the constant wars. Some of the wars did
not add even an inch to the Mughal Empire. Besides this, the Mughal rulers spent lavishly on buildings
and monuments. Finally, the foreign invasions completely shattered the economy.

Military Expertise declined:

Aurangzeb’s successors fought many battles which resulted in not only the deaths of many skilled
soldiers but also it made the Mughal Empire bankrupt. Aurangzeb fought for twenty-five years against
the Marathas but was not able to defeat them.

Local and Foreign Invasions:

Rajputs, Gurkhas, Jatts and Marathas became the major groups that challenged the control of the
British. The later Mughals were not able to defeat them and faced serious challenges for it. New
powers such as the Sikhs, Jatts and Marathas came onto the scene. Gradually they broke off from the
Mughal domination and established their own independent states.

Similarly, Nadir Shah entered the Mughal Empire from Afghanistan. He captured the Lahore,
Peshawar, Kabul and then Delhi and looted all the wealth including the Peacock throne. He returned
leaving the empire looted and burnt.

COMING OF THE EUROPEANS:

The Europeans, the Dutch, the Portuguese, the French and the British, who came in 1608 under an
agreement with Aurangzeb, played an important role in putting an end to the Mughal Empire. They
first obtained a freeman to trade with India, but gradually began interfering in Indian politics and
gradually set up a British empire in India that lasted for 200 years.

British East India Company: EIC

Queen Elizabeth I granted permission to a group of British merchants in 1600 to trade in the east of
the world. They came to India in 1608 and Jehangir became the Governor of Gujrat, he allowed the

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 British to trade. In 1615, when Jehangir became the Mughal Emperor, the British became the only
traders in the while India. In 1617, Sir Thomas Roe seek permission from Jehangir to build a factory at
Surat. Within ten years, Bombay became a Presidency. Later, they made three cities as their
presidencies: Bombay, Madras and Calcutta.

The called India as Golden Sparrow and took a lot of wealth from here by signing peace treaties with
many of the states. They controlled the trade of India and made huge profits. They also brought
Industrial Revolution in India which later made many Indians unemployed.

They brought education system in India, made many schools and colleges including Christian
missionary schools. They brought telegraph and postal system in India which made communication
easier. They made irrigation system and constructed many headworks and barrages and brought
more agriculture in India. They made roads and canals to be able to make better transport service in
the country.

Annexation of Indian areas/ British Expansion:

 Battle of Plassey: By 1757, the British had become strong rulers. A British Governor General Robert
Clive fought against the Nawab of Bengal, Nawab Siraj0ud-Daulah. Siraj was a strong ruler who fought
against the British as he was ignited by the French for the battle. Siraj’s Commander-in-Chief and
cousin, Mir Jafar played a treacherous character against Siraj. Around 300 soldiers along with Siraj
died in the battle. Mir Jafar was made the puppet Nawab of Bengal.

 Battle of Wandiwash/ Battle of Pondicherry: The Third Carnatic War spread beyond southern India
and into Bengal where British forces captured the French settlement of Chandernagore (now Chandan
nagar) in 1757. However, the war was decided in the south, as British Commander Sir Eyre Coote
decisively defeated the French under the Comte de Lally at the Battle of Wandiwash in 1760. After
Wandiwash, the French capital of Pondicherry fell to the British in 1761. The war concluded with the
signing of the 1763 Treaty of Paris.

 Battle of Buxar: In 1764, Mir Jafar’s son, Mir Qasim along with the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II
fought against the British East India Company led by Hector Munro trying to restore his power
however, they remained unsuccessful. It was fought within the territory of Bengal, a town located on
the bank of the Ganges River, was a decisive victory for the British East India Company. Mir Jafar
fought against the British as his father was removed from the throne of Bengal and all his allowances
were stopped.

 1784: Pitt’s India Act- The India Act passed by British Prime Minister William Pitt, made Governor
General as an official appointment in India. Now India was under British control.

 1798: Lord Marquess Wellesley arrived as the Governor General and persuaded local princes of many
states to come under British alliance for which they had to pay towards the cost of the troops under
the Doctrine of Subsidiary Alliance. Many small rulers signed it as it gave them security against attack

14 | P a g e
 by their neighbors. The Nezam of Hyderabad was the first to enter into such an alliance. Tipu Sultan of
Mysore refused to do so, but after the British victory in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, Mysore was
forced to become a subsidiary state. The Nawab of Awadh was the next to accept the Subsidiary
Alliance.

 Doctrine of Paramountcy: Lord Hastings was the first Governor General of India from 1813. Under
Lord Hasting a new policy of "paramountcy" was introduced in India. Under this policy the Company
claimed that its authority was paramount or supreme, hence its power was greater than that of Indian
states.

 Punjab Battles: During 1846-49, Punjab fought battles against the British under Maharaja Ranjit
Singh. A treaty was signed which stated that Ranjit Singh and the British officers would not intervene
each other’s areas on the two banks of River Ravi however after the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, his
son Kharak Singh could not hold the pressure of British authorities and Punjab came under the control
of the British. Finally, Punjab was annexed by the British in 1846 and later NWFP was also controlled
by them.

 Battle of Miani: In 1834, Battle of Miani was fought between the Amirs of Sindh over the control on
territory. British Governor General Sir Charles Napier played an important role in bringing Sindh under
the control of the British by bringing problems amongst the Amirs.

 Battle in NWFP: In 1839, Afghanistan was attacked by the British as the Pathan tribes were bringing
trouble to the British. The British wanted to control and secure the border between British India and
Afghanistan which they did in 1892 by making Durand Line.

 1850s: Almost whole of India was under British Raj. Bengal, Punjab, Sindh and NWFP had been
annexed. The leaders of Hyderabad, Kashmir, Mysore and Marathas were obedient to them.

 Doctrine of Lapse: In 1852, Lord Dalhousie gave the famous Doctrine of Lapse which stated that any
ruler if would have a male successor to the throne would be succeeded by the British. They mainly
made this rule as Oudh, Jhansi, Kanpur, Sitara and many other states were to be annexed and they
had strong leaders who would have supported the British authority.

THE BRITISH CHANGED INDIANS:

 In 1795, the EIC banned the killing of daughters in India which was a common Hindu practice. Hindus
called it as an attack on their religion and rose against it,

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 In 1829, Suttee was banned in Bengal and then in whole of India. It was officially banned and was
strictly monitored. Hindus who did not obey the rule were also punished.
 The ban on Purdah by the British was also disliked by the Muslims as they considered as an
intervention in their religion by the British.
 Thuggees were banned which considered themselves as servants of a goddess. It was also considered
as an attack on the beliefs of the Hindus.
 In 1835, English was declared as official language of India replacing Persian. Schools and education
were gradually westernized too. Muslims were annoyed as they were already not at par with other
Indians on education.
 Missionary schools were opened all over India which taught Bible as a compulsory course which
made Christianity acceptable to many of young Indians’ minds. This gradually created a soft image of
the British in the minds of young Indians.
 Communication and railway transport made it easier for the British to reach everywhere in the
subcontinent.

The British Expansion results:

 Due to the arrival of Industrial Revolution and Cotton Textile, many Indians became jobless and
unemployed and gave up their jobs and remained as slave labours in the mills.
 Many Indians did not like the British changing their culture and intervening into their religious
practices. For example, the ban on Purdah was disliked by Muslims and the ban on Suttee was hated
by the Hindus.
 Christian Missionaries were blamed to teach Christianity and Bible and also made Indian children soft
for their religion.
 The Monopoly in trade brought no real benefit to India as huge profits were sent back to England.
 The railway and road system remained an advantage for the British as they were able to depute their
army and artillery anywhere without much delay of time.
 The agrarian policy brought more agriculture but less profit to the Indians as they had to pay huge
taxes to the mansabdars.

Tipu Sultan:

Tipu Sultan became the ruler after the death of his father Haider Ali. He was the ruler of Maisur, a
princely state in the south of India. Tipu proved to be a difficult enemy for the British. Unfortunately,
he was also facing continuous attacks from his neighbours, the Nizam of Hyderabad Deccan and
Marathas. In 1791, he was defeated by Sir Hector Munro but his final defeat came in 1798 when his
relative Mir Sadiq deceived him and the British Governor General Lord Wellesley killed him. His two
sons were taken under the possession by the British.

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 Robert Clive:

He was a British officer in India. He was also known as Clive of India. He is seen as founder of British
India. He commanded the British army in battle of Plessey and defeated the Nawab’s forces. He was
made the Nawab of Bengal.

The Black Hole of Calcutta:

In 1756, the Black Hole of Calcutta was a small dungeon in the old Fort William, at Calcutta. There the
troops of the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud-Daulah, held British prisoners of war after the capture of the
Fort. 123 prisoners died out of 146 prisoners held. This became a major reason of the Battle of
Plassey.

Warren Hastings:

He was the first Governor-General of India. Hasten extended his rule by wars against Haider Ali of
Mysore, his son Tipu and with Marathas. He was accused to bribery and corruption and there was a
trial against him in Britain. He was cleared but his reputation was destroyed.

Nadir Shah:

He was a leader of Persia. Nadir Shah entered the Mughal Empire from Afghanistan. He captured the
Lahore, Peshawar, Kabul and then Delhi and looted all the wealth including the Peacock throne. He
returned leaving the empire looted and burnt.

Ahmed Shah Durrani/ Abdali:

He was the Afghan general and leader of Persian army. He was called by Shah Wali Ullah to fight with
the Marathas. In battle of Panipat he defeated the Marathas. Instead of ruling himself he made
Ahmed shah (Muhammad shah’s son) as the emperor and left.

The Industrial Revolution:

The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the mid-18th Century and spread across Europe and to
North America. It has been explained as the beginning of factory production and involved a change in
manufacturing process. The first factory began to churn out mass produced goods, the development
of the steam engines, railways and steam ships. The textile industry using imported Indian cotton was
very successful. From being a small rule of nation the Industrial revolution turned Britain into the
wealthiest and the most powerful country in the world.

PAST PAPERS PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

1. WHAT WAS DOCTRINE OF LAPSE? [4]

2. WHO WAS TIPU SULTAN? [4]
3. WHAT WAS EAST INDIA COMPANY? [4]

17 | P a g e
4. WHAT WAS BATTLE OF PLASSEY? [4]
5. WHAT WAS BATTLE OF BUXAR? [4]
6. WHY AURANGZEB’S SUCCESSORS NOT ABLE TO CONTROL THE EMPIRE? [7]
7. WHY AURANGZEB’S POLICIES BROUGHT THE MUGHAL EMPIRE TO A DECLINE? [7]
8. WHY WERE THE BRITISH ABLE TO CONQUER THE SUBCONTINENT? [7]
9. 'AURANGZEB’S SUCCESSORS FAILED TO LIVE UP TO HIS COURAGEOUS AND DETERMINED
PERSONALITY.’ WAS THIS THE MOST IMPORTANT REASON FOR THE DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL
EMPIRE? GIVE REASONS FOR YOUR ANSWER. [14]
10. WERE THE WEAK AND GREEDY CHARACTERISTIC OF AURANGZEB’S SUCCESSORS THE MOST
IMPORTANT REASON FOR THE COLLAPSE OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE? EXPLAIN YOUR ANSWER.
[14]
11. ‘AURANGZEB’S POLICIES CONTRIBUTED THE MOST IN BRINGING THE MUGHAL EMPIRE TO A
DECLINE.’ DO YOU AGREE? GIVE REASONS FOR YOUR ANSWER. [14]
12. ‘AURANGZEB’S SUCCESSORS SOWED THE SEEDS OF THE DECLINE OF MUGHAL EMPIRE THAN ANY
OTHER REASON.’ DO YOU AGREE? GVE REASONS FOR YOUR ANSWER.[14]

Q: The Mughal Empire declined mainly due to the weaknesses of the Mughals.’ Do you agree or
disagree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

The decline of the great Mughals started soon after 1707 after the death of Aurangzeb Alamgir. It is
difficult to say that how much had some other reasons contributed into it however, it is truly said the
laziness and weaknesses of the Mughals had immensely contributed in it.

Aurangzeb’s powerful, determined and brave personality kept the Mughals united and strong. He had
a vast experience of fighting in north-west frontier and south India. He was very disciplined, religious
and far away from luxuries and un-Islamic practices. He was determined brave and active throughout
his life. His descendants lacked these qualities. Succession wars made the situation even worse.
Aurangzeb’s three sons fought with each other and became greedy. They did not listen to the advice
of Aurangzeb who had divided the Empire into three of his sons. The sons of Muazzam also fought
with each other. Only within ten years of Aurangzeb’s death, more than twelve people were claiming
as kings. These wars made Mughals financially bankrupt and they lost their prestige.

Weak administration was another cause of the decline. Until the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughals
possessed the largest territory in the history of India. The descendants of Aurangzeb could not control
such a vast Empire. Gradually, the nobles and local leaders became powerful. The rebellions broke out
and the tax income to the government almost stopped. The large and important provinces like Bengal
and Oudh became independent of Mughal authority by 1720. Mughals lost their authority, power,
wealth and above all their prestige.

Invasions on Delhi also made the Mughals weak. Marathas were the major opponents of Mughals.
They were from central and south India. Auranzeb fought with them but could not control them. Until
1750, they had become a major threat for the Mughals. However, Marathas were defeated in 1761 in
the battle of Panipat and powerless Mughals got some more time to rule India. Besides Marathas, two
more invasions took place from Afghanistan and Persia. In 1738, Persian General nadir shah invaded

18 | P a g e
Delhi and looted their wealth. Between 1747 and 1769, Afghan General Ahmed Shah invaded India
ten times. Even in Punjab, Sikhs were also a major threat for the Mughals. All these invasions made
the Mughals virtually bankrupt and they lost their power completely.

Strength of the British became another reason of the downfall. Until 1750, The East India Company
did not involve in active politics and concentrated on making more wealth and more power. They
defeated their European rivals, the French in 1752. Their major occupation was in 1757 of Bengal
Within hundred years, the entire India was in their control. The British were organized and disciplined.
They had national spirit. Due to industrial revolution, they were producing best weapons in large
quantity. EIC was supported by the rich British Government. The British understood the weaknesses
of Indians. They bribed them and played the game of diplomacy. On the other hand, Mughals were
lacking these qualities and they could not resist the British.

Due to unlimited power and wealth, the Mughals had become lazy and pleasure seeking. They used to
spend huge amounts on their clothes, food, jewellery and other spending. They broke the Islamic
principles of simple life and involved in immoral activities. The Mughals thought that they were
invincible. They fought with the outdated weapons and old war techniques. Due to this, they had to
suffer in their wars against Marathas, Nadir Shah, Ahmed Shah and the British. The power and wealth
made the nobility so strong that they went out of the control of the Emperor. They stopped giving
income to the Emperor. The attacks of Marathas, Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah made the Mughals
virtually bankrupt.

The weak and greedy characteristics and luxurious life of Mughals seem to be the most important
reason of the down fall of Mughals. This is because in-fighting between the princes is common in
dynasties. The coming of the British is also not a genuine reason because the British were a weak
minority. It was the Indian nobility who betrayed their own people. Mughals had become luxurious
and they had no realization of the enemies around them. Luxuries had also made them lazy and they
were not strong and active. They did not pay attention to improve their weapons and war techniques.
Any strong enemy could defeat them easily. They were greedy because instead of creating unity
among themselves, they fought with each other which disunited them and made them financially and
morally bankrupt.

Q: Why did the British Government take control of the affairs of the East India Company in the early
nineteenth century? [7]

In 1784, the India Act was passed by which the British government took direct control of Indian
possessions and the Governor-General took control of three presidencies. Provincial governors and a
Commander-in-chief were appointed.

One important reason of this control was the corruption of the East India Company. The officials of
the Company were taking bribes from local merchants, local people lost employment opportunities
and the Company did not spend any money for the welfare of locals. In four major famines, fifteen

19 | P a g e
million people died. Sir Robert Clive had to face a court trial on corruption. Even the appointments of
the British citizens in the company's jobs had to give bribes. All this corruption came to the extent that
even the British felt embarrassment. It was a scene of anarchy, confusion, bribery and corruption. The
British House of Commons called the Company's government most corrupt on the face of the earth.
This was making the British nation unpopular and cause of being called a bad nation. Therefore, the
British government took control in their hand.

The British did not want to lose income from India. Since the British control over Indian lands was
increasing day by day, it was not possible for a group of company directors to control a huge
population. Political problems needed political solutions and for this purpose trained diplomats were
needed. The British never wanted to lose a huge wealth coming from India. In order to save their
interests, the government took control in their hand.

Another reason was a possible Russian invasion. Russia was not far away from India. The Russians had
to cross Afghanistan in order to attack India. The Russians were equally advanced in weapons and war
techniques. The British could not leave India to that risk and to prevent Russia, a trained team of
diplomats was needed and for this purpose, they took control from the East India Company.

The weak and greedy characteristics and luxurious life of Mughals seem to be the most important
reason of the down fall of Mughals. This is because in-fighting between the princes is common in
dynasties. The coming of the British is also not a genuine reason because the British were a weak
minority. It was the Indian nobility who betrayed their own people. Mughals had become luxurious
and they had no realization of the enemies around them. Luxuries had also made them lazy and they
were not strong and active. They did not pay attention to improve their weapons and war techniques.
Any strong enemy could defeat them easily. They were greedy because instead of creating unity
among themselves, they fought with each other which disunited them and made them financially and
morally bankrupt.

Q: Why was Aurangzeb blamed for sowing the seed of decline of the Mughal Empire? [7]

Aurangzeb was believed to be an orthodox Muslim. He maintained a hideous approach towards other
religions and was especially intolerant towards the Hindus. To manage bankruptcy of the Empire, he re-
imposed the Jizya, a tax payable by non-Muslims which had been abolished during the time of Akbar.
He also did not allow the construction of new Hindu temples during his reign and many previous
temples were demolished at his command. As a result of this hatred the Hindus became against the
Muslims. They tried to disturb the order of the Empire whenever they got the chance. Thus
Aurangzeb is blamed for sowing the seeds of downfall.
Aurangzeb wanted to expand his empire more than his father had done. For this purpose, he launched a
campaign against the Marathas in the Deccan which lasted for 25 years. During this period the bulk of the
army was destroyed and most officers got corrupted and indulged in bribery. Moreover, his absence

20 | P a g e
from the capital led to loose administration. The wazirs and nobles became sluggish and lazy and delayed state
matters over long periods which eventually led to the decline of the empire. The long battle also
resulted in the loss of expertise of the senior generals and officers and then the Mughal Army relied
on inexperienced soldiers.

Like his ancestors, Aurangzeb was also fond of beautiful megastructures. He ordered the building of
the Badshahi Mosque at Lahore and had the Pearl Masjid built in Delhi which was reserved for the
King’s private prayers. The Sheish Mahal was also constructed during his regime. Due to his
unnecessary extravagance, the national treasury emptied very quickly and the poor economic
conditions of the Empire led to its downfall.

Q: Why were the British able to replace the Mughals as the dominant force in the Subcontinent by
1850? [7]

The British were already becoming well established in the subcontinent and had gained much
territory and so were well placed to take over from the Mughals. The Mughal Empire was on the
verge of decline due to infightings and family rivalry as well as being badly affected due to
bankruptcy. The British had signed trade agreements with the later Mughals. They were bringing
trade and income for the locals which was considered very fruitful by the locals.

Due to the Industrial Revolution Britain had been able to stockpile weapons which were of superior
quality to any of those which the Indians had. India was a huge country with enormous wealth. There
was no industrial growth at the time of the Mughals and much of the work was done by hand. The
introduction of Textile Industry brought a revolution and local cotton farmers become rich. People left
their weaving job and started to work as labour in British owned industries.

Also the troops were better disciplined, trained and organised and were able to establish their
superiority without much opposition. The Mughal army was already in weak position from the time of
Aurangzeb who fought against the Marathas for twenty-five years but remained unsuccessful. The
British had cannons, long ranged rifles, fast moving vehicles which gave them more strength in
invading and fighting in many areas like the Battle of Plassey against Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah and the
Punjab Wars against Ranjeet Singh.

Q: Explain why the successors of Aurangzeb failed to prevent the decline of the Mughal Empire. [7]

Aurangzeb’s successors tended to be lazy, weak and corrupt, leaving the administration to their
ministers who often put their own interests first. There was no law of succession. Instead there was
usually a struggle for succession which ended in war. Succession often depended upon the ability of
the candidates and the support they could get.

Fighting wars was very expensive and the military was stretched and suffered much inefficiency.
These emperors failed to run the Empire effectively, becoming very extravagant and so suffered from
financial inefficiencies.

21 | P a g e
The vastness of the Empire made it hard to defend and as such suffered several invasions from
stronger rivals. Eventually the British overran the Empire and were superior in such areas as military
might.

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 SIR ADNAN QURESHI PAKISTAN STUDIES-HISTORY-CHAPTER 3_

CHAPTER 3: THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

Reasons of the War of Independence:

Political:
 The British introduced the Doctrine of Lapse in 1852 an act which allowed them to confiscate the
territory of any local ruler who did not have a real male heir. This did not please the Indian landlords
as they were being deprived for their lands and thus rebelled. Oudh (Awadh) was annexed in 1856 to
control Shias and Sunnis which were mainly coming in Bengal garrisons from Oudh. Jhansi and Kanpur
were also annexed by the British.
 In 1857 the Mughal Emperor had little power left but was still an important symbolic figure. The
British moved the Royal family form the Red fort of Delhi to a more obscure Qutub Sahi. Indians saw
this as mistreatment.
 At a lower level of society there was a resentment of the lack of opportunities for native Indians in the
Civil service. This resulted in more hatred for the British as their rights were not considered.
 In 1834, English replaced Persian as the official language of administration. This created resentment
because it wasn’t only seen as cultural intervention but also increased Indian unemployment as they
didn’t know English. Western education was also made compulsory in India which was not accepted to
Muslims particularly.

Military:
 The Greased Cartridges which were also introduced which were to be bitten off from mouth before
inserting the gun powder into the rifles.
 Most of the sepoys were Indian, whereas officers were always British.
 They sent Indian troops to fight in Afghanistan. Unpopular as Hindus didn’t want to leave ‘Mother
India’ and Muslims didn’t want to fight other fellow Muslims.

Religious:
 Furthermore, regular rumours that Muslim, Hindu, Sikh soldiers would be forced to convert to
Christianity. Angered Indian soldiers who felt that their religion was under threat.
 Many Indian sepoys who were asked to serve the British Army overseas were not pleased. Particularly
the Hindus who believed that crossing the sea would make them casteless.

23 | P a g e
 Hindu tradition Suttee was abolished in 1829, widow remarriage allowed. Parda (veil) was ridiculed by
the British.
 Christian Missionaries made schools, taught Christianity, expected locals to give up own religion.
Employers sometimes offered incentives for this.

Social:
 British had a very low view of the Indians. The tried to spread their own culture, and considered the
Indians inferior and were reluctant in giving them high posts.
 The British were tried in special courts, but Indians/Locals were tried in ordinary courts. Judgments
were made by the British and were often cruel/harsh.

Economic:
 More taxes were imposed on Indians and everyone was bound to pay.
 The Cotton Textile Industry had spoiled the economic condition of the Indians. Many Indians had
gone beyond poverty due to cheaper cloth made by the British yet they had given up their job of hand
weaving.
Events of the War:

January 1857: The British introduced new ‘Enfield Rifles’ and replaced the old Brown Busket Rifles.
The new greased cartridges were also introduced which were to be bitten off from mouth before
inserting the gun powder into the rifles.

March 1857: At Meerut, a rumour was spread that the wax used to grease the cartridges was made of
cows’ and pigs’ fat. Cow was sacred to Hindus and pigs are forbidden for Muslims. Therefore, a group
of sepoys denied to use the cartridges. Their leader was Mangal Panday. He, along with many other
soldiers was trialed and was hanged.

May 1857: The news spread and the mutiny started at Meerut and other places. The Indian sepoys
killed many British and tried to march towards Delhi. They were joined by other garrisons too.

Battle of Cawnpore: The groups were joined by Nana Sahib at Kanpur. He gave a serious tough time
and killed the British force, 300 women and children but it was controlled by the British. The violence
and bloodshed was controlled by hanging people, shot out of the mouth of cannons, burned alive and
Muslims were even sewn into pigskins and hanged.

June 1858: Rani Laxmibai was killed by the British. By September 1857 Delhi was regained by the
British.

24 | P a g e
 The British were able to win over the Indians as they had better weapons than Indians, they were
more experienced in handling warfare and were more organized. They had a proper strategy in the
war. The Maharaja of Kashmir, Ghulab Singh had sent 200 Kashmiri soldiers who fought from the side
of the British. The British were able to control the sepoys as Bombay, Bengal and Punjab garrisons
never participated in the war. Some other leaders of the state never participated as they were loyal to
the British.

On the other hand, the Indians had no major strategy of war. They lacked experience and skill which
the enemy had. Some of the groups like Sikhs were not happy fighting for the British. The Indians had
no communication which could help them in fighting strong. The lack of leadership played an
important role in bringing problems for them.

Reasons for failure of War of Independence:

Disunity:
 There was disunity among the rebels. They lacked a common purpose and everyone fought for
personal interest, often refused to fight unless they were harmed. Nana Sahib, only interested in
getting Doctrine of Lapse reversed and was ready to come to terms if this demand was accepted. Thus,
Muslims lacked a common cause from the Indians, weakening them.
 Some of the princely state rulers supported the British in order to maintain their own power. Such as
the ruler of Kashmir, who sent 2000 troops to help the British. Thus their strength against the war
grew, and the Indians were less united.
 Lord Canning, the Governor General, adopted a conciliator policy towards the rebels. He allowed many
concessions for them: Announcing the rebels who gave up their arms were to be forgiven. Thus, quite
a few leaders left the battlefield to join in negotiations with the government.
 There had been a great deal of vandalism in the war, thus the local population was harmed and
became displeased with the rebel’s nefarious activities. Instead, they sympathized with the British
who stood for law and order. Hence the British strength increased even further, rebels weakened.

British Strength:
 Punjab and Sindh had been conquered by the British with their troops from Bengal and Central Asia. So,
when the troops rebelled in 1857, the Punjabis and Sindhis did not support. Meaning a much smaller
amount of rebels against the British might.
 The Last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar II, who was considered the main leader of the revolt
showed incompetence during the war. More interested in poetry and luxury, and neglected the affairs of
combat. Thus, his poor administration meant weak control.
 The British had experienced the Industrial Revolution and were technologically much more superior. Thus
they had advanced weaponry, giving them an edge over the Mughal/Indian forces who had traditional and
outdated weaponry.
 The British were a superpower at that time and had well trained, confident soldiers led by outstanding
generals such as Edwards and Neil. Who fought with devotion and loyalty to the British Queen. The rebel
leaders in comparison were indecisive and short sighted and hence were easily defeated by the British.

25 | P a g e
Results of the War of Independence

Negative:

 The Indians failed their main objective of ending British Rule/Driving them out of the subcontinent.
They not only failed, but ended as slaves to the British. They British attained complete autonomy
over the country and established a rather tyrannical rule over the Indians.
 The Mughal Empire was removed from the Indian political scene forever as the country came
directly under the British Crown by the 1858 proclamation by Queen Victoria. The Muslims were
greatly hurt by this, as the main figure of Mughal rule was exiled.
 The war left a trail of mutual fear and distrust in the minds of the ruler and the ruled. The British
became cautious, rigid, reactionary in their attitude towards he Indians especially the Muslims,
considering to be solely responsible for the revolt, since the wanted to restore the Mughal Empire.
Thus the British began to develop a policy of suppressing the Muslims in their every walk of life.
This hatred continued for half a century.
 The army taking the initiative in the War of Independence was thoroughly revised. The number of
European Soldiers was increased from the ratio of 1:5 to 1:2. Dismaying the Indians, who took part
in an attempt to gain better posts and salaries through the revolt. Instead, some soldiers became
jobless.
 The forces that had rebelled were executed by the British. Cruel punishments, such as being blown
to pieces by a canon were used.
 In 1878, the British passed the Vernacular Press Act to control press and publications in India so
that no news of the any possible future war could be published further. Arms Act was passed in
India by which no India was allowed to carry weapons.

Positive:

 The British tried to being about a change in their administration and policies. They ended the
“British East India Company to the happiness of the Indians who were now relieved of the
Company’s tyranny. Thus there now to be ruled through a new, possibly less cruel ruler.
 New reforms and constitutional changes were introduced. An act for the better government of
India was passed and introduced. It involved a Secretary of State with a council of 15 members to
help him. Policy of centralization in the 1833 act was changed, and new principles of
decentralization and indianisation were recognized. And Indians could now be elected in provincial
councils and thus attain power at a provincial level.
 Moreover, the 1861 Indian Councils Act restored legislative powers to the governments of
Bombay and Madras. New Legislative Councils were established in many provinces including
Punjab, Bengal etc. Thus, Indians were given much more political say, which had been an aim of
theirs in the War of Independence.
 The British policy of annexation was changed. The Queen declared no more extensions to their
present territorial possessions and the Doctrine of Lapse was abandoned. Indians could now
inherit their lands with ease.

 Greased Cartridge supply stopped. Indians relieved of a very sensitive Religious issue.

26 | P a g e
  In 1877, Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India in a magnificent ceremony in Delhi.
More Indians were promised to be included in the Civil Service of India however the promise was
not fulfilled as the ICS Examinations were held in London which was difficult for an Indian to join.

PAST PAPER PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

1. WHAT WAS DOCTRINE OF LAPSE? [4]

2. WHAT WAS THE MATTER OF GREASED CARTRIDGES? [4]
3. WHAT WAS BATTLE OF CAWNPORE? [4]
4. WHAT WAS PROCLAMATION ACT OF 1858? [4]
5. WHY WAS THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE FAIL? [7]
6. WHY WAS THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE START? [7]
7. ‘THE SOCIAL FACTORS PLAYED MORE IMPORTANT ROLE IN STARTING THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
OF 1857 THAN THE ECONOMIC FATORS.’ DO YOU AGREE OR DISAGREE WITH THE STATEMENT?
[14]
8. ‘THE MATTER OF GREASED CARTRIDGES PLAYED THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR IN BRINGING THE
AWR OF INDEPENDENCE OF 1857.’ DO YOU AGREE? GIVE REASONS FOR YOUR ANSWER.
[14]
9. ‘THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE OF 1857 HAD MORE SUCCESSES THAN FAILURES FOR THE BRITISH.’
DO YOU AGREE? GIVE REASONS FOR YOUR ANSWER. [14]

Q: Was the greased cartridge incident the most important cause of the War of Independence of
1857? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

The War of Independence of 1857 was the first major uprising of the Indians against the British.
Though there were a number of reasons for the war however the most immediate factor was the
matter of greased cartridges.

In January 1857, a new cartridge was introduced by the British which was coated in both cow and pig
fat. The new cartridge was to be used in the new Enfield rifles which were also introduced. Because
the soldiers had to chew the fat it caused great resentment since pig fat was forbidden by the
Muslims and the cow was a sacred animal in the eyes of the Hindus.

The rumor was spread in March 1857 at Meerut first where the sepoys refused to use the cartridges.
Initially they were forced to use but when they still resisted, many of the sepoys were court-martialed
and imprisoned. Mangal Pandey, their leader was hanged. This news became violent and the sepoys
started to revolt against the British officers.

Other areas like Gwalior, Delhi and Lucknow got the war. Not only the sepoys but the common
Indians also started to fight in the north of India. The last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar tried
to organize the war. Other leaders like Rani of Jhansi and Nawab of Oudh also fought in the war. The
British did not expect such a massive retaliation by the Indians as they did not know that the war had
number of long term reasons too.

27 | P a g e
Other than the greased cartridge matter, the replacement of Persian and Sanskrit by English as the
official language in 1832 deeply upset both the Muslims and Hindus. Their languages were considered
as their identities and the British tried to attack on that which had immense disagreement from all
Indians.

Similarly, in 1852 the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ was introduced and caused great unrest because any local
kingdom not having a direct male heir was taken over by the British. A number of social reforms had
been imposed without consultation or care for local feeling which also caused unrest. Indians had to
send their children to co-educational schools and were forced to abandon purdha. Muslims
considered that as an attack on their religion. The ban on Suttee in 1829 also had retaliation from the
Hindus.

Likewise, the British had made their fortune from India by making Indians their slaves. The Indians
were merely servants to them in their offices, factories and mills. Indians had left weaving jobs for
their textile mills. Now Indians were paying high taxes for their own crops and local items. The British
had made Indians economically deprived and there was a general hatred against them.

It can be said by the help of the given statements that the reasons of War of Independence were all
economic, social and political but the immediate military reason of the introduction of greased
cartridge played the most important reason and led the British to change their style of government
and policies for India in the coming years.

Q: “The strength of the British army was the sole reason for the failure of the War of
Independence by 1858.” Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

The War of Independence of 1857 had marked a political and revolutionary change in the
subcontinent. Though the war had numerous long termed reasons which included the weaknesses of
the Indians but it cannot be ignored that the strength of the British army was a major reason for
ending the war.

The British had more modern methods of fighting and the army was better disciplined as well
as being supplied by some of the local rulers. Most of the Indians were sepoys with less power and
authority. The Indians were fighting with swords and daggers whereas the British had modern
cannons, tanks and rifles which gave them an edge over hundreds of Indians.

Secondly, the British were also skilled diplomats so they were able to keep other areas of India under
their control. They had signed Subsidiary Alliance with many Nawabs to keep the dominating and
kept a strong hold on the subcontinent thus many of the armies could not fight from the side of the
Indians. Many states tried to revolt against the British but they faced severe defeat, Rani of Jhansi and
Nawab of Oudh are the best examples of British strong diplomacy.

Thirdly, better means of communication and transport enabled the British to send troops where the
war was going on. The British also had strong navy and fleet ships which brought senior officers from
England and they were able to fight against the inexperienced Indians more actively and bravely.

On the other hand, there was also a lack of unity and common cause amongst the Indian population
which led the British to control them easily. The Punjab was uninterested in helping the rebellion and
actually sent men and supplies to help the British. The major garrisons of Punjab, Bombay and Bengal

28 | P a g e
did not participate in the war due to the threat of losing their jobs as they were highly paid by the
British. The Kashmir Maharaja was not in support of the Muslims for the war and he sent 2000 troops
to help the British. This is one major reason of the failure of the war.

Likewise, Muslims were more likely to oppose the British in the war but there was no sense of unity.
There were more concerned to restore Mughal power and to bring Bahadur Shah Zafar II as the
Mughal leader. The Muslims were already less in number in British army therefore minor revolt was
reported from them and the British army was easily gain control on many parts of India including
Lucknow, Gwalior and Delhi by September 1858.

This proves with judgement that British had a strong army and were well disciplined as compared to
the Indians however, the lack of unity and coordination amongst the Indians also played an important
part in bringing the war with no fruitful results for the Indians and thus they remained under the
British control for another ninety years.
As a result, they were overcome by the British.

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 SIR ADNAN QURESHI PAKISTAN STUDIES-HISTORY-HISTORY-CHAPTER 4_

Chapter 4: The Work of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

BIOGRAPHY AND EARLY LIFE:

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was born on October 17, 1817 in Delhi, belonged to a family which held
prominent positions in the reign of Mughal emperors. Sir Syed completed his studies at the age of 19
and then studied privately under Maulvi Hamid uddin. His father’s name was Mir Muttaqi who died
when Sir Syed was 21 years of age.

Sir Syed realized the crumbling position of the Mughals and their deviancy from religion, and hence
kept at distance from them. He got early education from his maternal grandfather on medicine,
astronomy, mathematics and religion. He worked as a social reformer, a scholar and an educationist
in the 19th Century.

Sir Syed started his job as a clerk in East India Company in 1838. He joined the legal system of India
and in 1846 became the chief judge of Binjaur. Later he became chief justice of Muradabad and was
transferred to Ghazipore and further on, Aligarh. He worked as an assistant and then senior judge in
many towns and retired from his job in 1876.

POLITICAL CONTRIBUTION:

Hindus of Banaras wanted Hindi to be the national language of India. Sir Syed presented The Two
Nation Theory in 1867 after the Hindus demanded Urdu to be replaced with Hindi as the language of
courts. He disagreed to this demand and discussed the major differences between the Muslims and
Hindus. The Two Nation Theory served as the basis of Pakistan Movement and later Dr. Allama Iqbal
delivered his famous speech of Allahabad and highlighted the need of an independent Muslim state.

Sir Syed disagreed to anti Muslim demands of having competitive ICS examination by Congress.
Since Muslims were away from English language and politics of India, he also demanded for equal
opportunities for Muslims in government jobs and reserved seats for Muslims in jobs. He urged for
the exams to be conducted after some delay so that Muslims could be able to participate in it. This
made Muslims aware of the active politics of the subcontinent.

After the establishment of Indian National Congress in 1885, many Hindus and Muslims joined it
however, Sir Syed refused to join it. He established United Patriotic Alliance in 1886 with Raja Shiv
Prasad of Banaras and urged Muslims to join it instead of Congress and urged Muslim students to play
an active part in the politics of India. He demanded to form their own group which later became MAO
Defence Association in 1893 for safeguarding the rights of Muslims.

SOCIAL CONTRIBUTION:

Sir Syed was the Senior judge at Bijnaur when the War of Independence broke out. He saw the
injustice done with the Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar II and how Muslims were blamed for it.
Sir Syed wrote a pamphlet ‘Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind’ (Causes of the Indian Revolt) in 1858 and sent

30 | P a g e
its copies to the royal family in England as well as to the British Viceroy and ministers in the
subcontinent. He highlighted the main causes of the war and sent its copies to the British
government.

Muslims considered the British as a reason of their anger and agitation. Similarly, the British also
Muslims as their anti-group. Sir Syed explained the word ‘Nadarath’ and explained to the British that
it was derived from a Persian word, Nasir which means a helper. This cleared out the
misunderstanding between the two nations and Muslims were considered important by the British.

He also wrote a book, Tabayyin-ul-Kalam in which he highlighted the series of essays by the Holy
Prophet (SAW) and similarities between Islam and Christianity. This brought closer relationship
between the two nations. He also wrote Loyal Mohammadens of India in 1860 to develop good
understanding between the two communities. He was the first Muslim to produce a commentary on
the Bible in which he tried to show that Islam was very close to Christianity in certain aspects. He
tried to highlight the loyalty of the Muslims towards the British which helped them to better their
relations.

EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTION:

Sir Syed was very inspired with the educational system of the British. He established a Persian School
at Muradabad in 1859. After a brief interval of four years, he established another English High school
based on the rules of religion in Ghazipur in 1863.

Along with his son, Syed Mahmood, who was given scholarship by the British government, he visited
Cambridge and Oxford Universities during 1969-70 and studied their educational systems he prepared
plans for a great educational institution, they were for “a Muslim Cambridge”. His marvelous
achievement, while he was posted at Aligarh was the establishment of MAO (Muhammadan Anglo-
Oriental) High School in 1875. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan wanted to upgrade its level to a college, and to
attain this end, he speeded up fund-raising. The school was upgraded to MAO College in 1876 and he
wanted to make it a university but unfortunately he could not see that happening in his life due to
British resistance. The college became the Aligarh Muslim University in 1920.

In 1866, a building named the Aligarh Institute was erected for the Scientific Society of Aligarh
(established 1864), which launched its journal Aligarh Institute Gazette in the same year. A joint
mouthpiece of the Scientific Society and the Institute the journal came into weekly circulation from 30
March 1866. Mr. Theodore Beck became its editor. It was a bi-weekly magazine of English and Urdu
in which many literary works and researches of different languages were translated in order to make
the Muslim students aware of the developments of the world.

Religious education along with modern learning was uncompromisingly essential. Students of it were
encouraged to take part in healthy discussions avoiding sectarian issues. But this college was unable
to impart knowledge to millions of Muslims scattered around the sub-continent; many of whom were
those who were unaware of its existence even.

31 | P a g e
 The aim of Sir Syed was not merely restricted to establishing a college at Aligarh but at spreading a
network of Muslim managed educational institutions throughout the length and breadth of the
country. He established Muhammadan Anglo Oriental Educational Conference in 1886 so that
Muslims of India could be a part of the conference. Every year, the MAO Educational Conference was
organized at different city of the subcontinent to get involvement of more Muslim students. Sir Syed
himself remained active in politics, yet he advised Muslims to keep away from it. He knew the
educational backwardness of Muslims and their unawareness of political current.

SIR SYED’S TITLE, DEATH AND BURIAL:

Syed Ahmed was bestowed with the suffix of 'Khan Bahadur' and was subsequently knighted by the
British government in 1888 and was awarded Knight Commander of the order of Star of India. Sir
Syed Ahmad Khan breathed his last on March 27, 1898. He is buried right along the Sir Syed Masjid
inside Aligarh University. His funeral was attended not only by thousands of Muslims but British
officials as well. He revived the dormant consciousness of Muslims and through his educational and
social reforms, he went down in Muslim history as arguably the most influential Indian politician of
19th century.

After his death, his Muslims and English friends started raising money to fulfill Sir Syed’s dream of
making the MAO college in Aligarh Muslim University which came finally in 1920.

PAST PAPERS PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

1. WHAT WAS LOYAL MOHAMMADENS OF INDIA? [4]

2. WHAT WAS HINDI-URDU CONTROVERSY? [4]
3. WHAT WAS MAO EDUACTION CONFERENCE? [4]
4. WHY DID SIR SYED WISH TO DEVELOP A BETTER UNDERSTANDING WITH THE BRITISH FOLLOWING
THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE? [7]
5. WAS THE ATTEMPT TO ACHIEVE A BETTER UNDERSTANDING WITH THE BRITISH THE MOST
IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTION THAT SIR SYED AHMED KHAN MADE THE MUSLIM CAUSE DURING THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY? EXPLAIN YOUR ANSWER. [14]

6. WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING WAS THE MOST IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTION OF SIR SYED;
a. POLITICS
b. SOCIAL
c. EDUCATIONAL
EXPLAIN YOUR ANSWER WITH REFERNCE TO ALL THREE OF THE ABOVE. [14]
Q: Why did Sir Syed insist upon Muslims to acquire Western Education? [7]

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was the greatest Muslims scholar and educationist of the nineteenth century
who worked diligently to educate Muslims of the subcontinent.

He asked Muslims to acquire western educations so that Muslims could get civil service jobs because
no language of administration was English and to improve their social and economic condition.

32 | P a g e
The Hindus received educations from English schools which improved their confidence and they
viewed illiterate Muslims as inferiors. This worried SSAK and he asked Muslims to acquire education
to come on par with the Hindus.

SSAK believed that as Quran stressed upon knowledge and exploring the universe, therefore western
education of science was in line with the Quranic teachings. So he emphasized upon Muslims to
acquire education to understand the full majesty of God as the creator.

Q: Do you agree that Sir Syed Ahmad Khan’s most important contribution to Muslim community
was his support for education? Give reasons for your answer? [14]

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan took steps to change Muslims attitude towards receiving British education. He
stressed on that the backwardness of the Muslims was because of lack of modern education.

He opened schools at several places and started the Scientific Society at Ghazipore in 1863. Its main
purpose was to make scientific writings available to a wider market by translating them from English,
Persian or Arabic to Urdu. He also started publishing a magazine called the Aligarh institute Gazette in
1866. This was to introduce modern sciences among the Muslim public. Muslims students were
encouraged to learn English education and modern sciences which made them aware of the world.

Sir Syed went to England in 1869. He stayed there for 17 months and observed the system of the
British universities. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan opened the school at Aligarh which became M.A.O
(Mohammaden-Anglo Oriental) School in 1875 where English, Modern sciences and as well as Islamic
teachings were taught. It was later raised to the status of university in 1920. Following the lead for Sir
Syed Ahmad many Muslim high schools and Islamia colleges were opened in many big cities of India
for Muslim students and many students including Johar Brothers studied from there and contributed
well for Muslims.

Sir Syed established ‘Mohammaden Educational Conference’ in 1886 which was an organization to
discuss the problems of the Muslims education in India. This greatly helped the Muslims who started
getting good jobs, improved their economic condition and improve their status in the society.
Although encouraging the growth of western education was his important contribution but he made
other contributions too.

Other than education, Sir Syed worked as a social reformer too. He described at length the loyalty of
the Muslims to the British. Sir Syed also founded the “British Indian Association” to bring the British
and Muslims closer. He also tried to clear up the misunderstanding among the British who resented
being called “Nadarath” by Muslims. The Britain thought it was an insult, but Sir Syed pointed out that
the word came from “Nasir” an Arabic word, meaning Helper. Sir Syed was successful in his effort and
the misunderstanding was greatly removed. Muslims started getting active participation in social
matters.

33 | P a g e
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan guided the Muslims in political sphere as well. He advised the Muslims to keep
away from congress. He opposed Western type of democracy because it meant that the Muslims will
always be in minority and will be at the mercy of Hindus. He believed that Muslims would never win
any election because of the Hindu Majority. He, therefore, advocated the separate seats and separate
electorates which was the forerunner of the future demand for a separate homeland.

Similarly, Sir Syed believed that the position of the Muslims in the Subcontinent could only be
improved if the relations with the British were improved. Sir Syed made a two pronged effort to bring
the British and Muslims closer. On one side he advised the Muslims not to think of armed struggle
because the British were too strong. He was aware that the British knew very little about Islam.
Indeed, on a visit to England he was so offended by an English Book on the life of Holy Prophet (PBUH)
that he immediately wrote his own work correcting many errors. It was also true, however, that
Muslims in India knew very little about Christianity. He tried to overcome this by writing Tabyin-ul-
Kalam in 1860, in which he pointed out the similarities between Islam and Christianity and stated not
to hate Christianity because to sit and eat with Christians was not forbidden in Islam.

On the other side, Sir Syed explained to the British that the Muslims were not responsible for the war
of Independence 1857. In the book he wrote for this purpose, Asbab-e Baghawat-e-Hind (called the
Causes of Indian Revolt), Sir Syed explained that the wrong British policies were the cause of uprising.
He further explained that the British did not understand the needs and desires of Indian people while
making laws and policies because there were no Indian members in Viceroy’s legislative council. He
also explained that the British Indian army was mismanaged and solders rose up against their officers.

Sir Syed also strongly opposed the replacement of Urdu by Hindu in 1867 and gave his Two Nation
Theory. He always kept the interests of Muslim supreme in his mind. Although, Sir Syed’s contribution
towards improving relations between the Muslims and British and increasing political awareness was
important but his contribution towards western education was very important contribution for the
Islamic society. Because it helped Muslims in getting jobs and elevated their kudos and their status in
the society.

Thus, with the help of the given statements this can be easily proven that Sir Syed Ahmed Khan played
a vital role in bringing up social and political awareness amongst the Muslims and gave them a new
identity however, his ideology of giving modern and western education made Muslims aware of their
rights. Therefore, he is called as the first founder of Pakistan Movement in the subcontinent.

34 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 5: URDU AND REGIONAL LANGUAGES

URDU:

After independence Quaid-e-Azam said in clear cut words that the National Language of Pakistan
would be Urdu. He said:
‘Let me make it clear that the National Language of Pakistan is going to be Urdu and no other
language. Without one state language no nation can remain tied up solidly together.’

Evolution of Urdu
Urdu evolved over a period of centuries by cultural between local people of north of Subcontinent
and Muslims of Arabia, Iran and Turkey. The base of this language is Prakarit, an Aryan language. The
script of Urdu is modified form of Persian. Urdu is a word of Turkish language and its literal meaning is
camp.

Progress of Urdu Language

Due to the efforts of poets and writers during different periods of history. It is said that Amir Khusrau
was the first prominent writer of Urdu language. Urdu progressed well and reached almost all parts of
the sub-continent in the 16th Century. The Muslims, from time to time, brought about changes and
amendments in it to make it more simple and easy to understand according to their needs and
requirements. Mir Asadullah Khan Ghalib, Mir Taqi Mir, Mir Dard were the prominent poets and
Akbar Ilah Abadi, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan remained the best writers.

Development of Urdu 1947-1999:

 Jinnah announced Urdu as the official language in February 1948 to unite the nation. Though there
were disagreements to the decision and the Constitution of 1956 made Urdu and Bengali as official
languages but Urdu remained the medium of government language as it was more spoken in West
Pakistan.
 Most of our national leaders, while visiting other countries, deliver their speeches in Urdu
language which enhances its prestige on the International level. Several Committees have been
formed for the level. Being the national language of the country, it is the binding force between
different parts of Pakistan.
 Radio Broadcast Pakistan started broadcasting news and programmes in Urdu from 14th August 1947
which played an important role in keeping various nations united as Pakistanis for one medium of
communication.
 ‘The Daily Jung’ since 1939 and other newspapers ‘Nawa e Waqt’ and ‘Akhbar e Jahan’ are being
published till date making it easy for the people to get connected to the world affairs in Urdu.
 Urdu became the major medium of communication as local exams were started to be held in Urdu in
all five provinces. Urdu language is the medium of instruction in most of the educational institutions
of Pakistan. History, Islamic Studies, Political Science and other subjects are taught up to M.A level in
Urdu. Lectures on Islamic education and religion are also delivered in Urdu throughout Pakistan. Sindh
University was established in 1948 which started Urdu programmes for Ph.D. and M.Phil. Punjab
University also started M.A Urdu degree and many students got enrolled in it. Karachi University,
Islamia College Peshawar and other major institutes offer degree and specialization programmes in
Urdu.

35 | P a g e
 For promoting Urdu language in education, Anjuman-e-Taraqqi-e-Urdu was established in 1955 at
Karachi by Molvi Abdul Haq who is known as the Father of Urdu. The Urdu Academy promoted
publication of Urdu newspapers and magazines throughout the country.
 Pakistan Telecommunication Authority was establishment in 1955. Pakistan Television Corporation
was started in 1964 at Lahore which telecasted news and programmes in Urdu. Other centres at
Karachi, Islamabad, Peshawar and Quetta were also started later which telecasted news and other
entertainment programmes in Urdu making its communication easier. Urdu dramas have immense
importance in the region and the Middle East.
 Urdu films and theater have been a n important highlight throughout 1958-1977 as Pakistani Film
Industry was at its peak and people used to watch Urdu films.
 Urdu Dictionaries made it easy for learning Urdu and its translation from other languages. It remained
as a strong agent of uniting all nations in Pakistan. Books, magazines were being published in Urdu
making it the most important language of the literate people of the country.
 Several poetry gatherings and mushairas take place throughout the country every year in which poets
of Urdu share their literary works.
Why was Urdu chosen as the national language of Pakistan in 1948?
 Urdu was the ‘Lashkari’ language developed about 300 years ago in the subcontinent from Arabic,
Hindi, Turkish and Persian languages. It became important as Muslims gradually replaced Persian with
Urdu at the time of Sir Syed’s highlighted Hindi Urdu Controversy.
 Urdu had strong association with Pakistan Movement. Many slogans were made in Urdu which
became popular. Iqbal’s poetry and Jinnah and other leaders’ speeches were done in Urdu to get
connected to Muslim community.
 Pakistani ethnic groups, Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto and Balochi could live with each other after 1947 as
they could bring harmony as a nation when Jinnah declared Urdu to be official language of Pakistan in
February 1948.

REGIONAL LANGUAGES OF PAKISTAN

Pakistan is a multi-lingual country. No less than twenty-four languages and dialects are spoken by the
people of Pakistan, but mainly include five regional languages Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi, Pushto, Brahvi
and Kashmiri. These languages are rich in literature, poetry, folksongs and spiritual sayings of their
respective saints and contribute greatly to the culture of Pakistan.
The regional languages though distinct from one another in their forms, dialects and expressions of
thoughts have several common factors in them. They cultivate in them love, respect and a firm
adherence to the Pakistan Ideology. The regional languages of Pakistan are:

PUNJABI:
Punjabi is the local language of the province of the Punjab which is the biggest province of Pakistan
with regard to population and development. It has its links with the Aryan language Prakarit. Before
partition it was spoken in Delhi, Dhirpur, Peshawar and Jammu too. However, as time rolled on the
vocabulary of Punjabi language became a mixture of Persian, Arabic and Turkish words. It has
different dialects in different parts of Punjabi like Saraiki and Potohari but the basic language remains
the same.

Various Names

36 | P a g e
Punjabi is a very simple language and easy to understand. It was given various names during different
periods of history. Famous historian Masoodi called it Multani while Al-Beruni used the name of Al-
Hindi for it. The famous Sikh religious leader Baba Guru Nanak gave it the name of Zaban-e-Jattan. In
the NWFP it was known as Hindko. In the NWFP it was known as Hindko. Hafiz Barkhurdar was the
first person to use the name of Punjabi for this language in the first half of 17th century in his book
entitled Muftah-ul-Fiqah. Maulvi Kamal-ud-Din also used this name for this language in his selected
works.

Various forms of Lyric and Narrative Poetry

Punjabi is rich in mystical and romantic poetry. The highly imaginative and artistic exquisite literature,
mostly in verse has two forms one is "Lyric Poetry" which includes Bait, Kafi, Si-harfi, Bara Mah and
Satwara the other one i "Narrative Poetry" which is composed of various rhythms and meters.
Examples are Qissa Noor Namah, Gulzar, Jang Nama and Vaar.

Famous Punjabi Poets

Some of the famous poets of Punjabi language are:

* Baba Farid Shakar Ganj Baksh

* Sheikh Ibrahim Farid Shani

* Sultan Bahu

* Bullay Shah

Progress of Punjabi Language

Before partition Punjabi was spoken and understood in the eastern part of the Punjab. After
Independence concrete steps were taken for the promotion and development of this language which
made it a popular language in other parts of the province. The Government is still making efforts for
the progress of Punjabi language and extending support to those institutions which are striving for its
development. A present the Punjabi literature is taught up to M.A. level in Pakistan.

Sindhi

Sindhi is one of the important regional languages of Pakistan. It appears that Sindhi was spoken in the
Indus Delta from time immemorial. It is said that the language of the people of Moen-jo-Daro
contained elements of the present Sindhi language.

The origin of this language is not exactly known. However, travelers like Al-Beruni have told us about
the original script of the language. "Chach Nama" being an authentic document proves that the
dialect of the Sindhi language was the same in the 12th century, as it is today. With the advent and
influence of Arabs in the Sub Continent Sindhi changed its form and adopted maximum words of
Arabic and also of Persian and Turkish.

37 | P a g e
 Steps Taken to Develop Sindhi

Various steps have been taken to develop Urdu. Organizations like "Sindhi Literacy Board" and "Bazm-
e-Talib-ul-Maula" etc were set up. Several newspapers published in Sindhi, such as Ibrat, Naw-i-Sind
and Khadim-I-Watan besides a number of Weeklies.

Famous Sindhi Poets

Some of famous Sindhi Poets are

* Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai

* Sachal Sarmast

Balochi

Balochi is the regional language of Balochistan. It is the least developed of all the regional languages.
It was spread by Balochi tribal migrated from Iran.

Literature produced by earlier poets has no record as it is preserved traditionally in the memories of
the people. No newspapers or books were published in Balochi up till 1940. After partition, however
Balochi literature received a little boost due to the efforts made by many associations and by the
establishment of T.V stations. At present, Balochi literature is on the road to development.

There are two types of Balochi namely:

1. Sulemani

2. Makrani

Well known poets of Balochi language are

* Jam Darag

* Shah Murid

Progress of Balochi Language

The Balochi literature was on the verge of decline before partition. After partition, however it
received little boost when Radio Pakistan, Karachi began its broadcast in Balochi language. Balochi
programmes were relayed from Radio Pakistan Karachi which enhanced the developmental process of
Balochi language.

Balochi Literary Association

The Balochi literary Association was set up which published many magazines and articles in Balochi

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 language. A weekly magazine known as "Nan Kessan" was published. A monthly known as "Olassis"
was also published.

Quetta Television Station

With the establishment of Quetta Television Station the Balochi language has received great fillip.
Atta Shah is a famous Balochi poet of Pakistan. Ishaq Shamim is another famous poet of Balochi
language whose poem "Dulhan" is very popular. The renowned politician Gul Khan Naseer is also
considered a good poet of Balochi language. Balochi prose has also developed a great deal after
partition. Translation of the Bible has also been published in Balochi language.

4. Pushto

Pushto is the regional language of the N.W.F.P and tribal areas. It belongs to the East Iranian group of
languages and contains many Persian, Arabic, Greek and Pehlevi words.

Famous Pushto Poets

Some of the well known poets of Pushto language are:

* Amir Karoro

* Khushal Khan Khatak

* Rehman Baba

Steps Taken to Develop Pushto

Although Pushto is an old language but its literature is comparatively new one. After independence
Pushto literature received a great boost.

The services rendered by the Pushto poets and writers in the freedom struggle, in fact contributed a
great deal towards the promotion of Pushto literature.

Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum worked very hard to create political awareness in the people of N.W.F.P.
The Islamic College, Peshawar which became the citadel of freedom movement in N.W.F.P was
established because of his dedicated services. Peshawar University was established after three years
of Independence.

An academy for the promotion of Pushto literature was set up under the supervision of the
Government. The Pushto academy was set up in 1954 and Maulana Abdul Qadir (Alig) was appointed
as its Director. This academy prepared Pushto dictionary.

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Q: Why have regional languages been promoted by the Pakistan government since 1947? [7]

It is the responsibility of all political powers to transmit to future generations their histories,
languages, oral traditions, writing systems and literatures. Language is the most important element of
life for preserving everything of historical importance e.g. local culture, art, traditions, poetry, stories,
music, letters, theatrical performances, ceremonies, special events, rituals and family values.
Promotion of regional languages is therefore important for preserving such vital components of local
life.

Our Native languages have been in oral use since centuries followed by development of written texts.
These languages contain generations of wisdom e.g. child rearing skills, curing illnesses, acquiring
food and settling disputes. If a language is lost, much of the knowledge it contains will also be lost.
Therefore, the government must implement successful programs to promote local languages and
protect them from disappearing.

Mother tongue provides identity to its speakers. It transmits family values from generation to
generation. People have strong attachment with their native languages. Survival of its speech
communities is linked with their languages. It is therefore the collective responsibility of involved
authorities to protect the people whose languages are becoming endangered.

Coming to modern era, private schools concentrate on English language and western curriculum
resulting in the erosion of language and culture. Native languages are vulnerable to “English language
invasion.” We are confronted with the problem of language shift. Under such circumstances it is
incumbent on the government to revive and preserve our regional languages in all atmospheres of life
with special emphasis in academic frameworks and public offices.

Many people love to watch dramas, talk shows and other TV programs in their native languages. They
like to hear local music. A number of local TV broadcasts on agricultural methods, livestock rearing,
poultry farming and fish farming are highly appreciated in the rural areas. TV and radio programs in
local languages play pivotal role skill-building of the nation. Being most easily understood, sometimes
teachers can use native languages for instructions in the classrooms.’

Q: Why did Pakistan choose Urdu as its national language in 1947? [7]

Urdu was chosen as the official language of Pakistan on 2nd February 1948 by the Governor General
Mohammad Ali Jinnah.

One of the reasons why Urdu became the national language in Pakistan is its long history. It was
widely used in Mughal period and dates back as far as the sultans of Delhi. In its early stages it was
used by the Muslim armies and became widely spoken and understood in many parts of the sub-
continent. So it was natural that such a well-known and established language would be chosen.

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Another reason for Urdu being chosen was its high status. Some of the finest early poets such as Amir
Khusrou wrote in Urdu and Sir Syed Ahmad Khan’s school at Aligarh became a centre for Urdu study.
Many religious books, including the Quran, were translated into Urdu. So it was considered an
important language with a rich literary tradition.

Perhaps the major reason for Urdu being chosen was the fact that it was so closely associated with
the Pakistan Movement. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan supported it and the Muslim league was formed not
only to defend Muslim interests, but also to protect Urdu. The Quaid-e-Azam was particularly keen to
promote Urdu as he saw it was it as a unifying force. Since Pakistan was a new country, it was very
appropriate to pick a language which had played a part in unifying Muslims.

Q: ‘The promotion of regional languages in Pakistan between 1947 and 1988 has been more
successful than the promotion of Urdu.’ Do you agree? Explain your answer. [14]

Ans:

Pakistan became independent in August 1947. There were many nations living in Pakistan who belong
to different languages. Jinnah announced Urdu as the official language and it was promoted well
however, all regional languages were promoted at all levels during 1947 and 1988.

Punjabi is the local language of the Punjab which contributes more than half of the total population of
Pakistan. It was a popular language amongst the Sufi poets who used it for their romantic folk poetry.
These poems contributed greatly to the popularity of Punjabi. After Independence, steps were taken
for the promotion and development of the language in other parts of the province. The Government
have ensured its development by giving support to those institutions who are using it. It became the
provincial language with M.A degree offered by Punjab University. Pakistan Radio Lahore and Pakistan
Television played a positive role in the promotion of Punjabi language.

Sindhi was written in ‘Marwari’ and ‘Arz Nagari’ was of writing which was subsequently changed into
Arabic. After Independence, steps were taken to promote the language e.g. the Sindhi Literary Board
was set up in 1948 which has printed many books and magazines in the language. Sindhiology
Department at Sindh University played an important role in Sindhi. Karachi Centre of PTV telecasted
programs in Sindhi. Radio Pakistan also broadcasted many programs in Sindhi language.

Pushto literature was boosted after Independence since the poets had contributed a great deal to the
freedom struggle. Bacha Khan University and Peshawar University offers Pashto language degrees.
Many mushairas and literary associations helped in supporting Pashto language. Pashto films also
played an important role in the promotion of Pashto.

The Baluchi language has also been promoted by its broadcasting on the radio. The establishment of
the Quetta Television Station has also helped to promote it. Bolan University play an important role in
the promotion of Balochi language. Quetta Radio Centre broadcasts programs in Balochi.

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Urdu carries immense importance for all Pakistanis since it has been considered to be the language of
all Muslims for 300 years. It was the language associated with the Pakistani Movement throughout its
struggle with the British and the Hindus. After Independence it was felt that the language was the
uniting force behind the nation and the government is committed to using at all levels in society.

Urdu was promoted by many schools, colleges and universities as it became a medium of
communication. Urdu Literary Association was established in 1955 and played a vital role in the
promotion of Urdu. Radio and Television programs were made in Urdu and were heard and watched
everywhere in Pakistan. Urdu films also became well known and promoted the language well.

Different books and dictionary were printed in Urdu language which played an active role in
promoting Urdu. Urdu became the most important language and a chain of communication among all
other languages.

It can be rightly said that Urdu played an important part in promoting awareness amongst all
Pakistanis however its number of speakers remained lesser than the regional languages However, all
regional languages were promoted well as they make custom, lifestyles and culture of its speakers.

CHAPTER 6: PAKISTAN MOVEMENT IN THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY

INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS: 1885: Indian Association was formed in December 1883 to bring
political participation from the Indians. Lord Dufferin allowed Indian National Congress to be made in
Calcutta in December 1885. All Indians joined the Congress under the Indian Civil Servants, Alan
Octavian Hume and Annie Besant. The first President of Congress was Womesh Chandar Bannerjee.

Congress was made for the following main objectives:

•To have better participation of the Indians in the Civil Service of India.
•To make the British realize about the political and education rights of the Indians.
•To give all Indians equal rights in the country.
Initially all Indians liked the role of INC and joined it too. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was a prominent
Muslim leader who joined Congress and later Mohammad Ali Jinnah joined it too. However, Sir Syed
Ahmed Khan did not agree to join Congress.

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PARTITION OF BENGAL: 1905: Lord Curzon decided to divide Bengal on the basis of administration.
The Western Bengal had a population of 54 million (42 million Hindus and 12 million Muslims) and
Eastern Bengal and Assam with a population of 31 million (18 million Muslims and 13 million Hindus).
Hindus became very angry at the partition as they disliked it. They also did not want to lose Calcutta
as it was the largest city and port of India.
Partition of Bengal was done for the following reasons:
•It was a large area to be administered and was difficult for the British to control it well.
•It had a population of 85 million which was ten times more than the population of Britain at that
time. In West Bengal, of the 54 million, 42 million people were Hindus. It seemed sensible to divide up
the province on religious grounds and also because it was becoming very large and producing
significant administrative problems.
•Bengal was a fertile and green area with enormous wealth with a major port Calcutta which the
British did not want to lose.

SIMLA DEPUTATION: October 1906: Muslims were getting more politically aware of their rights and
were getting aware of the atrocities of Hindus after the formation of Indian National Congress. Sir Aga
Khan along with 72 delegates met Lord Minto in October 1906 wand discussed the matter of making
their own political party. The Muslims were also accepted for their demand of having Muslim
representative in all local and provincial elections.

Achievements of Simla Deputation:

•The Muslim demands for separate representation, election by only Muslim voters and weightage in
all elected bodies were accepted by the British. This resulted in a sudden upturn in Muslim-British
relations and helped to remove the previous bad feelings between the 2 sides.
•It also paved the way for demands for a separate homeland with the granting of a separate
electorate.
•It also guaranteed Muslims an independent role in the political process and as a result led to the
formation of the All-Indian Muslim League later in the year.

FORMATION OF ALL INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE: December 1906: At the twentieth session of
Mohammaden Educational Conference at Dhaka in December 1906, the foundation of All India
Muslim League was laid by Nawab Viqar ul Mulk and Mohsin ul Mulk. Muslims became very happy as
they had been accepted for their political rights by Lord Minto.

Why was Muslim League formed?

•Muslim rights would not be advanced if they continued to rely on the Indian National Congress. It
was seen as an organisation which would only advance Hindu views. The Congress was demanding
that India should be treated as a cultural whole and Hindi should be declared the official language. By
not organising a Muslim group they would continue to be disorganised and disunited. Even more
worrying was the growth of extreme Hindu nationalist groups who demanded that Muslims be

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forcibly converted to Hinduism. Therefore, a number of prominent Muslim leaders founded the
Muslim League.
•Hindus reaction at the time of Partition of Bengal made the Muslims realize that they should work on
their political rights.
•Muslim League was formed by Muslims to bring them close to the British as Simla Deputation
registered Muslims as a separate group in the subcontinent.

MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS: 1909: Lord Minto (Viceroy) and Sir John Morley (Secretary of State) gave
Morley-Minto Reforms. It is also called as the Indian Councils Act which came before in 1892. It
suggested having 60 members in the Imperial Council, 60 more members to be added in Central
Executive Council, more members in Provincial Councils but they had little power. The Viceroy had the
right to veto any decision made by the councils. It gave right of separate electorates to Muslims.
Though the reforms were fruitful for the Indians but it did not allow Indians to be a part of
government still. The reaction of Hindus and Muslims was rude as expected.
Why did Hindus reject the Morley-Minto reforms?
•The British intended that the Indians could voice their opinions in the Councils but Congress wanted
more responsibility which the government were not prepared to give. This annoyed many who were
looking towards self-rule.
•The British accepted the right of Muslims to have separate electorates which also annoyed some
Hindus who saw it as a concession too far.
•Some Hindus also resented the relative high position of Muslims in the Councils despite their much
smaller numbers.

REVERSAL OF PARTITION OF BENGAL: 1911: The years during 1905 and 1911 remained very
problematic for the British. Due to Swadeshi Movement which started soon after the partition
decision in 1906 affected the trade for the British. Assassination attempts on Lord Minto and King
George V in 1907 also gave a threat to the British that Hindus could do anything to harm them. The
Hindus also rejected the Morley Minto reforms of 1909 as it did not give them real power. The
Partition of Bengal was reversed by Lord Harding. Hindus were happy but Muslims felt very unhappy
at this. Calcutta was changed as capital to Delhi.

Hindus Reaction on Partition of Bengal:

•Congress opposed it by holding meetings and there were mass rallies which put pressure on the
British government. They thought it was a deliberate attempt to ‘divide and rule’ on the part of the
British.
•The Hindus were so angry that they attempted to assassinate Lord Minto and started their boycott
of British goods under the ‘Swadeshi Movement’. There was also an outbreak of terrorist activities.
•The Hindus were oppressive on giving right of separate electorates to Muslims in the Morley-Minto
Reforms of 1909.

LUCKNOW PACT: December 1916: Jinnah from Muslim League and Congress leaders, Mahajan and
Bal Gangadhar Tilak signed a pact in which Muslims agreed for self-rule and less weightage in

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provinces and Hindus agreed for separate electorates of Muslims. The Lucknow Pact was an
agreement on a scheme of constitutional reforms reached between Congress and the Muslim League.
Both realised that co-operation was the only way to get the British government to agree to self-rule.
For the first time Hindus acknowledged that Muslims had the right to a separate electorate and was
there foreseen as a beacon of hope for the future.

MONTAGUE-CHELSFORD REFORMS: 1919: After ten years of Morley-Minto reforms, the Montague-
Chelmsford Reforms were given in November 1919 after World War I. It was given by Lord Montague
and Lord Chelmsford. It proposed that Legislative Council would be called as Legislative Assembly with
145 members out of which 103 members would be elected for 3 years. The Council of State would
have 60 members with 33 of them elected and the rest would be selected.
For the first time, Diarchy was introduced in India in which part of government was shared with the
provincial governments. Some areas like Education, Public Works, Forests, Local government would
be handed over to the Indians as transferred subjects to provinces whereas Finance, Defence and
Foreign Affairs were kept only with the Central government headed by the Viceroy.

Why did the Congress reject the Mont-Ford Reforms?

•These Reforms disappointed the Muslims and Hindus as they had hoped for greater concessions.
Central government reserved sweeping powers for itself with only minor concessions for the locals.
•The Reforms did hold out concessions to political parties provided that they accepted the right of the
British to remain in control.
•The British intended that the Indians could voice their opinions in the Councils but Congress wanted
more responsibility which the government were not prepared to give. This annoyed many who were
looking towards self-rule.
•The British accepted the right of Muslims to have separate electorates which also annoyed some
Hindus who saw it as a concession too far. Some Hindus also resented the relative high position of
Muslims in the Councils despite their much smaller numbers.

ROWLATT ACT: 1919: Justice Sydney Rowlatt submitted his report that there is definite growth of
revolutionary activities and recommended to impose emergency measures of the defense of India
Act. The Act was passed which allowed the British to have any arrest without warrant, detention
without bail and the right to exile people by the provincial government. It also did not allow any
public gathering for more than five people other than religious and educational reasons. The Indians
found this act very displeasing and reacted against it.

AMRITSAR MASSACRE/ JALLIANWALA BAGH INCIDENT:

1919: In April 1919, Amritsar Massacre was a major event at Jallianwala Bagh took place in which
more than 400 people were killed and more than 1200 were injured. Reportedly, they were Sikh
people who were celebrating Besakhi event. There were Muslims and Hindus who were there as a
protest against Rowlatt Act too. For the British, it was not allowed to have any public gathering of
more than five people. General O’ Dyer killed many innocent people and in reaction, the situation in

45 | P a g e
 Punjab got worse. Later he was called back to England as punishment and was trialed but was
released by the British court.
1. WHY WAS BENGAL PARTITIONED IN 1905? [7]
2. WHY DID THE BRITISH DECIDE TO REVERSE THE PARTITION OF BENGAL IN 1911? [7]
3. WHY DID CONGRESS OPPOSE THE MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS OF 1909? [7]
4. WHY WAS THE MUSLIM LEAGUE ESTABLISHED IN 1906? [7]
5. WHY WAS THE SIMLA DEPUTATION OF 1906 AN IMPORTANT EVENT FOR THE MUSLIMS OF THE
SUBCONTINENT? [7]
6. ‘THE MUSLIM LEAGUE WAS ESTABLISHED IN 1906 BECAUSE THE HINDUS HAD THEIR OWN
POLITICAL PARTY.’ DO YOU AGREE OR DISAGREE? GIVE REASONS FOR YOUR ANSWER. [14]
7. ‘PARTITION OR REVERSAL?’ WERE THE REASONS WHY BENGAL WAS PARTITIONED IN 1905 MORE
IMPORTANT THAN THOSE REGARDING ITS REVERSAL IN 1911? EXPLAIN YOUR ANSWER. [14]
8. ‘THE MONTAGUE-CHELMSFORD REFORMS WERE MORE IMPORTANT THAN ANY OTHER POLITICAL
DEVELOPMENTS BETWEEN 1909 AND 1919.’ DO YOU AGREE OR DISAGREE? GIVE REASONS FOR
YOUR ANSWER. [14]

CHAPTER 7: KHILAFAT MOVEMENT

Timeline of the Chapter:
1914-1918: World War I was fought in Europe. Britain being the leader of Western Powers had a
strong position. It used all its wealth from within England as well as from all its colonies particularly
India which was used for wealth, trade and sepoys.
1919: Treaty of Versailles was signed by all western powers and Germany was decided to be split and
its areas to be confiscated.
1919: Rowlatt Act was disliked by the Indians as the British held undue power on India. Amritsar
Massacre incident took place on 10th April 1919 which ignited violence in not only Punjab but
throughout the subcontinent.
1919: In July, the Khilafat Committee was formed at Bombay. In November, The Khilafat Committee
had its first meeting in Delhi where the two prominent Muslim leaders, Maulana Shaukat Ali and
Muhammad Ali Jauhar along with the senior Muslim Congress leader, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
urged to send the delegation to London to talk with the British Government officials.
1919: In December, The Second Conference of Khilafat Committee was held in Amritsar. Both Muslim
League Committee and Congress leaders decided to work together.
1920: In January, a deputation from Khilafat Movement called on the Viceroy to ask for fairness in the
treatment of Turkey.
1920: In February, Treaty of Sevres was signed in which Germany’s allies were to be punished.
Muslims all over the world and particularly in India were annoyed on the decision of splitting Turkish
Empire.

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1920: On 22nd June, Muslims warned the Viceroy not to break Ottoman Empire. Gandhi started his
Non Co-operation Movement. Mohandas Gandhi launched his Non Co-operation Movement against
the British dominance in India. He asked the members of Khilafat Committee to join hands with him
to strengthen his protest.
1920: in August, on the call of Maulana Abul kalam Azad and Maulana Abdul Bari, 18,000 Muslims
migrated to Afghanistan to go to Ottoman Empire but they were sent back by the Afghanistan
government. Hijrat Movement was a big failure.
1921: At Tirur, about 4000 Moplahs out of 10,000 were killed in attack when they tried to attack the
British groups. They were Arab descendants who fought against the brutality of the British. The
Moplah’s attack failed badly.
1921: Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar was arrested by the British and the Muslim leadership was
removed.
1922: In February, 21 policemen were burnt alive at Chauri Chaura village when a mob under Non Co-
operation Movement became violent and wanted to free their fellow Indians from the prison.
1922: Gandhi called off his Non Co-operation (Satyagraha) Movement after the violence. He was
arrested along with Nehru.
1922: In October, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk was elected as the head of the state, he was appointed
Chief of the state by Grand National Assembly.
1922: In November, Sultan Mehmed VI’s power were restricted and later he was exiled.
1923: Treaty od Sevres was later abolished with the Treaty of Lausanne.
1924: In March, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk declared Turkey as a republic and the caliphate system was
abolished.

KHILAFAT MOVEMENT:
When Britain and its allies announced that they would punish Germany and its allies after the First
World War, a movement was launched by the Muslims of India to support and save the Caliphate
system of the Ottoman Empire.
Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar, Maulana Shaukat Ali Jauhar and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad were its
founder members. Later Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Motilal Nehru and Pundit Mohan Molaviya
also played an active part.
Jinnah was never supportive for Khilafat Movement as he believed that it would worsen the political
strength of the subcontinent.
IMPORTANCE OF KHILAFAT MOVEMENT:
In spite of collapse of the Caliphate, Khilafat Movement was an important step towards the Muslim
political development. Muslims learnt the importance of leadership and political organization. The
movement did a great job in uniting the Muslims of India against Britain in support of the Caliph of
Turkey. It aroused the feelings of Indian Muslims for their brothers in the world. Muslims got the idea
and desire of a separate homeland for themselves. Once again, the Muslims became aware that they
could no longer trust on Hindus and British. Both betrayed them on various occasions. Congress
suddenly quit the movement when it had reached its climax. If Muslims have to survive, they will have
to do it on their own. No dependence on other nations.

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 WHY WERE MUSLIMS SO CONCERNED FOR THE KHILAFAT MOVEMENT?
Although the movement was supported by all Indians but Muslims were more active in it. The Khilafat
Movement had strong affiliation with Muslims for the following major reasons:
 Ottoman Empire had been the largest Muslim empire which was established from the time of Hazrat
Usman. The system of caliphate was followed in many Muslim countries but the Ottoman Empire had
high regard for Muslims all around the world and they did not want to bring any disturbance to the
system of their Muslim empire.
 It had the holy places of Makkah, Madina and Jerusalem and Muslims had high regard for them.
Muslims had a fear that after the Treaty of Sevres, the Ottoman Empire would split up and in that
case, the entity and religious freedom of their holy places might get affected. If any holy place would
go into the hands of a non-Muslim country, the might not get a chance to perform their pilgrimage.
 The leader of Ottoman Empire, the Khalifa was regarded as the leader of Muslim community. It had
been from the time of the Holy Prophet SAW that the areas had caliphate system and the Caliph was
of the highest rank in the empire. He had power to control the matters of the empire and thus
abolishment of caliph would be considered as an insult for the Muslims.
KHILAFAT COMMITTEE:
In July 1919, the Jauhar Brothers and Congressman, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad met in Bombay. They
came to a consensus that Muslims in India were highly agitated and concerned about the fate of the
Ottoman Empire after the defeat of Central Allies. They agreed that a Committee should be formed
under Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar which would travel to all Muslim countries and record their
concerns to the British government. It was also decided that mass struggle would be launched in India
to develop pressure on the British government.

KHILAFAT CONFERENCES:
The Khilafat Conferences were planned by the Khilafat Committee to develop and bring awareness
among the Indian Muslims on the decision taken by Britain. There were altogether two conferences
held at two different sessions and venues:
 First Khilafat Conference: The first Khilafat Conference was held at Delhi in November 1919. The two
Jauhar Brothers, Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad and many other Muslim leaders attended it.
 Second Khilafat Conference: It was held at Amritsar in December 1919. Other than the Muslim
leaders, it was joined by Swaraj or Non Co-operation Movement of Congress. Mohandas Gandhi and
Motilal Nehru gathered support of the Muslims of the subcontinent.
 The famous Congress session was held at Nagpur in Dec 1920 when the Congress at the instance of
the Congress leaders, Mahatma Gandhi adopted his non-violent and Non Co-operation movement.
This was the first Non-Co-operation movement which Gandhi was launching.

FAILURE OF KHILFAT MOVEMENT:

The Khilafat Movement remained a failure overall. It could not achieve its targets as they were
conditioned on the choice and will of the British government. The imprisonment of major leaders also
became a vital reason for its failure. However, the following three reasons were considered as the
most important factors for the failure of Khilafat Movement:

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 Hijrat Movement 1920: It took place in August 1920 and was a by-product of Khilafat Movement.
Abdul Kalam Azad and Maulana Abdul Bari gave a call for Hijrat Movement and urged the Muslims to
migrate to Afghanistan and called India as ‘Dar-ul-Harb’. Nearly 18000 Muslims mostly from Sind,
NWFP and Punjab after selling their land and properties, migrated. The Afghan Government
welcomed them in the beginning but afterwards refuse to accept them. Many people perished in the
way and those who returned back to India to find them homeless and doomed forever. As a result of
this all Muslims became backward in all fields of life.
 Moplah Revolt Malabar Coast, near Kalicut 1921: Moplah were the descendants of the Arab Muslims
settled in the Sub-Continent even before the arrival of Muhammad Bin Qasim.
In August 1921, they revolted against Hindu landlords whose treatment was very brutal with them.
About 10,000 Moplah attacked the British landlords which later resulted in Hindu-Muslim clashes in
which 4000 were killed. This remained as the second blow to the strength of Khilafat Movement.
 Chauri Chaura Incident Feb 1922: During the anger and agitation of the Non Co-operation Movement
led by Gandhi, in UP (Uttar Pardesh/United Provinces) a village named Chauri Chaura faced violence
where a police station was set on fire having 22 officers locked inside. It had only one British Officer
who was also killed. Mohandas Gandhi called off his Non Co-operation Movement. This was the
biggest blow to the strength of Khilafat Movement.
 Gandhi called-off the Movement: The calling off of Non Co-operation Movement in 1922 by Gandhi
after the Chauri Chaura Incident as he joined the movement on the condition of its peaceful protest
only. Gandhi’s withdrawal from the Movement was a big blow because many people got over with
the movement considering Gandhi was the sole power.
 Arrest of major leaders: The arrest of Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar and later Mohandas Gandhi
and Motilal Nehru weakened the Movement as people did not have any leadership and gradually they
got dispersed.

EVENTS OF TURKEY:
 In 1922 Mustafa Kemal Ataturk who was in the military service in the Ottoman Empire and was
considered as Pro-British, emerged as a national leader. He collected his colleagues and undertook
the operation. He was able to expel the foreign forces which strengthened his position.
 In October 1922 Ataturk was elected as the head of the state, he was appointed Chief of the state by
Grand National Assembly. Turkey became Republic and in March 1924 the Grand National Assembly
the parliament of Turkey abolished the institution of Khilafat.
 In Nov 1922, the new political developments under Ataturk that had developed there restricted the
powers of the Sultan Mehmed VI. The Sultan was exiled.
 In March 1924 Turkey became a republic and Ataturk became the founder of modern Turkey.

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 CHAPTER 8: PAKISTAN MOVEMENT 1927-1939
Timeline of the Chapter:
1927: Sir John Simon came as the head of Simon Commission to discuss the possibility of drafting the
next constitution of India by the help of the Indians. The Indians opposed the Commission.
1927: Mohammad Ali Jinnah gave the recommendations to the Simon Commission for the points of
Muslims.
1928: In February, Pundit Motilal Nehru became the head of the All Parties Conference called by John
Simon.
1929: In March, Jinnah presented his famous Fourteen Points which became the foundation of future
separate country for Muslims.
1930: Gandhi launched his Dandi Salt March and was supported by thousands. Later Gandhi and
Nehru were arrested.
1930: In November, the First RTC at London which was attended by Jinnah, other Muslims, Sikhs and
Nawabs of Princely states.
1930: In December, Dr. Allama Mohammad Iqbal gave his famous speech at Allahabad.
1931: Lord Irwin met Gandhi and he was released from prison. Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed.
1931: The Second RTC was held in London which was attended by Gandhi, Sikhs, Nawabs of Princely
states and Iqbal and Aga Khan from League. Jinnah opted for voluntary exile in London and stayed
there away from the politics of India.
1932: Communal Awards were announced by British Prime Minister Ramsay McDonald which
displeased Gandhi. He started his protest in India and was arrested.
1932: The third RTC was held at London. Neither Jinnah nor Gandhi attended it.
1933: Chaudhri Rehmat Ali coined the name Pakistan in his pamphlet, ‘Now or Never, Are we to live
or Perish forever?’
1935: The British government gave the famous Government of India Act which was disagreed by the
Indians.
1937: India had elections in eleven provinces in which Congress with majority.
1937-39: Congress rule was called as tyranny by the Muslims as many reforms affected the Muslims
directly.
1939: On 3rd September, the Second World War started and Britain announced India under war.

1939: Congress ministries threatened Britain not to throw India into war. Finally, Congress ministries
resigned on 22nd October when the British government refused to listen.

1939: On 22nd December, Muslims celebrated the Day of Deliverance after they got over with the
Congress rule.

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 SIMON COMMISSION:
Simon Commission was made in 1927 to consider the future possibilities of drafting the constitution.
It was headed by Sir John Simon and six other members of British Parliament. It was formed to
consider the political demands by the Congress and the Muslim League to be able to draft the next
constitution. Its all members were British and no Indian was considered which became a big reason of
its rejection. The Indians welcome the Simon Commission with a slogan, ‘GO SIMON-GO HOME.’
In fact, in 1919, the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms stated that a commission would be formed after
10 years to look for the situation India which was not formed. It was considered as an insult to India
and Indians rose against it. The Congress opposed it openly. Simon Commission made a two-volume
report, one came in 1929 and the other came in 1930. It called for the All Parties Conference to be
held in India with Motilal Nehru as its Chairman and his son, Jawaharlal Nehru as the Secretary.
Why did Congress oppose the Simon Commission?
 The Congress objected at the recommendations given by Simon Commission as it did not talk about
self-rule of India.
 The Congress rejected it as the British kept all power with themselves and no real government was
granted to the Indians.
 The British government had not kept their promises which they had kept during the first World War.

DELHI PROPOSALS:
In 1927, Jinnah gave suggestions to the British government and Motilal Nehru to be considered while
drafting constitution for India. It advised for the following points:
 In the Punjab and Bengal, the proportion of representation should be in accordance with the
population
 Sindh to be separated from Bombay Presidency.
 One-third representation for Muslims in the Central Legislative Assembly.
 Reforms should be introduced in Baluchistan and NWFP on the same footings as in any other
province.
However, the Delhi Proposals were nor considered by the All Parties Conference and Motilal Nehru
highlighted the points of Congress only.

NEHRU REPORT:
In February 1928, the All Parties Conference was held in which a committee was made under Pundit
Motilal Nehru and Jawaharlal Nehru as its secretary.
The nine-member committee gave its suggestions with the name of Nehru Report on 28th-30th
August 1928. It was supported by all Non-Muslims. It stated that India to be a unitary government. It
asked for joint electorates. It also stated immediate dominion status for India, voting rights for all
adult male and female. It asked for Hindi as the official language of India and Cotton weaving as the
national occupation. The British were given one year to accept the recommendation for the report or
Non Co-operation was to be started. Jinnah was not pleased with the Nehru Report.
Why did Jinnah reject the Nehru Report?
 It demanded for joint electorates whereas Muslims asked for separate electorates.

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 It demanded Hindi as official language and Muslims wanted Urdu as official language.
 It asked for unitary form of government whereas League wanted federal form of government.
 It asked for all teaching to be done in Hindi and to declare cotton weaving as the national
occupation.

FOURTEEN POINTS:
At the annual meeting of Muslim League in March 1929 at Delhi, Jinnah gave his points in order to
safeguard and protect the rights and interests of the Muslims. The Fourteen Points were the first
ever demand of the Muslim League put to the British. These demands covered all aspects of Muslim
interests at the time. Jinnah decided to issue Fourteen Points in response to Nehru Report (1928)
which was a scheme of constitution for India. It had the following points:
 Any future constitution should be federal, power resting with the provinces.
 All Provinces should have the same amount of autonomy.
 All legislatures and local bodies should be constituted with adequate representation of minorities.
 Muslims should have one-third of the seats in the Central Assembly.
 Election should be by separate electorates.
 Any territorial changes should not affect the Muslim majority in Bengal, the Punjab and the NWFP.
 Full liberty of belief and worship shall be granted to all communities.
 No Bill shall be passed in any elected body if three-fourth of any community in that body opposed it.
 Sindh shall be separated from Bombay Presidency.
 There should be reforms in the NWFP and Baluchistan to put them on the same footing as other
provinces.
 Muslims should have an adequate share in the services of the state.
 Muslim culture, education, language, religion and charities should be protected by the constitution.
 All cabinets (at central or local level) should have at least One-third Muslim representation.
 The Federation of India must not change laws without the consent of the provinces.

Why did Jinnah produce his Fourteen Points?

 Jinnah decided to issue Fourteen Points in response to Nehru Report (1928) which was a scheme of
constitution for India. It included several points which were against Muslim interests. The Nehru
Report suggested joint electorate (in place of separate electorate for Muslims), unitary form of
government (in place of federal form of government) and Hindi as national language for India. These
points were clearly against Muslim interests and were not liked by the Muslims.
 Jinnah suggested three amendments to the Nehru Report but these were rejected by the Congress. It
clearly showed that the Congress was not sincere with the Muslims.
 Jinnah gave his points in order to safeguard and protect the rights and interests of the Muslims. The
14 Points were the first ever demand of the Muslim League put to the British. These demands covered
all aspects of Muslim interests at the time.

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GANDHI’S SALT MARCH:
Also called the 'Salt Satyagraha', to achieve the goal of complete independence, Gandhi launched
another civil disobedience movement. Along with 79 followers, Gandhi started his famous march from
Sabarmati Ashram on March 20, 1930, for the small village Dandi to break the Salt Law. Gandhi
inaugurated the Civil Disobedience Movement, a movement that was to remain unsurpassed in the
history of the Indian National Movement for the countrywide mass participation it unleashed. In
response Gandhi and Nehru were arrested.

ALLAMA IQBAL’S ALLAHABAD ADDRESS:

It was delivered by Dr. Allama Mohammad Iqbal during the 25th annual session of the All-India
Muslim League, on 30th December 1930, at Allahabad as the President of Punjab Muslim League.
He gave the idea and concept about a separate homeland in the north-east of India because the
Muslim were a nation and had a right that they got the identification and passed their lives in order
to the Islamic principles. This served as a soul of struggle in the people of Punjab and they
contributed actively on the road to independence. Allama Iqbal’s Allahabad Speech was in complete
acceptance of the Two Nation Theory presented by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in 1867.

THE FIRST ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE:

The First Round Table Conference (Nov 1930) attended by 89 members, was successful in the sense
that it was agreed that Federal System of government would be adopted for India and responsible
representative government would be set up in provinces. This was a great achievement because the
Congress had suggested ’Unitary Form of Government’ in provinces was a good step forward for self-
rule. But Congress did not attend this conference because Congress leaders were in jail on account of
Non Co-operation Movement.
What did the first RTC achieve?
Success:
Federal type of government agreed among the participants however it was not finalized.
The British agreed to grant self-rule at provincial level.
Princes of states agreed to join the federation as far as their interests are safeguarded.
Conference agreed on giving provincial status to Sindh.
Failures:
No consensus developed on the structure of federation.
Congress boycotted resulting no chance of accepting reforms in India.

GANDHI-IRWIN PACT:
Lord Irwin met Gandhi in jail and convinced him for playing an active role for the success of the RTCs.
Gandhi demanded for the release of the prisoners the British had kept during the Salt March.
Gandhi and all protestants were released by Lord Irwin and he was made agreed to attend the second
RTC at London.

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THE SECOND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE:
The Second Round Table Conference (1931) was attended by 89 members including the Congress with
high hopes of progress. Mr. Gandhi represented the Congress but he declared that the Congress was
the only political party which could speak for all the Indian people. He also declared that there was no
minority problem in India. Muslims and other minority leaders did not agree with Mr. Gandhi.
Therefore, on account of Mr. Gandhi stubborn and unfair attitude the conference could not achieve
much but its success was that it was declared that Orissa, NWFP and Sind (after separation from
Bombay) would be given full provincial status. The minorities issue remained unresolved.
What did the Second RTC achieve?
Successes:
Sindh and NWFP were agreed to be made as separate provinces.
Minorities were granted separate electorates.
Voice of minorities heard in the British Parliament.
Failures:
Gandhi’s stubbornness dismissed all other Indian delegates.
Gandhi rejected the demand of separate electorates.
Gandhi demanded acceptance of Nehru Report as future constitution of India.
No formula devised for communal proportions by the minorities

COMMUNAL AWARDS:
In August 1932 the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced that British government
would give position to the minorities. The Muslim were given weightage in Hindu dominated
provinces, but Muslims majority in Punjab and Bengal was reduced.
Congress refused the Communal Awards completely and started to protest again. Gandhi and Nehru
were arrested.

THIRD ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE:

The Third Round Table Conference was held in November 1932. It was again not attended by
Congress. Mr. Jinnah also did not attend. The Conference proved to be a mere formality. It only
finalized the reports and broke up without achieving anything of substance.
What did the thirst RTC achieve?
Successes:
No new issue was created.
Failures:
No solution of the pending disputes.
Congress boycotted the Conference therefore no reform could be implemented.
Jinnah was not invited to the Conference as he was on his voluntary exile.

THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT:

In March 1933 the British government gave the Joint Select Committee the task of formulating the
new Act for India. A White Paper (a draft constitutional document) was issued containing the
constitutional proposals discussed in RTCs.

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 The Committee comprised of 16 members each from the House of Commons and House of Lords, 20
representatives from British India and 7 from the princely states. Lord Linlithgow was appointed as
the president of the Committee. After a year and a half of deliberations, the Committee finally came
out with a draft Bill on December 1934. The Bill was enforced as the Government of India Act in
August 1935.
It had the following main recommendations:
 A federation of India was promised for, comprising both provinces and states.
 The Governor General remained the head of the central administration.
 No finance bill could be placed in the Central Legislature without the consent of the Governor
General.
 The Federal Legislature was to consist of two houses, the Council of State (Upper House) and the
Federal Assembly (Lower House).
 Two new provinces Sindh and Orissa were created. NWFP was also given provincial status.
 Reforms were introduced in NWFP as were in the other provinces.
 One-third Muslim representation in the Central Legislature was guaranteed.
 Elections to be held in India in all 11 provinces enabling 25% of population of India to vote.

Why was the Government of India Act so important?

 Some provincial autonomy was granted which meant that every provincial government was allowed
to devise and carry out their own programmes and be responsible to their own legislature. This was
the first time that this had been allowed and was seen as an important step forward.
 Ministers in the provinces could have control over all departments except when governors chose to
intervene in cases of public order or to veto a bill they disliked. This was a drawback since it meant
that the real power lay with the governors. However, it did provide additional rights for the local
population to vote – some 5 times the previous numbers at 35 million in total.
 Provisions for a federal government were also established at the centre for the first time which meant
that princely states could decide to participate politically in affairs which concerned the sub-
continent. However key decisions relating to external relations and Defence were retained by the
British which was a drawback.
Why was the Government of India Act rejected by the Indians?
 The Viceroy and Governor General was head of the Federation and could exert special powers if he
wanted to.
 Provincial governors also had special powers, having the right to dismiss ministers or the whole
administration.
 Only 25% of India’s population could vote because of the property qualification for voting. Therefore,
few could vote.
All parties and groups in India opposed it from princes to the Congress to the Muslim League, so there
was little progress in gaining support.

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 INDIA’S FIRST ELECTIONS:
The elections were held in January and February 1937 in 11 provinces. (Madras, Central Provinces,
Bihar, United Provinces, Bombay Presidency, Assam, NWFP, Bengal, Punjab and two newly created
provinces, Orissa and Sindh)
The Indian National Congress emerged in power in eight of the provinces - the three exceptions being
Bengal, Punjab, and Sindh. The All-India Muslim League failed to form the government in any
province. Of the total of 1,585 seats, Congress won 707 (44.6%) The All-India Muslim League won
106 seats (6.7%).
The election results were a blow to the League. Their campaign had been weak and their leaders were
considered as elite. After the election, Muhammad Ali Jinnah of the League offered to form coalitions
with the Congress but it declined the League's offer.
Why did the Muslim League lose the 1937 Elections?
 The campaigning of the League remained weak as compared to that of the Congress as it was a
strong party and its roots were strong throughout India.
 The voluntary exile of Jinnah played a negative role in the campaign of the League as there was no
strong leader who could unite the Muslims.
 Muslim league was considered a party of elite Muslims who were called Pro-British as its leaders had
kept distance with its supporters whereas Gandhi was close to his people.

CONGRESS RULE:
Congress made unitary government based on their ideology. All measures which could hurt Muslims’
rights were taken. Muslims were thrown out of their jobs. Their children were dropped from schools.
Muslims found it very difficult to carry out their routine works as Congress Tyranny hurt Muslims a lot.
Why was the Congress Rule hated by Muslims?
 Song of Bande Matram which clearly hurt Muslim feelings, adopted as National Anthem. It was made
compulsory at all educational institutes and offices.
 Wardha Scheme was educational schemes which encouraged Hindu religion and culture. Teaching
was to be in Hindi with no religious education which meant that Muslim students were at a
disadvantage.
 Under the Widdya Mandir Scheme, Muslims were required to show reverence for Gandhi’s portrait
which was hung up at schools and colleges. It was not acceptable to Muslims to bow down for anyone
except Allah.
 Ban on cow slaughter was enforced as it was considered holy by the Hindus.
 Ban on Azaan in many areas and freedom of prayers for Muslims was taken away from them.

CONGRESS MINISTRIES RESIGNED:

India was thrown in World War II with Germany on 3rd September 1939. The Congress objected
strongly to the declaration of war without prior consultation with Indians.
Linlithgow refused the demands of the Congress. On 22nd October 1939, Congress ministries
resigned as they thought they would be able to take advantage of the situation however it did work

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 out and their resignations were accepted without delay. Both Viceroy Linlithgow and Muhammad Ali
Jinnah were pleased with the resignations.
Muslims felt happy with the decision of resignation as they got over with the brutal rule of Congress
tyranny.

DAY OF DELIVERANCE:
When Jinnah came to know of the blackmailing of the Congress ministries’ resignation, Jinnah put out
an appeal on 2nd December and called for Indian Muslims to celebrate Friday, 22nd December 1939
as a "Day of Deliverance." Muslims celebrated the day in happiness as they got rid of the brutality of
Congress rule.
What did Muslims learn during and after the Congress rule?
 They learned that they would have to reform the Muslim League to be able to compete with the
Congress.
 Their unity was very important as they had to fight for their rights by standing as one community.
 They had to develop cordial relations with the British in order to get their rights as a separate
community.

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 SIR ADNAN QURESHI PAKISTAN STUDIES-HISTORY-CHAPTER 9__

CHAPTER 9: PAKISTAN MOVEMENT 1939-1947

Timeline of the Chapter:

1939: On 3rd September, the Second World War started and British Prime Minister, Linlithgow
announced that India was at war.

1939: In October, the Congress ministries resigned in disagreement to the decision taken by the
British government.

1939: On 22nd December, Muslims celebrated the Day of Deliverance after the Congress ministries
had resigned.

1940: On 22nd and 23rd March, Muslim League had an annual session at Minto Park, Lahore in which
Maulvi Fazl-ul Haq, a prominent leader from Bengal presented the Lahore Resolution which is also
called the Pakistan Resolution.

1940: On 8th August, the British Government gave August Offer by issuing a White Paper promising
that after the Second World War, the British Government would form of a Constituent Assembly for
Indian representatives with rights for Muslims.

1941: India was under the threat of Japanese attack as the Japanese Navy was attacking British
colonies in Asia. Congress was in favour to extent their support Japan.

1942: From January till May, Burma was attacked by Japanese Navy. It was a political defeat of Britain
and finally Burma went out of the British control in 1945.

1942: In March, Sir Stafford Cripps came to India to see if a compromise could be reached to win
India’s support for World War II. It suggested elections, new constitution and dominion status for
India after the war however, both Muslim League and Congress rejected it.

1942: Gandhi started ‘Quit India Movement’ on 8th August 1942 after India suppressed Japanese
invasion in Burma during the Second World War.

1944: In May, Gandhi-Jinnah talks were held but remained unsuccessful as Gandhi tried to dominate
Jinnah.

1945: In June and July, Lord Wavell called for Simla Conference which proposed that an Executive
Council should be made in India with representation of all communities.

1945-46: Elections were held in December 1945 and January 1946 and Muslim League was able to get
more seats in the Centre as well as had a majority of Muslim majority provinces.

1946: Cabinet Mission Plan was given by Lord Wavell in which the British government shared their
plan of Interim government with both Hindus and Muslims.

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1946: In the Delhi Convention of the League, Jinnah replaced the word ‘States’ of the Lahore
Resolution into ‘State.’ The legislators signed pledges solemnly declaring their firm conviction that the
safety, security, salvation and destiny of the Muslims lay only in the achievement of Pakistan.

1947: The Government of India Act was changed as the Indian Independence Bill Act and the British
government gave their plan of future partition.

1947: In February, Lord Mountbatten arrived in India as the last Viceroy.

1947: 3rd June Plan was given by Lord Mountbatten and he decided that the partition would take
place after 7 weeks.

1947: On 11th August, Jinnah sworn in as the Governor General of Pakistan and Liaquat Ali Khan as
the Prime Minister. He addressed the Constituent Assembly in Karachi.

1947: On 14th August, Pakistan got independence.

Synopsis of the Chapter:

World War II put India more in trouble as the British Linlithgow government declared India in the War
without the consultation of both Congress and Muslim League on 3rd September 1939. Britain
declared war against the German Nazis and Russian Fascists. The Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali
Jinnah demanded to end the anti-Muslim policies by Congress. Muslim League declared 22nd
December 1939 as the Day of Deliverance when Congress members resigned from provincial
governments.

Muslims in the subcontinent were recognized and the demand of a separate homeland in the eastern
parts of India with autonomous status. It was presented by Prime Minister of Bengal, Maulvi Fazi-ul-
Haq at the annual session of Muslim League on 22nd and 23rd of March 1940. The session was held at
Iqbal Park at Lahore where Minar-e-Pakistan stands today. It was called as Lahore Resolution or
Pakistan Resolution.

Congress rejected the demands of Muslim League for a separate homeland. In March 1922, a mission
came under British Cabinet member, Sir Stafford Cripps came to India to see if a compromise could be
reached to win India’s support for World War II. It suggested elections, new constitution and
dominion status for India after the war however, both Muslim League and Congress rejected it. Jinnah
was pleased that the British agreed to protect minority rights.

Mohandas Gandhi spoke at the Congress meeting at Allahabad in May 1942 that Japanese invasion
was no more a threat in India. He started ‘Quit India Movement’ on 8th August 1942 after India
suppressed Japanese invasion in Burma. On 10th August 1942, Gandhi and Nehru were arrested and
Congress was banned. Muslim League also opposed the Movement calling campaign as ‘blackmail.’

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 Gandhi was released on medical reasons by Viceroy Lord Wavell in May 1944. He proposed Jinnah to
meet to consider the future of India after the British. The Jinnah-Gandhi Talks failed as Gandhi wanted
Muslim League to extend its full support to Congress and called himself the spokesperson of all
communities in India. Gandhi also rejected his belief in Two Nation Theory. Jinnah called the talks a
little positive as Congress considered it important organization of India.

When World War II was coming to an end when Lord Wavell went to Britain to decide for the future
of British India. He proposed that an Executive Council should be made in India with representation of
all communities. Simla Conference was called in 14th June 1945. Jinnah, Liaquat Ali Khan and Khwaja
Nazimuddin led the Muslim League delegation, Gandhi led the Congress group along with its Muslim
President Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. Congress dominated it by demanding its right to nominate both
Muslim and Hindu members in the Council. Lord Wavell closed the Conference on 14th July 1945
finding no result.

CONGRESS MINITRIES RESIGNED /DAY OF DELIVERANCE:

The Congress ministries resigned in October 1939 in reaction of British announcement that India
would be placed in the Second World War. Upon their resignation, the Day of Deliverance was
celebrated by Muslims on 22nd December 1939 and they offered special thankful prayers after getting
rid of Congress rule.

Why did the Muslims celebrate the Day of Deliverance?

• Song of Bande Matram had hurt Muslims’ feeling which was adopted as National Anthem. It was
made compulsory at all educational institutes and offices and Congress ignored the right of religion
for Muslims.
• Wardha Scheme was educational scheme which had encouraged Hindu religion and culture only.
Teaching was done in Hindi with no religious education for Muslims which meant that Muslim
students were at a disadvantage and they could not flourish.
• Under the Widdya Mandir Scheme, Muslims had to show reverence for Gandhi’s portrait which was
hung up at schools and colleges. It was not acceptable to Muslims to bow down for anyone except
Allah and they believed it was an attack on their religion.
• Ban on cow slaughter was enforced as it was considered holy by the Hindus.
• Ban on Azaan in many areas and freedom of prayers for Muslims was taken away from them.

AUGUST OFFER:

 On August 8, 1940 the British Government issued a White Paper that after the war a constituent
assembly would be formed in India. For the first time the British Government promised the formation
of a Constituent Assembly for Indian representatives. It was also said that in the proposed assembly
the rights of all the minorities especially the Muslims would be safeguarded.

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 The All India Muslim League Working Committee discussed the August Offer on 1st September. The
session was presided over by Quaid-i-Azam. The Committee expressed satisfaction about the offer.
The Muslim League Committee declared that the partition of India was the only solution to the
problems of the country.
 The Congress reacted against the August Offer and its President Abul Kalam Azad refused to hold talks
with British Government on this issue. The Viceroy regretted that the August Offer was not accepted
by all the parties.
 Although the August Offer could not produce any practical or immediate results but in the long run it
was a considerable gain for the Muslims.

Why did the British give the August Offer of 1940?

 They gave the August Offer to gain support of the Indians for the continued Second World War as
India
 They tried to bring all political parties of the subcontinent on the same page by keeping a promise for
self-government soon after the Second World War.
 There was a threat of Japanese invasion on the British colonies in Asia and the British government was
concerned that the Indians might support them in the war.

CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT:

On October 13, 1940 Gandhi declared his line of action in the Working Committee of Congress. The
plan was to start ‘Individual Satyagrah’ according to it few people chosen by Gandhi would offer civil
disobedience and court arrest.

On November 17, the second stage of the campaign began and it was termed as the ‘Representative
Satyagrah’. Individuals were selected from groups and they were assigned to raise anti-war slogans in
the streets and got themselves arrested. By the end of the year, five to six hundred persons were
imprisoned.

The campaign failed in the Muslim provinces. In the NWP, at first Khan Sahib was reluctant to
participate. In Bengal, the people were not at all attracted to the idea of Gandhi.

In April 1941 Gandhi opened the Satyagrah campaign to all Congressmen. At one time 14000 Congress
members were in jail. With the passage of time the number of Satyagrah movements kept on
decreasing.

The Muslims of South Asia were not in favour of the Congress policies. In November 1940 Quaid-i-
Azam said that Congress had wrongly claimed that its campaign had been launched for the freedom
of India. The Muslim League in its Madras annual session of April 1941 repeated that the Congress
civil resistance was aimed at relegating the Muslim nation of one hundred million. They warned the
Government that any constitutional change enacted under Congress threat would be unacceptable to
the Muslim League and they would resist it with all the power they could command.

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 PAKISTAN RESOLUTION/LAHORE RESOLUTION:

Muslims in the subcontinent were recognized and the demand of a separate homeland in the western
parts of India with autonomous status. It was presented by Maulvi Fazl-ul-Haq at the annual session of
Muslim League on 22nd -24th of March 1940 by the 25-member Working Committee of the All-India
Muslim League.

The session was held at Minto Park which was named as Iqbal Park (in the memory of Dr. Allama
Mohammad Iqbal who died on 21st April 1938) at Lahore where Minar-e-Pakistan stands today. It was
called as Lahore Resolution or Pakistan Resolution. This event marked as the first major success of the
Muslim League and the struggle which started in 1906 at the time of Formation of All India Muslim
League got an achievement when the idea of an independent country was accepted.

Why was the Pakistan Resolution passed?

 Congress rule of 1937-39 was tyrannical for Muslims and Muslims wanted to get rid of the brutality of
Congress.
 Iqbal and Chaudhri Rehmat Ali gave idea of separate Homeland in early 1930s which became the basis
of achieving Pakistan as their aim, Jinnah agreed to it only after Congress Rule.
 Muslims knew that Independence had to be achieved before the British left India otherwise in the
absence of the British, the Muslims would be dominated by the Hindus.

Why did the Muslims feel happy at the acceptance of Pakistan Resolution?

 It worked as a milestone of the struggle of Muslims when they got the idea of an independent country
acceptable by the British.
 It made them acceptable in the eyes of the British as a separate community and they could fight for
their political rights against the Congress.
 They liked it as an opportunity of getting more jobs and better positions in civil service of the Indian
government.

CRIPPS MISSION:

During World War II, there was a threat of Japanese attack on Burma as Japan was the ally of
Germany.

in March 1942, a mission came under British Cabinet member, Sir Stafford Cripps came to India to see
if a compromise could be reached to win India’s support for World War II. It suggested elections, new
constitution and dominion status for India however, both Muslim League and Congress rejected it.
Jinnah was pleased that the British agreed to protect minority interests.

Why was the Cripps Mission rejected by the Indians?

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 Cripps Mission suggested that Dominion status be given to India whereas the Congress wanted
immediate power transfer.
 It suggested that Individual provinces be allowed to opt out, but this would lead to Pakistan
creation/Muslim Majority, so the Congress opposed it.
 Jinnah still rejected it since he wanted a clear cut reference to Pakistan’s creation.

How did Cripps Mission help in Pakistan’s Creation?

 It suggested that Individual provinces could opt out, thus some reference to Pakistan Movement was
present.
 Jinnah rejected it since he desired clear cut reference to Pakistan, shows determination of Jinnah and
clear cut goals.
 The Congress demand of immediate independence alarmed League, since no Pakistan if British were
not there to conduct partition before leaving.

QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT:

Mohandas Gandhi spoke at the Congress meeting at Allahabad in May 1942 that Japanese invasion
was no more a threat in India. He started ‘Quit India Movement’ on 8th May 1942.

It was a civil disobedience movement launched at Bombay by Gandhi on 8th August 1942, demanding
an end to British Rule of India. The Cripps Mission had failed, and on 8th August 1942, Gandhi made a
call to Do or Die in his Quit India speech. On 10th May, leaders including Gandhi and Nehru were
arrested.

Gandhi and Nehru were arrested and Congress was banned. Muslim League also opposed the
Movement calling campaign as ‘blackmail.’

Why was the Quit India Movement started?

 The Congress was aware that the British were going to leave India, exploited the British plans to use
Indian resources during Second World War.
 The Cripps Mission stated that individual provinces could opt out, alarmed them since this meant the
British were considering Partition.
 Japan was threatening British, this meant possible Indian invasion. If British left, threat of invasion
would finish.

Why was the Quit India Movement unsuccessful?

 The Main Leaders, Gandhi and Nehru were arrested so there was no leadership to control the
movement.
 The British used Aerial Bombing and Machine Guns against the movement supporters, thousands thus
died.
 Jinnah didn’t approve, since he knew no Pakistan if Independence without British being there to
Partition.

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 Why the Quit India Movement important?

 The Congress started Movement to get general Independence and stop creation of Pakistan, alarming
Jinnah who quickened pace for Pakistan creation.
 Due to movement leaders being arrested, League gained a huge advantage which it exploited to gain
strength.
 Jinnah declared the movement as blackmail, declaring it an attempt to take advantage of weak British
condition. Jinnah supported the British (important for Pakistan)

GANDHI-JINNAH TALKS:

Gandhi was released on medical reasons by Viceroy Lord Wavell in May 1944. He wrote letters to
Jinnah and proposed to meet at his home in Bombay from 19th – 24th May to consider the future of
India after the British.

The Jinnah-Gandhi Talks failed as Gandhi wanted Muslim League to extend its full support to Congress
and called himself the spokesperson of all communities. Gandhi also rejected his belief in Two Nation
Theory claiming them the descendants of Hindus. Jinnah called the talks a little positive as Congress
considered it important organization of India. Gandhi also believed that India was one united nation
and Pakistan Resolution was made to ruin its unity.

Gandhi wanted subjects like Defence and Foreign Affairs to be under control of central government.
Jinnah wanted this in provinces. Gandhi also said that of six declared provinces, only three could be
made part of Pakistan since they were Muslim majority, Punjab, Bengal and Assam should be
communally divided as they were partially Muslim. Jinnah said no, since this would mean financially
weak Pakistan.

Gandhi Jinnah Talks made the Congress realize that they could not do anything without the support of
Muslim League. Gandhi accepted Muslim League as a sole party of the Muslims.

Why did the Gandhi-Jinnah Talks fail?

 Gandhi wanted Muslim League to extend its full support to Congress and called himself the
spokesperson of all communities.
 It was also rejected as Gandhi did not have any belief in Two Nation Theory claiming the Muslims as
the descendants of Hindus.
 Gandhi also wanted League to follow the policies of the Congress till the end of Second World War.

Why were the Gandhi-Jinnah Talks somewhat successful?

 Jinnah handled these intelligently, didn’t compromise Muslim Rights. His standing thus improved.

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 Gandhi said that Jinnah and Congress should work for general Independence first.
 It pleased Jinnah since this should that Indians had realized that Partition might happen.

LORD WAVELL AND SIMLA CONFERENCE:

Elections were held in Britain in 1945 and the Labour Party came to power. It was considered as
Liberals and were sensitive towards the solution of the Indian subcontinent problems.

The British Viceroy, Lord Wavell visited India in May 1945 and announced a plan for a new Executive
Council in which all members except the Viceroy and the Commander in Chief would be Indians. This
interim government would work till the division of the subcontinent.

Lord Wavell called for the Simla Conference was held on 14th June 1945 was a meeting between the
Viceroy and the major political leaders at Simla. Jinnah, Liaquat Ali Khan and Khwaja Nazimuddin led
the Muslim League delegation, Gandhi led the Congress group along with its Muslim President
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.

Gandhi disagreed for equal representation of Muslims and Hindus in the government. He also stated
that Congress was not the part of Hindus only as its President was a Muslim. Jinnah disagreed to
Gandhi and claimed Muslim League as the major party of Muslims but it also had Hindus.

Wavell Plan for Indian self-government as an interim government was approved, it reached a
potential agreement for the self-rule of India that provided separate representation for Muslims and
reduced majority powers for both communities in their majority regions. Since no concrete result was
achieved, the conference was closed on 14 July 1945.

Why was the Simla Conference unsuccessful?

 Congress wanted to nominate at least one Muslim member in executive council, rejected by Jinnah
since League wanted to be sole representation of Muslims in India.
 Jinnah dissatisfied with parity of seats between Muslims and Hindus since Sikh and low Caste
members would side with Hindus, leading to permanent Muslim minority

ELECTIONS OF 1945-46:

General elections were held in British India in December 1945 to January 1946 to elect members of
the Central Legislative Assembly and the Council of State. The Indian National Congress emerged as
the largest party, winning 57 of the 102 elected seats becoming the largest party getting 90% of Hindu
votes. The Muslim League won all 30 Muslim constituencies and won 87% of overall Muslim votes and
stood as second position. Only NWFP was the Muslim majority area where Muslim League did not
win.

Even though Congress won, the League had united the Muslim vote and as such it gained the
negotiating power to seek a separate Muslim homeland as it became clear that a united India would
prove highly unstable.

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 Why were the elections of 1945-46 so successful for Muslim League?

 The Congress Rule was tyrannical and League promised rights, so Muslims voted for the League so
that they would not face Congress problems again.
 The League learnt from 1937 elections and thus improved planning, organization and campaigned
efficiently. Thus more Muslims knew of the league.
 The Muslim League had passed the Lahore Resolution 1940 and started working for separate
homeland. The acceptance of Pakistan resolution had really installed energy into the League.

CABINET MISSION PLAN:

In March 1946, British Prime Minister, Clement Attlee sent a three-member mission to India the
British government made their final report to settle differences within India. It had Sir Stafford Cripps,
Lord Pethick Lawrence and A. V. Alexander.

The Cabinet Mission's purposes were to hold preparatory discussions with elected winners of
Elections 1945-46 and the Indian states. It also wanted to set up a constitution body and an Executive
Council with the support of the main Indian parties till the time of Independence.

The Mission held talks with the representatives of the Indian National Congress and the All-India
Muslim League, the two largest political parties in the Constituent Assembly of India.

In May 1946, the Cabinet Mission announced its decision:

 Instead, there would be three parts in India, the Hindu majority areas, the western Muslim provinces,
Bengal and Assam.
 Each part would be able to draft its own constitution.
 Foreign affairs, defence, and communication would be managed by Indian Union.

Since the word Pakistan was dropped from the draft, therefore Muslims of India doubted that the
British Government might leave India without dividing it and Muslims would have to face the tyranny
of the Congress once again that’s why Muslim League felt annoyed at this decision.

Why was the Cabinet Mission Plan Unsuccessful?

 It stated that India would be divided into three parts, (Two Muslim majority areas and one large
Indian Majority) with full provincial autonomy and right to form own constitution. Jinnah immediately
accepted as Muslim rights protected, but Nehru stated in a press conference this they were not
bound to keep it once the British left, Jinnah thus immediately rejected the plan.
 The Mission was not able to lessen the gap between the Muslims and the Hindus (i.e. Partition versus
United). It suggested an All India Commission to decide outcome (Partition or United India). It was
rejected by both Congress and League since both feared that the outcome would go against their
demands.

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 It was rejected by the Congress as it doubted on the promises kept by the British and stated that the
British had made promises for the immediate transfer of power after Second World War however,
they were delaying their said promise.

DELHI CONVENTION:

On 19th April 1946, soon after the elections, Jinnah called a convention at Delhi of all the newly
elected League members in the central and provincial legislatures. In this convention the word
“States” of 1940’s Lahore Resolution is transformed into the word “State” and the legislators signed
pledges solemnly declaring their firm conviction that the safety, security, salvation and destiny of the
Muslims lay only in the achievement of Pakistan.

DIRECT ACTION DAY:

By May 1946, after the Cabinet Mission Plan, the Muslim League became increasingly worried that
the British might simply withdraw from India and leave it to the Indians to sort out the problems
that they had left behind. They planned to show their unity against the decision and to pressurize the
British which is called as the ‘Direct Action Day.’

More strength was shown in Bengal. It resulted in Hindu-Muslim clashes in Calcutta where more than
4000 people were killed in ‘Great Calcutta Killing’. Muslim League was blamed for bringing that
violence.

After the Cabinet Plan the Congress joined the Government Council without the Muslim League. Lord
Wavell urged Jinnah to join interim government.

3RD JUNE PLAN:

The British Prime Minister Clement Attlee announced that India would be freed by Feb 1948. He also
announced Lord Mountbatten as the last viceroy of India.

Lord Mountbatten arrived in March 1947 and met the major leaders of both Congress and Muslim
League. He went back to England to review their decision as it was difficult to hold India’s aggression
anymore.

On 31st May 1947 Lord Mountbatten came back to India and announced the partition on 3rd June to
be preponed in August 1947. They had seven weeks to solve all issues.

Both the Congress and the Muslim League agreed to the partition as there were many issues which
were supposed to be solved particularly the division of Bengal and the Punjab.

PAST PAPER QUESTIONS:

Q: WHAT WAS DAY OF DELIVERANCE? [4]

Q: WHAT WAS PAKISTAN RESOLUTION?
[4]
Q: WHAT WAS SATYAGRAHA? [4]

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 Q: WHAT WAS QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT?
[4]
Q: WHAT WAS SIMLA CONFERENCE? [4]
Q: WHAT WAS 3rd JUNE PLAN? [4]
Q: WHY WAS PAKISTAN RESOLUTION PASSED? [7]
Q: WHY WAS THE CRIPPS MISSION OF 1942 UNSUCCESSFUL? [7]
Q: WHY DID GANDHI-JINNAH TALKS FAIL?
[7]
Q: WHY DID THE MULSIM LEAGUE ABLE TO GET SUCEESS?
[7]
Q: WAS THE CRIPPS MISSION IN 1942 THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR DURING THE 1940s
THAT LED TO THE PARTITION OF THE SUB-CONTINENT IN 1947? GIVE REASONS FOR YOUR
ANSWER.
[14]
Q: WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING CONTRIBUTED THE MOST TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A
SEPARATE HOMELAND FOR MUSLIMS:
(I) GANDHI-JINNAH TALKS 1944;
(II) SIMLA CONFERENCE 1945;
(III) CABINET MISSION PLAN 1946?
EXPLAIN YOUR ANSWER WITH REFERENCE TO ALL THREE OF THE ABOVE. [14]

SAMPLE ANSWERS:

Q: How successful were the negotiations aimed at independence during the Second World War?
Explain your answer. [14]
Ans:
Successes
Muslim League’s own progress in Day of Deliverance/Lahore Resolution.
Unity in rejecting Cripps Mission/demands for a separate homeland.
Muslim political gains in Jinnah-Gandhi talks.
Muslim stance at Simla Conference – necessity for new elections.
Failures
Breakdown of relations between Congress and Muslim.
Rejection of Cripps Mission’s proposals. Imprisonment following ‘Quit India’ protests.
Failure to reach agreement from Jinnah-Gandhi talks 1944.
Failure to reach agreement from Simla Conference 1945.
Failure to persuade Jinnah to agree to safeguards for Muslims in a united India.

The Second World War (1939-45) brought a major change in the history of the subcontinent and there
were many negotiations held which aimed at the independence of the subcontinent.

68 | P a g e
The passing of the Pakistan Resolution was a turning point in the history of Indian Muslims. It brought
about a qualitative change in their status as a minority in India. The British accepted the demand of
millions of Muslims of the subcontinent for the need of a separate homeland in March 1940 which
made a clear victory for the independence of a Muslim state.

Cripps Mission was deputed by British Parliament in early 1942 to contain the political crisis obtained
in India. The mission was headed by Sir Stafford Cripps, a Cabinet Minister. The Mission reached India
on 23 March, talked to different Indian leaders for nearly twenty days and then offered its proposals.
It offered Dominion status to India after the war and even the right to secede. It provided for a
constitution committee after the war and the provinces to be free to frame their own constitution. All
the parties rejected it. The Mission failed because of the attitude of the conservative party. The
government did not desire to share power with the Indians during the war. Cripps was also not
completely free to negotiate with the Indians. Cripps blamed Gandhi and the congress leaders for the
failure of his mission.

The Gandhi-Jinnah talks began in Bombay in May 1944. Gandhi argued with Jinnah in the talks that all
Indians are one nation therefore demand of separate homeland was baseless. Congress and league
should cooperate and achieve independent first, then a referendum maybe held in Muslim majority
provinces to find out if they wish to be separated. Punjab and Bengal will have to be divided because
there are non-Muslims majority districts. Mr. Jinnah did not agree and pressed upon an independent
and sovereign Muslim state. Therefore, no fruitful result came out because Gandhi did not accepted
Muslims as a separate nation. On the other hand, Jinnah wanted all six provinces which were Bengal,
Kashmir, Baluchistan, N.W.F.P, Sind and Punjab to be included in Pakistan. Though the Gandhi-Jinnah
negotiations failed to achieve the avowed goal of the Hindu-Muslim unity, they brought to Jinnah and
the Muslim League some important political gains which led to the partition in 1947.

In June and July 1945, Lord Wavell called for Simla Conference and suggested the reconstitution of
the Viceroy’s executive council in which the Viceroy was to select persons nominated by the political
parties. Different communities were also to get their due share in the council and parity was reserved
for casts Hindu and Muslims. The leadership of both Congress and Muslim League attended the
conference. However, differences arouse between the leadership of the two parties on the issue of
representation of the Muslims community. The Muslim League claimed that it was the only Muslim
representative party in India and the entire Muslims representative in the Viceroy’s executive council
should be the nominees of the Party. On the other hand, Congress tried to prove that their party
represented all the parties living in India and thus should be allowed to nominate Muslim
representatives as well.
The World War II ended in August 1945. All negotiations for independence during this period failed
because of the rejection by Congress and Muslims to all the negotiations with Britain including
breakdown of relations between Congress and Muslim League. However, the Muslim League had a
little success during this period in the form of Lahore Resolution, unity in rejecting the Cripps Mission

69 | P a g e
and demanding for a separate homeland. Gandhi realized that Muslim League is the only political
party for the Muslims in Gandhi-Jinnah talks which the Congress was neglecting from the beginning.
Jinnah took a firm stance at Simla Conference on Lahore Resolution of 1940 which led to the necessity
of new elections (1945-46).

Q: Were the Gandhi-Jinnah talks the most important factor during the 1940s that led to the
partition of the sub-continent in 1947? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

Ans:

By 1940s, the subcontinent had almost come to the verge of partition and there were many events
which marked as the stone to partition and Gandhi-Jinnah talks remained the most important event.

Gandhi and Jinnah held talks in May 1944 at Bombay between Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and
Mohammad Ali Jinnah about a Muslim homeland but failed to reach agreement since Jinnah wanted
all six provinces included in Pakistan whereas Gandhi only agreed to three.

Despite of the fact that the talks failed on the point of Muslims’ unconditional support to the
Congress which Jinnah disagreed but at the same time Jinnah became the most important leader who
represented the Muslims. Nevertheless, it was an important meeting since Gandhi had been forced to
negotiate with the Muslim League on an equal footing for the first time.

Similarly, Gandhi’s refusal to accept the Two Nation Theory became another reason for its failure but
Muslims were considered as an important community by Gandhi and without his support, Congress
was not able to take any unanimous decision.

However, they were not the only factor which was important in leading to eventual Partition at the
Simla Conference of 1945, the Viceroy Lord Wavell realised that the two parties were unable to reach
agreement on anything. Although all parties agreed to the principle of the Executive Council, the
sticking point was the method of selection. Following the Conference, Lord Wavell announced new
elections of 1945-46. The results demonstrated that the Congress had control of the non-Muslim
votes but that the League had equally gained control of the Muslim vote. It was clear that the League
was an equal player to the Congress and that the demand for Partition could no longer be ignored by
the Congress or the British Government.

Similarly, it was following the announcement by Clement Attlee that the British would leave the sub-
continent by 1948 and the subsequent violence in the Punjab in March 1947 that convinced Nehru
that Partition should take place quickly.

By the help of the given points, it can be said that despite of the failure of the Gandhi-Jinnah talks, it
made a concrete achievement for Muslim League and they were able to voice the issues of Muslims’
rights and need of having an independent country which came true on 14th August 1947 in the form of
independent Pakistan.

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Question: How successful were the negotiations aimed at independence during the Second World
War? Explain your answer. [14]

Answer: The passing of the Pakistan Resolution was a turning point in the history of Indian Muslims; it
brought about a qualitative change in their status as a minority in India. By the middle of 1940, the
war had brought disaster for the allies, as France fell in June 1940, the British Government made
renewed appeals for co-operation to all parties in India. In the middle of 1941, the war situation had
become more serious for the allies, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor and America was involved in
the war, the initial success of the Japanese armies in South-East Asia brought the war to India's
doorstep. On March 22, 1942, Britain sent Sir Stafford Cripps with constitutional proposals. The
Gandhi-Jinnah talks began in Bombay on September 19, 1944, and lasted till the 24th of the month. In
May 1945, Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, formulated a plan of action that was made public in June
1945. The plan is known as Wavell Plan.
Cripps Mission was deputed by British parliament in early 1942 to contain the political crisis obtained
in India. The mission was headed by Sir Stafford Cripps, a Cabinet Minister. Therefore on 11 March, he
announced about sending Cripps Mission to India. The Mission reached India on 23 March, talked to
different Indian leaders for nearly twenty days and then offered its proposals. It offered Dominion
status to India after the war and even the right to secede. It provided for a constitution committee
after the war and the provinces to be free to frame their own constitution. All the parties rejected it.
The Mission failed because of the attitude of the conservative party. The government did not desire
to share power with the Indians during the war. Cripps was also not completely free to negotiate with
the Indians. Cripps blamed Gandhi and the congress leaders for the failure of his mission.
The Gandhi-Jinnah talks began in Bombay on September 19, 1944, and lasted till the 24th of the
month. Gandhi argued with Jinnah in the talks that all Indians are one nation therefore demand of
separate homeland was baseless. Congress and league should cooperate and achieve independent
first, then a referendum maybe held in Muslim majority provinces to find out if they wish to be
separated. Punjab and Bengal will have to be divided because there are non-Muslims majority
districts. Mr. Jinnah did not agree and pressed upon an independent and sovereign Muslim state.
Therefore no fruitful result came out because Gandhi did not accepted Muslims as a separate nation.
On the other hand Jinnah wanted all six provinces which were Bengal, Kashmir, Baluchistan, N.W.F.P,
Sind and Punjab to be included in Pakistan. Though the Gandhi-Jinnah negotiations failed to achieve
the avowed goal of the Hindu-Muslim unity, they brought to Jinnah and the Muslim League two
important political gains. Firstly, the leadership of the Congress had now offered to discuss the
question of Pakistan seriously before that, the Congress and Mahatma had kept the door to that
subject uncompromisingly shut. Secondly, the Congress could no longer justifiably claim that it stood
for all the communities in India including the Muslims.
In May 1945 Lord Wavell the Viceroy of India went to London and discussed his ideas about the future
of India, with the British administration which formulated a plan of action that was made public in
June 1945. The plan suggested the reconstitution of the Viceroy’s executive council in which the
Viceroy was to select persons nominated by the political parties. Different communities were also to
get their due share in the council and parity was reserved for casts Hindu and Muslims. This plan of
Lord Wavell’s can only be executed if the leadership of leading political parties agreed with the
suggestion of the government so to discuss these proposals Lord Wavell called a conference in Simla
on June 25th 1945. The leadership of both Congress and Muslim League attended the conference.
However differences arouse between the leadership of the two parties on the issue of representation
of the Muslims community. The Muslim League claimed that it was the only Muslim representative
party in India and the entire Muslims representative in the Viceroy’s executive council should be the

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nominees of the Party. On the other hand Congress tried to prove that their party represented all the
parties living in India and thus should be allowed to nominate Muslim representatives as well.
Congress also opposed the ideas of parity between the cast- Hindus and the Muslims. This attempt of
Lord Wavell was failed because Jinnah not only wanted parity between the Muslims and the Hindus
(which was conceded) but also insisted on the Muslim League nominating all Muslims councilors
(which was not conceded).
The World War 2 ended in August 1945. All negotiations for independence during this period failed
because of the rejection by Congress and Muslims to all the negotiations with Britain including
breakdown of relations between Congress and Muslim League. However, the Muslim League had a
little success during this period in the form of Lahore Resolution, unity in rejecting the Cripps Mission
and demanding for a separate homeland. Gandhi realized that Muslim League is the only political
party for the Muslims in Gandhi-Jinnah talks which the Congress was neglecting from the beginning.
Jinnah took a firm stance at Simla Conference on Lahore Resolution of 1940 which led to the necessity
of new elections (1945-46)

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SIR ADNAN QURESHI PAKISTAN STUDIES-HISTORY-CHAPTER 10_________________

CHAPTER 10: CONTRIBUTION OF MOHAMAMD ALI JINNAH, ALLAMA IQBAL AND

CHAUDHRI REHMAT ALI

Timeline of the Chapter:

Mohammad Ali Jinnah:

1876: He was born on 25th December in a merchant family of Jinnah Bhai Poonja at Wazir Mansion,
Karachi.
1887: Admitted to Sind Madrasa tul Islam, Karachi.
1893: Joined Lincoln's Inn
1896: Returned to Karachi from London and migrated to Bombay.
1910: Elected to the Legislative Assembly, Bombay.
1913: Joined All-India Muslim League.
1915: Initiated the move for setting up of a League-Congress joint committee for Hindu-Muslim unity
1916: Presided over the All-India Muslim League Lucknow session; Lucknow Pact signed in October.
1917: Became President, Home Rule League, Bombay.
1919: Resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council as a protest against Rowlatt Act
1920: Resigned from Home Rule League and Congress
1927: Boycotted the Simon Commission. Presided over a meeting of all the important Muslim leaders
at Delhi and presented Delhi Proposals.
1928: Attended National Convention at Calcutta
1929: All-India Muslim League rejects Nehru Report at its Delhi session. Jinnah's Fourteen Points
were given in March.
1930: Attended First Round Table Conference in London and made it success for Muslims.
1931-34: Stayed on in England under a voluntary exile.
1934: Elected Permanent President of All-India Muslim League after coming back to India.
1937: Jinnah presided over League session at Lucknow. All-India Muslim League turned into a mass
organization and compete independence adopted as goal.
1939: On 22nd December, Day of Deliverance was observed (on exit of Congress Ministries)
1940: On 22nd and 23rd March at Minto Park, (Pakistan) Resolution passed for the idea of making
Pakistan.
1944: In May at Bombay, Jinnah-Gandhi talks were held.
1945: Participated in Simla Conference. Elected to Central Legislative Assembly
1946: On May 16, Cabinet Mission Plan announced. In June League accepts Cabinet Mission Plan.
League also accepts Short-Term (Interim Government) Plan. On August 16, Direct Action Day
1947: On 3rd June, Jinnah's historic broadcast accepting the Plan of the partition. On 11th August
elected President of Pakistan Constituent Assembly. On August 14, Quaid-e-Azam sworn in as the
first Governor-General of Pakistan. In October, set up headquarters at Lahore to supervise
settlement of refugees in Punjab. To solve the problems of refugees, he stayed in Lahore for some
time. He called himself the Protector General for minority rights in Pakistan.

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1948: July 1, Inaugurated State Bank of Pakistan; gave a call for evolving a new economic system. On
August 14, First Independence Day; last message to the nation. On September 11, he returned to
Karachi from Ziarat, breathed his last and was buried at Karachi on 13th September.

Allama Iqbal:

1877: Born at Sialkot (present-day Pakistan) on Friday, November 9, 1877. Kashmiri origin.
1893–1895: High School and Intermediate – Scotch Mission College, Sialkot.
1897: Completed B.A. from Government College, Lahore.
1899: M.A. (Philosophy) – Government College, Lahore.
1907: Ph.D., Munich University, Germany (Thesis: The Development of Metaphysics in Persia).
1908: Bar-at-Law, London. Returned to India. Resigned from professorship to spread the message of
Islam.
1923: he was knighted by King George V, granting him the title "Sir". While studying law and
philosophy in England, Iqbal became a member of the London branch of the All-India Muslim League.
1926: Elected to Punjab Legislative Council, Lahore (1926–1929).
1930: President, All-India Muslim League. Elaborated on the idea of an independent Muslim state in
his presidential speech at Allahabad on 30th December.
1931: Participated in the Second Round Table Conference, London, September 7–December 31.
1932: Participated in the Third Round Table Conference, London, November 17–December 24.
1938: Iqbal died at Lahore on April 21, 1938.

Chaudhri Rehmat Ali:

1895: Born on 16th November at Balachaur India.

1930: He moved to England to join Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
1930-32: Observed the three Round Table Conferences at London and felt how Muslims were
treated unfairly by the Congress and British.
1933: On January 28, he published a pamphlet, Now or Never, Are we to live or perish forever,
coining the word Pakistan for the first time.
1946: He founded Pakistan National Movement in England.
1948: He visited Pakistan at the time of Jinnah’s death in September. Later, he proceeded to England
to champion the cause of Kashmir through the United Nations.
1951: On 3rd February, he died in Cambridge, England due to influenza and was buried there.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF MOHAMMAD ALI JINNAH:

Pre-partition:

1910: Joined Legislative assembly of India and became a member of legal system to the government.
This was the first major step of Jinnah towards legislation process of India being the youngest
barrister.

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 1910: Joined Indian National Congress with the intension of working for Hindu-Muslim unity against
their common enemy. His friend Dadabhoy Naoroji urged him to join politics.

1913: Joined All India Muslim League and became a major leader. At this time Jinnah was the member
of both League and Congress and believed that their unity was required to drive out the British out of
the subcontinent.

1916: Lucknow Pact was a major milestone achieved by Jinnah with Lala Ambedkar and Mahajan of
Congress to sort out differences between the two communities.
It was a major agreement in which Muslims agreed for self-rule and less weightage in provinces and
Hindus agreed for separate electorates of Muslims. The Lucknow Pact was an agreement on a scheme
of constitutional reforms reached between Congress and the Muslim League. Both realised that co-
operation was the only way to get the British government to agree to self-rule. For the first time
Hindus acknowledged that Muslims had the right to a separate electorate and was there foreseen as a
beacon of hope for the future.

1920: Resigned from Congress after realizing that it was not favouring Muslims’ rights. Had disagreed
to Gandhi’s policies. Jinnah disagreed to the Rowlatt Act which came in 1919. When Mohandas
Gandhi started the Non Co-operation movement, Jinnah disagreed and made himself away from the
plans of Congress.

1927: He presented Delhi Proposals to Motilal Nehru to forward Muslims’ view After the Simon
Commission. There were proposals given by Jinnah in 1927 to a conference of All India Muslim
League. He gave few demands which he said it would be accepted that he would give up the demand
of separate electorates. He said that there should be 1/3rd Muslim majority in all central legislature.
He also demanded that Sindh should be made a province and all the reforms of other provinces
should be brought to NWF and Balochistan

March 1929: Jinnah’s Fourteen Points: At the annual meeting of Muslim League in March 1929 at
Delhi. Jinnah gave his points in order to safeguard and protect the rights and interests of the Muslims.
The 14 Points were the first ever demand of the Muslim League put to the British. These demands
covered all aspects of Muslim interests at the time. Jinnah decided to issue 14 points in response to
Nehru Report (1928) which was a scheme of constitution for India.

Why did Jinnah produce his Fourteen Points?

• Jinnah decided to issue Fourteen Points in response to Nehru Report (1928) which was a scheme of
constitution for India. It included several points which were against Muslim interests. The Nehru
Report suggested joint electorate (in place of separate electorate for Muslims), unitary form of
government (in place of federal form of government) and Hindi as national language for India. These
points were clearly against Muslim interests and were not liked by the Muslims.

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• Jinnah suggested three amendments to the Nehru Report but these were rejected by the Congress. It
clearly showed that the Congress was not sincere with the Muslims.
• Jinnah gave his points in order to safeguard and protect the rights and interests of the Muslims. The
Fourteen Points were the first ever demand of the Muslim League put to the British. These demands
covered all aspects of Muslim interests at the time.

1930-32: Jinnah as the leader of league attended the First Round Table Conference only and made the
demands of Muslims registered to the British. However, he boycotted the Second Round Table
Conference due to its fruitless discussion and Gandhi’s domination. He was not invited in the Third
RTC.

1931-34: Jinnah was dissatisfied with the politics of India and the fruitless first Round Table
Conference. He remained in London for voluntary exile after having no result of RTCs. He came to
India in 1934 after the letters of Iqbal and Liaquat Ali Khan and was selected as the permanent
President of the Muslim League.

1939: Jinnah asked Muslim League to celebrate Day of Deliverance on 22nd Dec 1939 after Congress
resigned from ministries and Muslims got freedom from Congress rule.

22nd and 23rd March 1940: Pakistan Resolution was the greatest success of Jinnah in which Muslims
were approved for their promise for Pakistan.
Muslims in the subcontinent were recognized and the demand of a separate homeland in the western
parts of India with autonomous status. It was presented by Maulvi Fazl-ul-Haq at the annual session of
Muslim League on 22nd -24th of March 1940 by the 25-member Working Committee of the All-India
Muslim League.
The session was held at Minto Park which was named as Iqbal Park (in the memory of Dr. Allama
Mohammad Iqbal who died on 21st April 1938) at Lahore where Minar-e-Pakistan stands today. It was
called as Lahore Resolution or Pakistan Resolution. This event marked as the first major success of the
Muslim League and the struggle which started in 1906 at the time of Formation of All India Muslim
League got an achievement when the idea of an independent country was accepted.

May 1944: Gandhi was in prison when he wrote a letter in Gujrati language to Jinnah while he was in
Kashmir. Jinnah replied in Gujrati that upon his return to Bombay, he would meet him. Gandhi-Jinnah
talks of May 1944 in Bombay failed but Jinnah was accepted by Gandhi as being a prominent Muslim
leader.

Why were the Gandhi-Jinnah Talks somewhat successful?

• Jinnah handled these intelligently, didn’t compromise Muslim Rights. His standing thus improved.
• Gandhi said that Jinnah and Congress should work for general Independence first.
• It pleased Jinnah since this should that Indians had realized that Partition might happen.

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1945 Simla Conference: Jinnah initially agreed to the plan of Lord Wavell for the Executive Council
however, when Gandhi raised questions on the Muslims in that Council as equal participants for
which the Conference did not reach an agreement.

1945-46 Elections: Elections were held in India in which Muslim League did far better than 1937
election winning all reserved seats for Muslims.
The Indian National Congress emerged as the largest party, winning 57 of the 102 elected seats
becoming the largest party getting 90% of Hindu votes. The Muslim League won all 30 Muslim
constituencies and won 87% of overall Muslim votes and stood as second position. Only NWFP was
the Muslim majority area where Muslim League did not win.
Even though Congress won, the League had united the Muslim vote and as such it gained the
negotiating power to seek a separate Muslim homeland as it became clear that a united India would
prove highly unstable.

1946 Cabinet Mission Plan: The Mission held talks with the representatives of the Indian National
Congress and the All-India Muslim League, the two largest political parties in the Constituent
Assembly of India.
Since the word Pakistan was dropped from the draft, therefore Muslims of India doubted that the
British Government might leave India without dividing it and Muslims would have to face the tyranny
of the Congress once again that’s why Muslim League felt annoyed at this decision.

1947 3rd June Plan: Jinnah talked to Lord Mountbatten on 3rd June for the final decision of partition.
The British Prime Minister Clement Attlee announced that India would be freed by Feb 1948. Lord
Mountbatten arrived in March 1947 and met the major leaders of both Congress and Muslim League.
He went back to England to review their decision as it was difficult to hold India’s aggression
anymore. Jinnah worked on establishing the government of Pakistan.

Post-partition:

1947: On 11th August, Jinnah addressed the Constituent assembly of Pakistan. He sworn in as the first
Governor General of Pakistan on 14th August and declared Prime Minister as his Prime Minister.

1947: Jinnah helped the refugees after partition. He called himself the Protector General for
controlling violence in Punjab. He shifted his office to Lahore in October 1947 to be able to deal with
refugee problems better. He also instructed the Punjab government and the Pakistan Army to solve
problems of refugees and to accommodate them.

1st September 1947: Pakistan joined United Nations on the wish of Jinnah for getting international
recognition, military and financial aid. Liaquat Ali Khan worked on it on the request of Jinnah.

1st July 1948: Jinnah inaugurated State Bank of Pakistan at Karachi on 1st July to deal with the
problems of economy.

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1948: Jinnah was suffering from tuberculosis and he died on 11th September. 3 days state mourning
was announced. He was buried in Karachi.

CONTRIBUTION OF DR. ALLAMA MOHAMAMD IQBAL:

1926: He became the member of the Punjab Legislative Assembly and served there till 1929. His
intention was to work for the rights of Muslims of the subcontinent and since Punjab was a large
province, therefore Iqbal’s philosophy and poetry played an important part in bringing awareness
amongst the Muslims to fight for their rights.

1930: Iqbal’s Allahabad Address: It was delivered by Dr. Allama Mohammad Iqbal during the 25th
annual session of the All-India Muslim League, on 29th and 30th December 1930, at Allahabad as the
President of Punjab Muslim League.
He gave the idea and concept about a separate homeland in the north-east of India because the
Muslim were a nation and had a right that they got the identification and passed their lives in order to
the Islamic principles. This served as a soul of struggle in the people of Punjab and they contributed
actively on the road to independence.

1931-32: Iqbal and Round Table Conferences: Iqbal played a very important role in uniting Muslims
with his poetry and representing the cause of Muslims in the absence of Jinnah particularly at the
time of the Second and Third Round Table Conferences. He convinced the British for separating Sindh
from Bombay Presidency at the Second RTC and continued Jinnah’s mission and objective.

1938: Iqbal was suffering from throat infection which became serious and the ‘Poet of the East’
breathed his last on 21st April. Jinnah claimed that he lost the best friend and companion and gave
tribute to his contribution. Iqbal was buried near Badshahi Mosque at Lahore.

CONTRIBUTION OF CHAUDHRI REHMAT ALI:

1895: Born on 16th November at Balachaur India in an educated family. His origin was Urdu speaking
family.

1930: After completing his basic education and completed his B.A form Punjab University. Later he
moved to England to join Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

1930-32: Observer at the time of RTCs: This marked as a change for Rehmat Ali. He was in England
when the three RTCs were held and he attended as an observer. He was deeply hurt and felt agitated
with the outcomes of the conferences and decided to run a campaign to strengthen Muslim cause.

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1933: On January 28, he published a pamphlet, Now or Never, are we to live or perish forever,
coining the word Pakistan for the first time. His pamphlet marked as his greatest achievement. He
coined the word PAKSTAN (later became PAKISTAN) using P: from Punjab, A: from Afghania (NWFP),
K; from Kashmir, I: from Indus, S: from Sindh and TAN: from Balochistan.

1946: He founded Pakistan National Movement in England by giving the idea of making the ‘Continent
of Dinia’ in which he states that instead of just two areas of Pakistan (East and West) all other areas
where Muslims were in majority should be considered independent. He asked for Pakistan, in the
northern units of India, "Bang-i-Islam" for Muslims in Bengal, and "Usmanistan" for the Muslims in
Hyderabad-Deccan. This was a point of disagreement with Jinnah as Jinnah believed that the Hindus
and British would not let it happen and that was not radical for their demand However, Chaudhri
Rehmat Ali insisted for his plans to be taken as manifesto of their independence.

1948: He visited Pakistan at the time of Jinnah’s death in September. Later, he proceeded to England
to champion the cause of Kashmir through the United Nations.

1951: On 3rd February, he died in Cambridge, England due to influenza and was buried there.

SAMPLE ANSWERS:

Q: Who was Cahudhri Rehmat Ali? [4] (S/2012)

Chaudhry Rahmat Ali, founder of the Pakistan National Movement, was born in 1895. On January 28,
1933, he issued his first memorable pamphlet "Now or Never; Are we to live or perish forever?" He
coined the word "Pakistan" for 30 million Muslims who live in the five northern units of India; Punjab,
North West Frontier (Afghan) Province, Kashmir, Sindh and Baluchistan. The pamphlet also gave
reasons for the establishment of Pakistan as a separate nation. He spoke of an independent homeland
for Muslims, Pakistan, in the northern units of India, "Bang-i-Islam" for Muslims in Bengal, and
"Usmanistan" for the Muslims in Hyderabad-Deccan. He died in 1951 at Cambridge, England.

Q: Who was Dr. Allama Iqbal? [4] (W/2010)

Allama Iqbal was the greatest philosopher and poet of the subcontinent who was born on 9 th
November 1877 at Sialkot. He remained famous for his books and poems in Persian and Urdu and
earned the title, Poet of the East. He was also knighted with the title of ‘Sir’ in 1923. He delivered his
famous speech at Allahabad on 30th December 1930 in which he shared the idea of an independent
country. He later passed on 21st April 1938.

Q: What was Allahabad Address? [4]

It was the Presidential Address by Allama Iqbal to the Session of the All-India Muslim League on 29th
and 30th December 1930 at Allahabad. In that address Iqbal said that he would like to see NWFP,
Punjab and Baluchistan as a separate state for Muslims. Thus, Iqbal demanded a sovereign
independent Muslim state even before the Muslim League demanded it in Pakistan's Resolution.

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Q: Did Allama Iqbal contribute more to the Pakistan Movement than Rahmat Ali? Explain
your answer. [14] (S/2011) (W/2016)

Pakistan Movement which was formed in 1906 has been contributed by a number of great leaders
however, Dr Allama Mohammad Iqbal has more contribution that Chaudhri Rehmat Ali for a number
of reasons.

Firstly, Iqbal’s thoughts and poetry contributed to a great level in the cause of achieving Pakistan. He
wrote many books in Persian and Urdu and awakened the spark for independence amongst Muslims.
He was also knighted with the title of Sir for his contribution.
It was mainly Iqbal’s poetry that led a great movement within itself and every Muslim of the
subcontinent praised him for his contribution.

Secondly, he also played an important role during the 25th annual session of the All-India Muslim
League, on 29th and 30th December 1930, at Allahabad as the President of Punjab Muslim League. He
gave the idea and concept about a separate homeland in the north-east of India because the Muslim
were a nation and had a right that they got the identification and passed their lives in order to the
Islamic principles. This served as a soul of struggle in the people of Punjab and they contributed
actively on the road to independence.

Thirdly, he represented Muslims at the time of Round Table Conferences. He played a very important
role in uniting Muslims with his poetry and representing the cause of Muslims in the absence of
Jinnah particularly at the time of the Second and Third Round Table Conferences. He convinced the
British for separating Sindh from Bombay Presidency at the Second RTC and continued Jinnah’s
mission and objective. He also wrote letters to Jinnah during his voluntary exile and convinced him to
come back to India.

On the contrary, Chaudhri Rehmat Ali also had a major contribution. He was in England when the
three RTCs 1930-32 were held and he attended as an observer. He was deeply hurt and felt agitated
with the outcomes of the conferences and decided to run a campaign to strengthen Muslim cause. He
started to campaign for Muslims in England.

In the same way, he remained the highlight after writing a famous pamphlet, Now or Never in 1933 in
which he coined the name Pakistan. His pamphlet marked as his greatest achievement as the name
Pakistan became well known and millions of Muslims got awakening for that. Although there were
other claimants for the pamphlet, but Chaudhri Rehmat Ali was the leader of the group. He also
initiated the idea of Continent of Dinia which became a controversy and many Muslim leaders
including Jinnah disagreed for it.

Therefore, with the help of the given statements, it can be proven that despite of the fact that
Rehmat Ali gave the word Pakistan, Allama Iqbal’s contribution and struggle made the country come
true and his poetry and philosophy is still regarded as a source of motivation.

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Q: Why was Dr Allama Iqbal an important influence on the struggle for a separate homeland for
Pakistan? [7] (Q3b/W/14)

Dr. Allama Mohamamd Iqbal keeps a reputed position and importance on the struggle for a separate
homeland. He is often called as the dreamer of Pakistan. He contributed for the struggle of Pakistan in
a number of ways.

Iqbal’s poetry, philosophy and writing of books strengthened the struggle for a separate identity and
country was unmatched. He worked on several books and awakened the sleeping passion of Muslims.
He wrote many books in Persian and Urdu and awakened the spark for independence amongst
Muslims. He was also knighted with the title of Sir for his contribution.
It was mainly Iqbal’s poetry that led a great movement within itself and every Muslim of the
subcontinent praised him for his contribution.

Similarly, his famous speech of Allahabad in December 1930 ignited the struggle when he shared his
dream and wish of an independent Muslim State. He gave the idea and concept about a separate
homeland in the north-east of India because the Muslim were a nation and had a right that they got
the identification and passed their lives in order to the Islamic principles. This served as a soul of
struggle in the people of Punjab and they contributed actively on the road to independence.

Likewise, his participation in the Muslim League Conventions with Jinnah and other leaders and
meeting the youth also played an important role. He represented Muslims at the time of Round Table
Conferences. He played a very important role in uniting Muslims with his poetry and representing the
cause of Muslims in the absence of Jinnah particularly at the time of the Second and Third Round
Table Conferences. He convinced the British for separating Sindh from Bombay Presidency at the
Second RTC and continued Jinnah’s mission and objective. He also wrote letters to Jinnah during his
voluntary exile and convinced him to come back to India.

Q: Was the introduction of Jinnah’s 14 Points in 1929 the most important factor in the development
of the Pakistan Movement between 1928 and 1935? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

The Pakistan Movement became relatively stronger with Jinnah’s Fourteen Points of 1929 and
Muslims got a clear vision for the future line of action despite of the fact that there were many events
during 1928 and 1935.

The Nehru Report of 1928 was produced in response to demands for future constitutional reforms
and the committee, which drew it up, had minimal Muslim representation. It reported on the future
of the sub- Continent by looking to dominion status with no need for separate electorates. This totally
alienated the Muslims and marked the end of any future co-operation between them and the
Congress. Jinnah made one final attempt to preserve the relationship in his Delhi Proposals of 1927 in
which he proposed three amendments to the report. These proposals were met with refusal and
marked what he called – the parting of the ways.

The Fourteen Points set out the demands of any future negotiations with either Congress or the
British Government. The demands were also to form the basis of the Muslims demands for a separate

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homeland. It also convinced them that the Hindus and Muslims were two separate nations which was
to be further developed by Allama Iqbal in 1930.

The Fourteen Points safeguarded the rights of Muslims as well as other minorities which were
dominated by the Hindus. By demanding One-third Muslim representation in Central Assembly,
Muslims rights to education, jobs and provincial government were safeguarded by Jinnah.

Similarly, these points asked for bringing a point of unity for the future Pakistan when Jinnah
demanded for same reforms to be brought in NWFP and Balochistan as these provinces were not
developed and Muslims of north-west India were away from politics.

However, there were other events too which made the foundation of Pakistan Movement. The three
RTCs overall remained unsuccessful however, proposal a federal system for India was approved and
Sind was to be given a separate identity and a govt. Since, Congress boycotted it and there was
deadlock on the federal system and the minorities sub-Committee couldn’t reach a conclusion.

In the same way, the Government of India Act of 1935 introduced a federal system of government
which was disappointing to the Muslim League who had expected more concessions from the British.
The period of the Congress Rule and the associated atrocities ensured that the Muslim League
became the focal point for all Muslims. The chief ministers of Punjab, Bengal and Assam all joined the
Muslim League. However, the Indians rejected it and it did not serve the purpose.

Therefore, it can be said that in the light of Pakistan Movement, Jinnah’s Fourteen Points played the
most successful and concrete role and it lead to the establishment of Pakistan in 1947.

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 SIR ADNAN QURESHI PAKISTAN STUDIES-HISTORY-CHAPTER 11__

CHAPTER 11: ESTABLISHMENT OF AN INDEPENDENT NATION 1947-48

Synopsis of the Chapter:

Cyril John Radcliffe Awards were announced on 17th August 1947. Many areas of Punjab and Bengal
were divided by the commission. Mohammad Ali Jinnah became the first Governor General of
Pakistan and Liaquat Ali Khan became the Prime Minister of Pakistan.

Many states were able to join Pakistan; Dir, Swat, Chitral, Amb, Gilgit and Bahawalpur joined Pakistan.
Hyderabad Deccan, Junagadh and Kashmir became issue between India and Pakistan after partition.
Ferozepur (a Sikh majority area in Punjab) was given to India which had the major water head works
coming to Pakistan.

East and West Pakistan were at the distance of 1600 miles or 2000 km where India was playing an
important part as enemy. They also had the difference of language, as Bengali was the main language
of East Pakistan and Urdu in West Pakistan. Finally, East Pakistan became Bangladesh on 26th March
1971 after Indo-Pak War.

India inherited a lot of political problems to Pakistan. Industries were almost absent in Pakistan and
the government had to rely on agriculture to run economy in the first few years. India being a strong
dominating country, held its power to retain official name and thus all offices, employees and
resources. Soldiers were asked to join Pakistan and India as per their choice and religion. Lack of
administrative issues was also inherited by India to us.

Pakistan had only 8 towns with 1, 00,000 or more inhabitants. Karachi was made the capital of
Pakistan but later on, Islamabad was established in 1961 during General Ayub’s rule.

Pakistan was a country of different races, Punjabis, Sindhis, Bengalis, Pashtuns and Baloch. More than
60,00,000 Muslims migrated to West Pakistan which were called the Urdu speaking Muhajirs. Their
settlement was another big problem for the young government as Pakistan Government was not paid
its due share of 750 million rupees.

Pakistan economy was badly affected after India stopped rivers which were flowing from India. The
problem was solved on 3rd September 1960 when Pakistan signed Indus Water Treaty with India.

Indian Government refused to pay the share after the war had started in Indian occupied Kashmir.
The UN intervened and the cease fire was done. The current boundary between India and Pakistan is
called Line of Control in Kashmir.

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 The death of Mohammad Ali Jinnah on 11th September 1948 due to Tuberculosis and the martyrdom
of Liaquat Ali Khan on 16th October 1951 added more problems to the new country of Pakistan.

MAJOR PROBLEMS OF PAKISTAN

BOUNDARY PROBLEMS/RADCLIFFE AWARD: Boundary Commission in July 1947 to recommend how

the Punjab and Bengal regions of the Indian subcontinent. It was chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe with
four members (two Muslims and two Hindus).
The Radcliffe Award was announced on 17th August 1947 and took many wrong decisions for Pakistan
particularly in the Punjab.
It was decided by Sir Cyril Radcliffe who was considered as pro-Hindu. It was decided that the two
provinces Punjab and Bengal were to be divided between Pakistan and India as they had the majority
of both Muslims and Hindus. The two commission were made for each of the provinces with two
Muslim and two Hindu members headed by Cyril Radcliffe. The boundary drawn by Cyril Radcliffe was
called Radcliffe Line.

a. Division of Punjab: It was the second largest province which a huge population. Some of the areas like
Ferozepur, Gurdaspur and Amritsar were awarded to India which created more problems.

Why the division of Punjab create problem for Pakistan?

 Ferozepur and Madhupur had the headworks on rivers which were flowing into Punjab which were
stopped by the Indian government and it created problems for the agricultural lands of Punjab.

 Since Punjab was dominated by Sikhs in some areas which were divided between the two countries.
Amritsar and Jalandar went to India and Sheikhupura, Gujranwala and Lahore came to Pakistan which
angered the Sikh community and they started to rebel against it. Thousands of refugees were
martyred by them during migration violence.

 Kashmir was a princely state in the north of Punjab and Ferozepur and Gurdaspur had railway and
road connected to Kashmir. The Indian government controlled the state of Kashmir which resulted in
the form of war.

b. Division of Bengal: Bengal was the most populous province with Muslim and Hindu majority. The
Bengal Commission divided Bengal between India and Pakistan however, princely state of Kuch Bihar,
districts of Pornea and districts of Purilia were awarded to India where the majority was of Muslims.
Similarly, the area of Sylhet was awarded to East Pakistan which had Hindu majority. Though there
was no major violence in Bengal but many Hindus did not migrate to India after partition and thus
retained strong position in the bureaucracy of East Pakistan.

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 REFUGEE PROBLEMS AND THEIR ACCOMODATION: 1947 faced the largest migration of the world in
which There were 10 million people who migrated from either India to Pakistan or vice versa. Around
6 million Muslims came to Pakistan and added problems to the government and about 4 million
Hindus migrated to India.

What problems did refugees add to Pakistan?

 There were issues of their accommodation, sanitation and unemployment. Millions of Muslims who
came to Pakistan lived in tents and shattered houses with no basic facilities. There no proper toilets
which added contagious diseases and many died due to that. Most of the immigrants who came to
Pakistan did not have proper jobs or means of income and therefore they were dependent on the
government for food.

 Trains and caravans coming from India were looted and massacred mainly by Sikhs and Hindus. Many
Muslims who came to Pakistan were lost with their possessions in India and their jewellery and cash
was looted during migration.

 India refused to pay the due share to Pakistan and thus it affected the government to plan effectively
for the removal of refugee problems.

 Maharaja of Kashmir made 2,00,000 Kashmiris fled to Pakistan when they tried to revolt against him
at the time of Kashmir war.

What did Pakistan government do to solve the Refugee Problems?

 Jinnah as the Governor General of Pakistan transferred his office from Karachi to Lahore to be able to
solve the problems better. Jinnah established Refugee Relief Fund and asked people to donate.

 Jinnah instructed the Punjab government and Pakistan Army to be able to deal better with the
problems of refugees. Even refugee camps were made at several places in both East and West
Pakistan.

 Jinnah asked Indian government to pay its due amount of Rs.750 million which came as an installment
of Rs.200 million. Liaquat Ali Khan was also requested to make Pakistan a member of the United
Nations to get military and financial aid. Liaquat Ali Khan signed Liaquat-Nehru Pact.
 To control violence in Pakistan and to make it safer for Hindu minority, Jinnah called himself Protector
General as the custodian of the rights of minorities in Pakistan.

ISSUE OF PRINCELY STATES: At the time of partition, there were 462 princely states in Subcontinent.
The rulers of the states were given option to join either India or Pakistan by the British Government.

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 13 states including Dir, Swat, Chitral, Amb, Phulra, Hunza, Nagar, Gilgit, Kharan, Makran, Kalat,
Bahawalpur and Khairpur joined Pakistan, adding further inhabitants to the new country.
There were three states which created problems, Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagadh.

a. Jammu and Kashmir: In 1947, Kashmir had 77% Muslims but Maharaja, Hari Singh did not want to
join Pakistan. In September 1947 he started a campaign to drive many Muslims out of the Kashmir.
Over 200,000 fled to Pakistan. India forces entered in Kashmir through Gurdaspur. Quaid-e-Azam
ordered Pakistan Army to move Kashmir but General Douglas Gracey (2nd C-in-C of Pakistan Army)
refused to obey the instructions. Meanwhile the freedom fighters were able to liberate one part of
Kashmir. On 31st December 1948 India submitted a formal complaint against Pakistan in UNO.

Solution: A ceasefire was arranged in 1948 and Kashmir was divided between India and Pakistan.
India Prime Minister Nehru agreed that a referendum would be held to know the wishes of Kashmiri
people but still Kashmir is a bone of contention between the two countries.

b. Hyderabad Deccan: Hyderabad Deccan was located in the centre of India which majority of Hindus
(85%). It was the richest state and its leader, Nizam (Asaf Jah Dynasty) wanted to join Pakistan
however, its geographical location did not allow it to join. India agreed to plan for a referendum
however, its map was changed to affect the Muslim majority. Hyderabad was succeeded by India in
September 1948.

Solution: There was no solution to this problem as India changed the map of the state and the
referendum went in favour of the Indian government.

c. Junagadh and Manavader: A small state 400 km south of Sindh mainly Hindu majority however its
leader, Nawab Muhammad Mahabat Khan III of Junagadh wanted to join Pakistan. Due to a plebiscite
in December 1947, the state was added to India.

Solution: Nawab Mahabat Khan along with his family and other people shifted to Karachi with his
enormous wealth and played an important role in the development of Karachi as the capital of
Pakistan.

LACK OF GOVERNMENT MACHINERY/SUPPLIES/EQUIPMENTS: The areas with Muslim majority had

not been developed by the British since they controlled the subcontinent. As a result, when Pakistan
was made, the government faced the shortage of office buildings, stationary, vehicles and educated
and trained staff. The government also had faced severe financial crisis as this area was not
developed.
The influx of Muslims added more problems to the newly established government of Pakistan.
Only two towns (Karachi and Dhaka) had international airports and there were only eight towns with
the population of more than 1,00,000.

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 The distance of a thousand kilometres between the two wings also added more problems for
Pakistan. The government of the country was mainly made up of the officials and bureaucrats of the
West and the East wing had very less input in the government.

Solution:
 Karachi was made the capital of Pakistan by Liaquat Ali Khan. All government offices and embassies
were opened. High Court of Pakistan and Constituent Assembly was made in Karachi to run the
government.
 Many offices of the provincial governments were made in tents for temporary period.
 State Bank of Pakistan was established on 1st July 1948 by Mohammad Ali Jinnah to make economy
better and to develop Pakistan’s own currency.

ISSUE OF MILITARY ASSETS: Pakistan was not having proper weapons and artillery for developing its
army and thus Kashmir war added more problems to the newly born state.

 Before partition, Pakistan and India agreed to divide military assets in the ratio of 36%:44% which
Pakistan received in the form of used and scrap things as Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru did
not fulfil his promise.

 Out of the total 16 ordinance factories in India, Pakistan got nothing to meet its military needs and
had to rely on the transported artillery from India.

 Indian government had asked all Muslim soldiers to move to Pakistan. Pakistan army had 1,25,000
personnel who did not have weapons and proper uniforms however, it had only 2500 officers to train
the soldiers.

 The first two Commanders-in-Chief, Sir Francis Messervy and Douglas Gracey were British and they
were not interested in fighting war for Kashmir.

 The Kashmir War added problems to the newly established country.

SOLUTION:
 Jinnah hired 500 British officers to the total 2500 Pakistani officers to train Pakistan Army.
 General Sir Frank Messervy became the commander in chief till Jan 1948.
 He was replaced by Sir Douglas Gracey who served till 1951.
 Pakistan received 60 million rupees from India to establish Pakistan’s first Ordinance factory at Wah
Cantt.

ISSUE OF FINANCE: From the time the British had been in India, the areas which came under West
Pakistan particularly were ignored for developmental projects therefore Pakistan government needed
to have finance to solve the following problems:

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 The Reserve Bank of India had Rs. 4 billion at the time of partition. Jinnah insisted to have Rs. 1 billion
which was denied by Jawaharlal Nehru and the agreement came for paying Rs. 750 million which was
not enough to meet Pakistan’s needs.

 Indian government paid Rs.200 million initially but then refused to pay the other amount claiming
that Pakistan would purchase weapons against India as the tension on Kashmir had started.

 Pakistan was a complete agro-based economy and there were no industries in the country. The main
crop was Jute which was grown in East Pakistan. There was a need of improving its exports.

 Punjab was the major province in West Pakistan where the lands were badly affected due to the river
water stopped by India.

Solution:
 Pakistan joined the United nations in September 1947 in order to get aid and trade so that the
economy could be made run.
 Gandhi’s hunger strike in India brought pressure on Nehru and he then paid Rs. 500 million to
Pakistan however, the remaining Rs.50 were never paid.
 Pakistan also requested India to release the rivers of Punjab which were stopped by India to irrigate
the lands of Punjab.

ISSUE OF CANAL WATER: Pakistan was solely depending on its agriculture as there were no industries.
The provinces of Punjab and Bengal were major areas for the cultivation of Cotton, Rice and Jute.
India stopped the river water of Gurdaspur and Ferozepur headworks and River Sutlej and River Ravi
which affected the agricultural lands of Punjab.

Solution: Pakistani Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan and Indian Prime Minister, Jawharlal Nehru signed
a pact by which India released the water of rivers. It solved the issue of water crisis for the time being.
In September 1960, Indus Water Treaty was signed by President Ayub Khan and Lal Bahadur Shastri
by which Pakistan got aid and loan to build dams and barrages which solved the water crisis.

SOCIAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES: Pakistani nation was divided into many groups and sects since its
establishment in 1947. They were divided into Punjabis, Sindhis, Pashtuns and Baloch in the West and
Bengali in the East. The Muhajir group and other minorities made a small group in the West and they
were settled in the urban areas of Sindh.
Except religion Islam, there was nothing common which could unite the nation Pakistan. About 25% of
the population was Hindus too which was under retaliation by the Muslim Pakistanis after the
violence of Punjab.

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 Solution: Jinnah announced that Urdu would be taken as the official language of Pakistan as it a
language that could unite all Pakistanis. It became the court language and the main medium of
communication in the country.
Bengali were apprehensive about the decision as they were 60% of the total population and their
culture and language was ignored by the government which was mainly made in the West.

OTHER PROBLEMS FACED BY PAKISTAN:

 No International Recognition: Pakistan government did not have any recognition in the world as it a
new country. India insisted to retain the name, India however Pakistan had to start the government
from scratch. Solution: When Pakistan joined the United Nations in September 1947 and develop
relations with other countries to get trade, and aid to run its economy.

 Death of Prominent Leaders: Mohammad Ali Jinnah dies on 11th September 1947 due to tuberculosis
and Liaquat Ali Khan was assassinated on 16th October 1951 which created a gap in the leadership and
the system of governance was badly affected.

 Issue of Pakhtoonistan: When Afghanistan was made independent in 1892, a part of its country was
still under the control of the British. The border of Durand Line of 1893 was formed which divided
Afghanistan with British India and Afghanistan came out of British influence. When Pakistan was
made independent in 1947, an Afghan group met Jinnah in Karachi and demanded to hand over the
area. Jinnah resisted to keep it as a part of Pakistan and the relations of the two countries
deteriorated. Afghanistan did not vote for Pakistan for its United Nations’ membership in September
1947.

 No Constitution: Pakistan’s government was made run under the Indian Independence Bill Act of July
1947. It gave the title of British colony to Pakistan as the power of Governor General was like that of
the British. Solution: Objective Resolution was formed in 1949 and several efforts were done for
drafting the constitution which was finalized in March 1956.

SAMPLE ANSWERS:

Q: Who was Lord Mountbatten? [4]

He was the last the last viceroy of British India and the First Governor-General of independent India.
He belonged to the royal families of both Germany and Britain. He was in navy during Second World
War but was sent as the viceroy to arrange the departure of British in India. He came to India in
February 1947 and decided for the partition. He persuaded Sir Cyril Radcliffe to change the map of
Pakistan in 1947. He died in Ireland.

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Q: What was the Radcliffe Award? [4]

Sir Cyril Radcliffe, a lawyer was sent from England to India for the demarcation of the boundaries of
Punjab and Bengal under two separate commissions with two Hindu and two Muslim members. Lord
Mountbatten and Mr. Radcliffe connived with the Congress and demarcated the boundary according
to their wishes. Radcliffe included many Muslim majority, areas in India and deprived Pakistan of the
waters of Sutlej, Bias and Ravi. Further captured Kashmir and created a Kashmir problem which is still
unsolved. The defective planning of Radcliffe created many problems for Pakistan unsolved. The
boundary is called the Radcliffe Line.

Q: How successful was Quaid-e-Azam in establishing the new Pakistan in 1947? Explain
your answer. [10]

Mohammad Ali Jinnah played an important role in establishing Pakistan in 1947. The idea of Pakistan
was made successful mainly because of the effort of Jinnah.
Firstly, Quaid-e-Azam made Refugee Relief Fund created to help refugees as six million Muslims came
to Pakistan in a very bad condition. He appealed to the people to help the refugees. He toured the
provinces encouraging and motivating the people. Declared himself ‘Protector-General’ of religious
minorities as there were some violence reported in Pakistan in reaction to Punjab violence.

Secondly, the State Bank of Pakistan was set up at Karachi on 1st July 1948. It served to a great deal in
dealing with the economic problems of the country. He also tried to solve other economic issue by
making Pakistan a member of United Nations in September 1947.

Thirdly, Karachi was made the capital of Pakistan with all government offices and other official
buildings. Civil Services were re-organised to help people in social sector. The government system was
made proper with provincial governments responsible for their internal matters.

However, Jinnah tried to solve many problems but the issue of Kashmir and other Princely States
were not properly resolved. It created problems for Pakistan as the Kashmir war disturbed the
government badly.

Similarly, the Canal Water Dispute created more problems for the government when India stopped
the rivers Sutlej, Ravi and Beas and the agricultural lands were badly affected. It was not resolved
until 1959 and the Indus Water Treaty was signed in 1960.

With the help the given statements, it can be said that if Jinnah had not been died in 1948 he would
have solved all issues. His effort made the major problems solved and established the foundation of
government strong.

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Q: Why was Pakistan faced with a refugee problem in 1947? [7] (N2006)

Pakistan faced many problems at the time of partition in 1947 but most of the problems were
connected to refugee issue.

During 1947, violence between Hindus and Muslims increased dramatically. Muslims fearful of being
killed were forced to leave all their possessions and cross into Pakistan to seek shelter. Particularly in
the Punjab where the Sikhs and the Hindus created violence as it had the majority of all three and the
province was divided under the Radcliffe Award.

The Boundary Award was announced on 17th August which had made the problems worse between
the two. Since Pakistan had become independent so Muslims were leaving India for their homeland. It
was argued that India deliberately made difficulties for the new Pakistani government by forcing
Muslims across the border. Areas of Gurdaspur, Ferozepur and Madhupur had to be given to Pakistan
but were rewarded to India. People had to vacate their areas in no time and there was violence and
bloodshed everywhere. This made the refugees more unsure about the situation and they migrated to
Pakistan.

Hindus and Sikhs, perhaps fearful of reprisals and a genuine desire to live in a Hindu nation, also
contributed to the refugee problem by crossing from Pakistan to India. Majority of Hindus who lived
in Muslim areas were able to get hold of the possession left by the Muslims but when the Muslims
came to Pakistan, they had to live in tents and shanty places with no means of living as this area was
not developed.

Q: Why did Pakistan join the United Nations in 1947? [7]

Pakistan came into being on 14th August 1947 as an independent country and to solve the problems of
the country, it joined the United Nations in September 1947 for several reasons.

Kashmir was a princely state which resulted as a trouble for Pakistan. The war started in September
1947 when India let its forces enter Kashmir after Kashmiri Maharaja asked India for help. Pakistan
felt that membership of the United Nations would help their conflict with India over Kashmir by
drawing the international community’s attention to it. The ceasefire on Kashmir was signed in 1948.

Secondly, Pakistan took it upon itself to become a spokesman of many Asian states and movements,
especially Muslim countries. It helped Pakistan in developing good relations with Iran, UAE and Saudi
Arabia particularly. It helped Pakistan in getting more aid for the development of the economy.

Thirdly, Pakistan wanted to solve Canal Water Dispute with India which had created Punjab lands
badly affected when India stopped river water. Later Pakistan signed Indus Water Treaty in 1960 by
which Pakistan was able to build two dams, five barrages and one gated siphon.

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Q: How successfully did India and Pakistan handle the Kashmir issue between 1947 and 1988?
Explain your answer. [14]

The Kashmir issue became a problem on partition because it had a Hindu ruler of a population which
was 85% Muslim at the time of partition of 1947. Several efforts were made in solving the issue
however, the issue remained unsuccessful.

Firstly, the time of Kashmir war of 1947-48 both armies fought fiercely and then a cease-fire was
arranged in January 1948 leaving Kashmir divided between India and Pakistan. From 1949 an official
cease-fire line was agreed between India and Pakistan and was to be patrolled by UN troops. Pakistan
kept up pressure on India by appealing to the UN whenever Indian moves tried to integrate Indian
occupied Kashmir into India.

Secondly, in 1957, the UN reconfirmed that Kashmir was a disputed territory and that a final solution
should be settled by a UN supervised plebiscite. India promised to hold a plebiscite in Kashmir to
determine its future however it was never conducted and the issue remained unresolved.

Thirdly, in 1965 both countries fought a major war on all borders and Kashmir became a major
battlefield. In 1966, Tashkent Declaration was signed between the two countries for solving the war
condition and promised not to fight again in future.

In the same way the war of 1971 also remained a trouble when Pakistan started war in Kashmir to
divert India’s attention in East Pakistan. Heavy bombing and artillery was used in Kashmir resulted in
casualties of the forces as well as of the civilians.

On the other case, both countries have to maintain high budgets for defence and for the purchase of
military weapons as Kashmir issue was never solved. The Line of Control made by the United Nations
served as a temporary boundary between the two countries and thus the three wars of 1947, 1965
and then 1971 even could not solve the issue.

Pakistan supports the cause of Kashmir internationally and asks for conducting a plebiscite to honour
the choice of the people of Kashmir. Pakistan also raises the issue of violence of human laws in
Kashmir by the forces of India and thus the two countries remain in tough ties.

PAST PAPER PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

Q: ‘THE CANAL WATER DISPUTE WAS THE MOST IMPORTANT PROBLEM FACING THE NEWLY
ESTABLISHED GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN IN 1947’. DO YOU AGREE OR DISAGREE? GIVE
REASONS FOR YOUR ANSWER. [14] (S/2007)
Q: ‘THE GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN WAS TOTALLY SUCCESSFUL IN SOLVING THE PROBLEMS
OF PARTITION DURING 1947 AND 1948.’ DO YOU AGREE? EXPLAIN YOUR ANSWER.
[14] (S/2005)

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Q: WHY WAS PAKISTAN FACED WITH A REFUGEE PROBLEM IN 1947? [7] (W/2006)
Q: WAS THE REFUGEE ISSUE THE MOST IMPORTANT PROBLEM FACING THE NEWLY FORMED
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN IN 1947? GIVE REASONS FOR YOUR ANSWER. [14]

Q: How successful was Quaid-e-Azam in establishing the new Pakistan in 1947? Explain
your answer. [10]

Level 5: Explains successes and failures, and also produces a judgement or evaluation. [10]

Level 4: Explains successes and failures.

Successes:
Quaid-e-Azam Relief Fund created to help refugees. He appealed to the people to help the
refugees.He toured the provinces encouraging and motivating the people. Declared himself
‘Protector-General’ of religious minorities. State Bank of Pakistan set up. Karachi made capital of
Pakistan. Civil Services re-organised. Joined United Nations and attempted to draw their attention to
Kashmir problem.
Failures:
Kashmir and other Princely States issues not resolved. Canal Water Dispute not resolved until 1959.
Millions made homeless or died as a result of partition. He died in 1948. [8–9]

Level 3: Explains successes OR explains failures. [5–7]

Level 2: Identifies/describes his policies, e.g.

He set up accommodation centres for refugees. [3–4]

Level 1: Simplistic statement, e.g.

He was very successful and they missed him badly when he died. [1-2]

Q: Why did Pakistan join the United Nations in 1947? [7]

Level 3: Explains reasons, e.g.

Pakistan felt that membership of the United Nations would help their conflict with India over Kashmir
by drawing the international community’s attention to it. Also Pakistan took it upon itself to become a
spokesman of many Asian states and movements, especially Muslim countries. Other issues included
the World Bank and the Canal Water Dispute. [5–7]

Level 2: Identifies reasons, e.g.

Because of the Canal Water Dispute. [2–4]

Level 1: Simplistic answer, e.g.

The United Nations was founded after World War II. [1]

Q: How successfully did India and Pakistan handle the Kashmir issue between 1947 and 1988?
Explain your answer. [14]

LEVEL 1: Simplistic statement, for example: They have not been able to solve it. [1-2]

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LEVEL 2: Description of events between 1947 and 1988, for example: The Kashmir issue
became a problem on partition because it had a Hindu ruler of a population which was
mainly Muslim. [3-6]

LEVEL 3: Explains successes OR Explains failures. [7-10]

LEVEL 4: Explains successes and failures.

Successes: A cease-fire was arranged in January 1948 leaving Kashmir divided between India and
Pakistan. From 1949 an official cease-fire line was agreed between India and Pakistan and was to be
patrolled by UN troops. Pakistan kept up pressure on India by appealing to the UN whenever Indian
moves tried to integrate Indian occupied Kashmir into India. In 1957 the UN reconfirmed that Kashmir
was a disputed territory and that a final solution should be settled by a UN supervised plebiscite. India
promised to hold a plebiscite in Kashmir to determine its future.
Failures: War has broken out on at least 2 occasions between the 2 countries.
Plebiscite still not been held. Continues to be a source of conflict between the two
nations. [9-13]

LEVEL 5: As Level 4 – also produces a judgement or evaluation. [14]

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 SIR ADNAN QURESHI PAKISTAN STUDIES-HISTORY-CHAPTER 12

CHAPTER 12: Minor Ministries

Timeline of the Chapter:

11th September 1948: Pakistan’s first Governor General Mohammad Ali Jinnah died with tuberculosis.

14th September 1948: Khwaja Nazimuddin became the 2nd Governor General.

7th March 1949: Basic Principles Committee was formed by Khwaja Nazimuddin on the request of
Liaquat Ali Khan to draft the first Constitution of Pakistan.

12th March 1949: Basic Principles Committee had 25 members of Constituent Assembly gave their
proposals with the name of Objective Resolution.

16th October 1951: Khan Liaquat Ali Khan was martyred at Liaquat Bagh at Rawalpindi. He was given
the title of Shaheed-e-Millat.

17th October 1951: Ghulam Muhammad became the 3rd Governor General persuading Khwaja
Nazimuddin to be the 2nd Prime Minister as it was a more prominent designation.

22nd December 1952: Under Khwaja Nazimuddin as the Prime Minister, the Basic Principles
Committee gave suggestions altering its points given in 1950.

17th April 1953: Khwaja Nazimuddin was dismissed by Ghulam Muhammad on the charges of political
chaos and food shortages in East Pakistan that caused many deaths.

17th April 1953: Mohammad Ali Bogra, the Pakistan Ambassador to US was made the 3rd Prime
Minister of Pakistan. Bogra brought US aid to Pakistan as he was a trusted ambassador when Pakistan.

21 September 1954: Mohammad Ali Bogra tried to minimize the power of the Governor General,
Ghulam Muhammad when he was abroad. The Constituent Assembly tried to minimize the power of
the Governor General. Ghulam Muhammad was not happy upon his return and dismissed Bogra.

1954: Ghulam Muhammad selected five non cabinet members including the Commander-in-Chief of
the Army, General Ayub Khan. Upon the pressure of his cabinet and foreign donors, Mohammad Ali
Bogra was re-appointed as the Prime Minister.

21st June 1955: Elections were held for the new Constitution Assembly. Muslim League had lost its
vote bank in East Pakistan.

7th August 1955: Ghulam Muhammad fell ill. He was replaced by Major General Iskander Mirza as 3rd
Governor General of Pakistan.

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November 1954: Mohammad Ali Bogra initiated One Unit Scheme which was approved by Iskander
Mirza on 5th October 1955. It stated that all five provinces and 10 princely states would be considered
as West and East wings of Pakistan with equal number of seats.

12th August 1955: Iskander Mirza dismissed Mohammad Ali Bogra as Prime Minister and he was sent
to US as ambassador from Pakistan. Mohammad Ali, the Finance Minister was appointed as the new
Prime Minister.

29th February 1956: the first constitution of Pakistan was adopted and was enforced on 23rd March
1956. Iskander Mirza became the 1st President in March 1956. It was mainly a compromise between
the Muslim League and the United Front. The United Front dropped their demand of having equal
seats in the Assembly and Bengali was taken as the official Language with Urdu.

12th September 1956: PM Rehmat Ali resigned after the severe weather and political situation in East
Pakistan. He was replaced by Hussain Shaheed Suharwardy.

September 1957: H.S. Suharwardy was asked to resign by Iskander Mirza in October 1957 on the issue
of his disagreements of One Unit Scheme.

18th October 1957: Iskander Mirza appointed Ibrahim Ismail Chandigarh as the 6th Prime Minister. He
as an interim Prime Minister could not hold the government and resigned voluntarily.

December 1957: Feroze Khan Noon was appointed as the 7th Prime Minister by Iskandar Mirza. He
had a huge cabinet of 26 members out of 80 members. The government was in severe condition of
politics and drought conditions.

7th October 1958: Iskander Mirza was expecting a challenge in the upcoming Presidential Elections in
1959. He declared Martial Law and made Commander-in-Chief, General Ayub Khan as his new Prime
Minister.

24th October 1958: Ayub Khan exiled Iskander Mirza to London after his resignation.

27th October 1958: Chief Justice Munir declared the actions of Iskander Mirza and Ayub Khan as legal.
Ayub Kahn became the Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA).

26th October 1959: Ayub Khan introduced Basic Democracies Order (BD) a four-tier system.

The major problems faced by Ayub Khan in his tenure were Indo-Pak War 1965, Presidential Elections
of 2nd January 1965 in which Miss Fatima Jinnah was defeated and he faced serious opposition and
his decision for having no political activity for a long time.

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, the Foreign Minister of Ayub Khan resigned in 1966 and became an important
political figure and started his own political party in 1967 with the name of Pakistan People’s Party.
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto gathered the support of masses under Islamic Socialism.

17th March 1969: Ayub Khan declared Second Martial law.

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 25th March 1969: Ayub Khan resigned.

25th March 1969: General Yahya Khan, the Commander-in-Chief of the army became the next Chief
Martial Law Administrator and then became the President. He gave LFO (Legal Framework Order).

12th November 1970: Bhola Cyclone struck East Bengal resulting in many casualties.

7th December 1970: Elections were held in East and West Pakistan for 313 seats. Sheikh Mujeeb-ur-
Rehman took the lead in East Pakistan with Awami League and Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto took lead in West
Pakistan with Pakistan People’s Party.

PRE-MILITARY ERA (1947-58)

LIAQUAT ALI KHAN:

(August 1947-October 1951):

The first Prime Minister of Pakistan came to power from 14th August 1947 till 16th October 1951.
Despite of the fact that Liaquat Ali Khan worked really hard for the establishment of a smoother
government.

Domestic Reforms:

 An important event during his premiership was the establishment of National Bank in November
1949, and the installation of a paper currency mill in Karachi. Pakistan Security Press was established
in Karachi.
 He established Sindh University and gave educational policy of Pakistan.
 In March 1949, Basic Principles’ Committee was made which had 25 members of Constituent
Assembly. It gave their proposals with the name of ‘Aims and Objects of Pakistan’ or the Objective
Resolution.
 The Objective Resolution aimed to draft the first constitution of Pakistan in accordance to Islamic Law.
The Committee suggested points which were refused by the Ulemas and other groups. East Pakistanis
had apprehensions for not considering Bengali as the official Language in the constitution.
 Along with his Finance Minister, he gave the Six Year Economic Plan to boost economy and
established trade for Pakistan. A planning Commission was made in 1950.
 He declared Karachi as the capital and made government houses and offices for establishing smooth
government.

Foreign Policy:

 Pakistan joined the United Nations on 1st September 1947 to get more trade, solve the issue of
Kashmir and to get aid to solve matters of economy.

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 LAK and Jawaharlal Lal Nehru signed Ceasefire Papers which was effected in Kashmir on 1st January
1949. It was decided that a free and impartial plebiscite would be held under the supervision of the
UN.
 A visa system between India and Pakistan was started to ensure peaceful movement of the refugees.
Liaquat-Nehru Pact was signed with Jawaharlal Nehru on 8th April 1950.
 LAK had a visit to the United States in September 1950 and developed relations with capitalist
countries. The invitation from Former USSR was denied for its Communist influence. It also helped
Pakistan is developing relations with other western countries.

Rawalpindi Conspiracy:

Ali Khan's relation with General Sir Douglas Gracey deteriorated. In January 1951, Ali Khan approved
the appointment of General Ayub Khan as the first native Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army
after General Gracey retired. During this time the socialists gained a significant amount of support on
the matter of LAK’s visit to the US. A secret mission was planned by senior military leaders to
overthrow the government of Ali Khan. The media reported the involvement of Chief of General Staff
Major-General Akbar Khan leading the coup. The Military Police launched massive arrests inside the
military services, more than 14 officers were charged for plotting the coup who were tried in secret
and given lengthy jail sentences.

Liaquat Ali Khan’s Assassination:

Liaquat Ali Khan was assassinated o 16th October 1951 at Liaquat Bagh, Rawalpindi by an Afghan
national, Saad Akber who was killed by a police officer on the spot. Many conspiracies were
developed at LAK’s assassination.

KHWAJA NAZIMUDDIN:
(September 1948-October 1951) and (October 1951-April 1953)

Khwaja Nazimuddin was the President of Muslim League after Jinnah left the designation on 14 th
August 1947. He became the acting Governor General when Jinnah was unwell and also became the
Second Governor General of Pakistan after Jinnah’s death in September 1948 and extended his full
support to Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan.

He took up the job of Second Prime Minister of Pakistan after Liaquat Ali Khan’s assassination in
October 1951.

Domestic/ Constitutional Reforms:

 In 1949, Governor-General Nazimuddin established the parliamentary committee, the Basic

Principles’ Committee, on the advice of Prime Minister Ali Khan to underlying basic principles that
would lay foundation of Constitution of Pakistan.
 In 1951, Prime Minister Nazimuddin's government conducted the country's first nationwide Census.

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 The Second draft of the Basic Principles’ Committee was finalized by Prime Minister Liaquat Khwaja
Nazimuddin in 1952 which also faced serious disagreements on the issue of declaring Ahmedis as
Non-Muslims and dismissal of Zafarullah Khan, the Foreign Minister.
 In January 1952, Prime Minister Nazimuddin publicly announced in Dacca's meeting that Urdu must
be the official language of Pakistan. On 21st February 1952, a demonstration in the Bengali Language
Movement demanding equal and official status to the Bengali language turned bloody, with many
fatalities caused by police firings.

Foreign Policy:

 Pakistan became the non-permanent member of United Nations’ Security Council in 1952-53 for the
first time and started to play its role in international peace.
 Pakistan received a loan of 100 million tons of wheat at the time of droughts from the United States
during 1951-53.

Dismissal of Nazimuddin:

There were food crisis and shortage of food in East Pakistan which added problems for the
government. The Constitutional issues over Bengali language became another reason. Malik Ghulam
Mohammad, the third Governor General of Pakistan dismissed Nazimuddin on 17th April 1953 and
called for Mohammad Ali Bogra, as the third Prime Minister who was serving as the Pakistani
Ambassador to the United States.

MALIK GHULAM MOHAMMAD:

(17th October 1951-7th August 1955)

Malik Ghulam Mohammad had been serving as the Finance Minister of Pakistan from 14 th August
1947 and had great contributions at the time of Liaquat Ali Khan. He served as the third Governor
General of the country after the post was emptied by Nazimuddin.

Domestic/ Political Reforms:

 In 1952, a major Jute Processing Plant was also set up at Naryanganj in East Pakistan to develop its
processing and trade.
 He worked for mineral exploration in Pakistan. In 1952, Sui gas was discovered in Balochistan which
gave a big boost to the economy.
 He started the first Five Year Plan (1955-60) and focused on many industries including jute
processing, cotton textile and sugar production.
 Elections were held for the new Constitution Assembly on 21st June 1955. Muslim League had lost its
vote bank in East Pakistan.
 Ghulam Mohammad made a five-member cabinet including General Iskander Mirza.
 He had to expel Zafarullah Khan (Foreign Minister) being an Ahmadi as there was a campaign against
him. He also dismissed two Prime Ministers, Khwaja Nazimuddin in April 1953 and had tough political
ties with PM Mohammad Ali Bogra.

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 Foreign Policy:

 Pakistan joined Mutual Defence Assistance programme with the United States in May 1954 and got
training and military aid from to develop its army.
 Pakistan joined SEATO (South East Asian Treaty Organization) in 1954 and CENTO (Central Treaty
Organization) in 1955 which gave immense support to its relations with other countries and to come
out of Soviet influence.
 Pakistan received a loan of 100 million tons of wheat at the time of droughts from the United States
during 1951-53.
 Pakistan received aid of military aircrafts from the United States in 1954.

Maulvi Tamizuddin Case:

In 1954, Governor General Ghulam Muhammad dissolved the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan.
Maulvi Tamizuddin Khan, the President of the Constituent Assembly challenged the Governor
General's actions in the Sindh High Court. In 1955, the Federal Court led by Chief Justice Muhammad
Munir ruled in support of the Governor General. The court suspended the decision of the High Court
and held the Governor General, and not the Constituent Assembly, to be the sovereign authority.
Mohammad Ali Bogra was dismissed and replaced by Chaudhri Mohammad Ali.

7th August 1955: Ghulam Muhammad fell ill. He was replaced by Major General Iskander Mirza as
3rd Governor General of Pakistan.

MOHAMMAD ALI BOGRA:

(17th April 1953-12th August 1955)

Mohammad Ali Bogra was a prominent Bengali leader who had great importance in the politics of the
country. He was selected as the third Prime Minister of Pakistan by Ghulam Mohammad while he was
a bureaucrat and was serving in the U.S as Ambassador after serving many countries. He became very
famous for his One Unit Scheme.

Domestic/ Constitutional Reforms:

 In November 1954, initiated One Unit Scheme which was approved by Iskander Mirza on 5th October
1955. It stated that all five provinces and 10 princely states would be considered as West and East
wings of Pakistan. It was passed in order to unify the various nations however, East Pakistan had faced
more disturbance due to it. West Pakistan was taken as one province on 14th October 1955.
 Bogra made a cabinet which was known as "Ministry of Talents." It included General Ayub Khan, the
Army Commander, as the Defence Minister and Major-General (retired) Iskander Ali Mirza as Interior
Minister.
 There were a lot many political crisis in East Pakistan during Bogra’s time.

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 Foreign Policy:

 In 1955, Prime Minister Bogra led Pakistan to attend the Bandung Conference in Indonesia in 1955,
which saw the first high-level contact between China and Pakistan.
 Pakistan joined SEATO in 1954 and CENTO in 1955.

Dismissal of Bogra:

Bogra was dismissed by Malik Ghulam Mohammad but remained as a care-taker Prime Minister for
eight months. After the Elections of June 1955, new Prime Minister Mohammad Ali came to power
and Bogra flew to the U.S in August 1955 and continued his job as the Ambassador.

GENERAL ISKANDER MIRZA

(7th August 1955-27th October 1958)

General Iskander Mirza had been a prominent figure as a bureaucrat from the time of Malik Ghulam
Mohammad. He served at several positions for Pakistan and finally when Malik Ghulam Mohammad
fell ill on 7th August 1955, he came the fourth Governor General of the country.

Domestic/Constitutional Reforms:

 One Unit Scheme which was approved by Iskander Mirza on 5th October 1955. It stated that all five
provinces and 10 princely states would be considered as West and East wings of Pakistan. It served to
minimize the agitation and political disorder in East Pakistan.

 On 29th February 1956, the first Constitution of Pakistan was adopted and was enforced on 23rd
March 1956. Iskander Mirza became the 1st President in March 1956. It was mainly a compromise
between the Muslim League and the United Front. The United Front dropped their demand of having
equal seats in the Assembly and Bengali was taken as the official Language with Urdu. It provided for a
unicameral (single-chamber) National Assembly with 300 seats, evenly divided between East and
West Pakistan.
 He started Pakistan Telecommunication Authority and expanded Telephone system.
 He also completed Karachi Airport Building in 1955.
 After a delay, Pakistan started its first economic Five Year Plan 1955-60 in his tenure.
Political Disorder during Mirza’s time:
 During Iskander Mirza’s time, four Prime Ministers were changed and the country was in extreme
perplexed condition on the continuity of democracy.
 In August 1955, Mohammad Ali Bogra was dismissed by Mirza who took the case to the High Court
and later he was replaced by Mohammad Ali, the Finance Minister of Pakistan at that time.
 In September 1956, Mohammad Ali was unable to retain his majority after bad political condition and
severe weather conditions in East Pakistan and he was replaced by a Bengali man, Hussain Shaheed
Suharwardy.

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 In October 1957, H.S.Suharwardy was dismissed when Mirza discovered that the Prime Minister was
planning to support Feroz Khan Noon, leader of the Republican Party, for the Presidency in the
country’s first general elections, scheduled for January 1959. Mirza replaced Suharwardy with Ismail
Ibrahim Chundrigar as the 6th PM.
 In December 1957, the interim PM, I.I.Chundrigar resigned voluntarily as he was unable to sustain his
position due to tough political protests. He was replaced by Feroze Khan Noon as the 7 th Prime
Minister.
 In October 1958, Iskander Mirza was facing agitation from political parties. He was expected to be
defeated in the Presidential Elections of 1959. Therefore, on 7th October 1958, General Iskander
Mirza imposed Martial Law in the country by making the Commander-in-Chief, General Ayub Khan
as the new Prime Minister.
Foreign Policy of Iskander Mirza:
 In 1954–56, the United States and Pakistan signed the Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement which
saw the dispatching of the Military Assistance Advisory Group to provide military training to the
Pakistan Armed Forces in 1955–56.
 In 1956, on the matter of Suez Canal issue between Egypt and the European powers, the United
Kingdom and France, Pakistan supported Muslim country Egypt which annoyed the UK.
 After becoming Islamic Republic in 1956, Pakistan came out of British colonial power and later joined
the Commonwealth Group for better trade and financial assistance.
Dismissal and Exile of Mirza:
 Mirza wanted to continue as the President by winning January 1959 Elections however, his political
fame was declining. He decided to continue in Martial Law therefore the assemblies were dissolved
and PM Feroze Khan Noon was dismissed on 7th October 1958. Mirza announced Ayub Khan as his
Prime Minister. After 20 days, on 27th October 1958, General Ayub dismissed and made Iskander
Mirza exile to London and took over as the first Chief Martial Law Administrator of Pakistan. Ayub
also abandoned the 1956 Constitution.

CHAPTER 12: MINISTRIES

FIELD MARSHAL GENERAL AYUB KHAN: (27th October 1958-25th March 1969)
General Ayub Khan was chosen by Liaquat Ali Khan as the Senior Commander of Pakistan Army over
Douglas Gracey in January 1951. From that time, he had great importance in the armed forces. PM
Bogra made him the Defence Minister in his rule and finally he was called in by Mirza as the Martial
Law Administrator in 1958.
DOMESTIC POLICIES
a. POLITICAL/ CONSTITUTIONAL:
 Basic Democratic System: On 26th October 1959, Ayub Khan introduced Basic Democracies Order
(BD) a four-tier system of governance in which the local bodies were made strong and the country
was divided into 80,000 town councils or tehseels. Each Village Council had a Basic Democrat on 1000
to 1200 people. All funds were given to that BD for basic development. The Village Council would
choose Sub-District members, who would elect District and Divisional members respectively. Later
80,000 Constituencies were further divided into 1,20,000 Constituencies.

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 Change of Federal Capital: In 1959, Ayub Khan announced that Karachi would no more stay as the
federal capital and a new capital city will be developed and the government offices and embassies
would be shifted there by 1961. The development started in 1960 and finally in 1961 Islamabad
became the new capital of Pakistan. Ayub Khan shifted the capital for the following reasons:
 Karachi was a seaport and due to trading and commercial activities with a huge population.
 Karachi was close to sea and Indian Navy had quick access to it which could seize at the time of war.
 Islamabad was developed at a pleasant place where the embassies and ambassadors could travel and
work freely in a safe environment.
 Karachi had a lot of political activeness due to a number of political parties and Miss Fatima Jinnah,
sister of Jinnah and a veteran leader also resided there.
 Islamabad was developed close to General Head Quarters (GHQ) Rawalpindi so that Ayub Khan could
manage the matters of Army and the government together.
 First Referendum of Pakistan: Since the Constitution was banned and there was no real system of
governance, Ayub Khan decided to get himself chosen as the President of Pakistan. In Feb 1960
Referendum was conducted in which people voted in favour of Ayub Khan with 95.4% votes. The
Martial Law was then lifted and Ayub became the President. He made a Constitution Committee
under Justice Shahabuddin whose job was to work on the second Constitution of Pakistan.
 1962 Constitution: In March 1962, the second Constitution of Pakistan was imposed which gave all
power to the President. It was considered as a weak constitution as there was no place for Prime
Minister and the President had special power to control provincial assemblies. It was the constitution
that weakened the provincial autonomy and gave strength to the Central government.
 Presidential Elections: General Ayub Khan was facing tough time on the ask of contesting Presidential
Elections as he had delayed it. Miss Fatima Jinnah a veteran politician was supported by democratic
groups both in West and East of Pakistan was the major contestant against Ayub Khan. She used the
slogan. ‘Democracy Versus Dictatorship’ which gained immense fame as she was already a very
respectable leader. The Elections were held in December 1964 and January 1965 and Ayub Khan used
all his power, authority and Basic Democrats to make him win. The results were shocking for many
including Miss Fatima Jinnah as she got only 36% of the votes and Ayub became President for the
next term with 64% votes.

b. SOCIAL REFORMS:
 Family Law Ordinance: Ayub Khan gave the Family Laws in 1961 in the light of his economic plan.
Pakistan’s population was growing at high rate and thus the economic benefits were not being
transferred to the common man. Even the religious hindrance of laws for polygamy, marriage and
divorce were not clearly identified in the law before which Ayub Khan made it very strict and clear.
Some of the major points were:
 No Muslim man could remarry without the permission of his first wife and it will be mandatory for
him to keep balance for all rights.
 In case of divorce, the couple had to consult the village council and the final verdict will be given by
the council for a legal divorce.
 In case of divorce, the man will be responsible for paying maintenance allowance for the divorced
wife and children under 18.

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 Marriageable ages for boys and girls were decided to avoid child marriage and control population. For
boys, the age was 18 and for girls the age was 16.
The religious groups and Ulemas did not appreciate many of the reforms and this started a protest for
Ayub Khan’s government.
 Family Planning Program: Ayub Khan wanted to control the population as it was raising with 13% as
one of the highest in the world.
 He started different programs of Ministry of Population Control whose job was to hire health workers
to promote awareness about the population control.
 He introduced religious leaders and Ulemas to support him in his plan to control population however,
it received serious agitation and resentment.
 Health Services: Medical services were made better to save infant deaths. Dispensaries, Clinics and
maternity homes were made.
 Educational Reforms:
Pakistan’s literacy rate was very low which was a hindrance in economic and industrial growth. It was
25% with few people skilled to deal with the industrial sector. He took the following measures to
improve educational sector:
 Education Policy was given in 1958. 1-5 class education was made free at all government schools from
Class 1-8 education was made compulsory for all jobs in Pakistan.
 Large investment was made in the sector of education. New schools, colleges, nursing homes and
medical colleges were made which helped in bringing up the rate of literacy however, it improved
only by one percent to 26%.
 Higher Education Commission was established. Many universities were upgraded from colleges and
government announced grants for qualified students.
 Three-year degree program was also introduced at colleges which received disagreements from
students in terms of spending extra time.
 Rehabilitation of Refugees: To settle down the homeless refugees in Pakistan, General Azam Khan
was appointed as the Rehabilitation Minister. He established Orangi Town near Karachi, where
thousands of migrants were provided with houses on easy payment and even free of cost.

a. ECONOMIC REFORMS:
 The Second Five Year Plan was given during 1960-65 which remained a great success and GNP and
GDP improved as well as agricultural and industrial growth was showing improvement. Similarly, the
Third Five Year Plan 1965-70 was also given but its success was not remarkable due to economic
challenges and trade embargo that time.
 Agricultural Reforms: Pakistan has been an agro-based economy. It was largely depending on
agricultural products for domestic consumption as well as for trade. Some of the major reforms in
agriculture sector were:
 In October 1958, Land Reforms were introduced in which 500 acres of irrigated land and 1000 acres
of Barani (rain-fed) land was made taxable. Land Tenure Policy was introduced in which excessive
lands would be confiscated by the government and small farmers could own it with interest free
installment in twenty-five years. This supported the small farmers.

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 He constructed three major dams, Warask Dam of River Kabul, Tarbela Dam on River Indus and
Mangla Dam on River Jhelum which brought Green Revolution in the country and millions of acres of
land was made cultivable.
 He also made five barrages, seven link canals and one gated siphon to improve irrigation and to save
lands from floods.
 Agricultural Development Bank (ADBP) was established in all major areas to provide loans to the
farmers for the purchase of seeds, fertilizers and tractors and other machinery.
 SCARP (Salinity Control And Rehabilitation Programme) was started to bring awareness about saving
the agricultural lands from water logging and salinity. Free tube wells were installed in Barani areas
throughout the country where irrigated water was not accessible.
 Price Control Programme: Ayub Khan brought many programmes to control price of many
commodities to raise the standard of living. Some major reforms were:
 Action against Hoardings: He fixed the prices of basic commodities like oil, ghee, flour and sugar to
minimize hoarding. The hoarders were arrested and were punished to cut down the artificial prices of
the products
 Ration Card Scheme: He introduced Ration Card Scheme in which the family head was issued a card
with names of all family members. The grocery purchase on the card was subsidized by the
government and people had to pay less on basic commodities. This also promoted people to keep
small family sizes.
 Promotion of local products: Local manufacturing was promoted which made the cost of many
products low and accessible to the purchasing power of the people.
 Industrial Reforms: Ayub Khan worked on improving industrial sector and empowered the local and
foreign industrialists to invest in the country which made the country Asian Tiger. Some of the
reforms were:
 National Investment Trust (NIT) and Pakistan Industrial Development Corporation (PIDC) were
established to promote investors to establish new industries in the country.
 Industrial Development Bank of Pakistan (IDBP) was established to promote industries. Industrialists
were provided with loan to set up their business.Major industries like Cement, Cotton Textile, Sugar,
Iron and Steel, were established at many major towns like Karachi, Faisalabad, Lahore etc.
 Extra Bonus Scheme was started for promoting the exports who were able to meet a certain target of
exports. They were provided incentives on taxes.
 An Oil Refinery was established at Karachi in 1962 with the help of Saudi Arabia for cutting down the
import bill on crude oil.
 Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation (PMDC) was developed to search and discover new
reserves of minerals which not only provided employment but also brought investment by the foreign
investors.

FOREIGN POLICY:

 The U-2 Affair: In May 1960, U2 Incident of a US spy plane which was launched from Peshawar shot
down by USSR. Russian Premier Khrushchev was annoyed with Pakistan as it stated that the radar
showed its launch from Peshawar. The pilot was arrested by Russian authorities and claimed the

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 United States had tried to spy over Russia. This was a major blow in the foreign policy of Pakistan.
Later Ayub visited USSR in 1965.

 The Indus Water Treaty: In Sept 1960 Indus Water Treaty was signed between Lal Bahadur Shastri
and Ayub Khan with India by which Pakistan got aid and grants from World Bank and other countries
and constructed 2 dams, five barrages, seven link canals and a gated siphon. This brought Green
Revolution in Pakistan.

 Relations with the Commonwealth: Ayub visited the United Kingdom in 1962 and its started new
relations of the two countries after the problem of Suez Canal issue in 1956 in which Pakistan had
supported Egypt over UK.

 Indo-Chinese War and relations with China: India and China had a war in 1962 in which Pakistan
supported China. This became a major factor in developing relations with China. In 1963, PIA got
access to many Chinese cities along with trade agreements between the two countries. In 1964, China
supported Pakistan’s policy on Kashmir and Pakistan voted for the permanent membership of China in
the UN Security Council. The Karakoram Highway was started to be built in 1963.

 Regional Co-operation for Development (RCD): Pakistan, Iran and Turkey agreed to help each other
in economic development and came together as strong allies. Later in 1984, more countries were
added and its name became Economic Co-operation Organization (ECO).

 Relations with Germany: In 1963 Germany asked for loan from Pakistan. Pakistan also sent
technicians and labor to work in Germany.

 Indo-Pak War: In September 1965, India imposed war on Pakistan which was fought for 17 days. Both
countries fought major war and tanks, planes and heavy machinery was used. Later in January 1966,
Tashkent Declaration was signed by Lal Bahadur Shastri and General Ayub Kahn headed by Russian
Premier Kosygin in which both countries promised for not starting the war again and gave aback other
each other’s confiscated areas. This became a big blow to Ayub domestically as Bhutto, Ayub’s
Foreign Minister resigned in reaction.

 Bi-Cameral Policy: Pakistan wanted military support at the time of 1965 War however the United
States imposed trade embargo at that time which annoyed Ayub. Later he announced that Pakistan
will follow a Bi-Cameral Policy in which it would find other military partners and keep good relations
with China and USSR.
PROBLEMS FACED BY AYUB KHAN IN HIS RULE:

 His land Tenure Policy was not welcomed by the major landlords and their lands were confiscated and
were handed over to the small farmers.

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  His Family Planning Progamme faced challenges as many of the reforms were called unreligious by
Ulemas.
 The three-year degree programme was not accepted by the students. His too much spending on
eduaction also did not bring a healthy change in literacy rate.
 The defeat of Miss Fatima Jinnah in 1964-65 elections brought problems for Ayub as people blamed
him for doing rigging in the results.
 Throughout his time, East Bengalis retaliated. Sheikh Mujeeb-ur Rehman gave his famous Six Points in
1966 which gave political tough time to Ayub. Ayub made Mujeeb and other opponents arrested but
the problems were not solved.
 Bhutto resigned from Ayub’s government after the Tashkent declaration which was a big blow to his
government.
 Ayub celebrated the DECADE OF PROGRESS from 27th October 1967 to 27th October 1968 to highlight
the major reforms of his time. Millions were spent on advertisements of TV and newspapers
throughout the year. However, it did not serve the purpose and Ayub faced questions on why so
much was spent on the celebration.

RESIGNATION OF AYUB:

On 17th March 1969, Ayub Khan declared Second Martial law as the political situation in East Pakistan
was getting out of control. On 25th March 1969, Ayub Khan resigned and gave all power to General

Agha Mohammad Yahya Khan as the Second CMLA.

Q: Why did Pakistan face constitutional problems during 1950 and 1956? [7]

Q: Which of the following contributed the most in the domestic policies for Pakistan?

i. Liaquat Ali Khan.

ii. Malik Ghulam Muhammad
iii. Generl Iskander Mirza

Give your answer with reference to all three of the above. [14]

Q: Why were so many Prime Ministers removed during 1953 and 1958? [7]

Q: Why was it so difficult to agree on a new Constitution in 1950? [7]

East Pakistan disagreed with the draft proposals in 1950 because it felt that its people were under-
represented, especially given its large population, and it wanted representation equal to each of West
Pakistan’s provinces.

It also objected to Urdu being the main language, given its use of Bengali. There was opposition from
local and provincial politicians, as they had no input under the proposals of approving of the power of
the head of state and central government.

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Religious groups also objected, as the new constitution wouldn’t put enough emphasis on Islam, and
they argued that Pakistan should be governed on Islamic

Q: Which of the following was the most important contribution of Ayub Khan’s government during
the ‘decade of development’ between 1958 and 1969:

(i) agricultural and other economic reforms;

(ii) constitutional reforms;

(iii) foreign policy?

Explain your answer with reference to all three of the above. [14]

Q: Why was Martial Law declared in 1958? [7]

There were a number of Prime Ministers between 1956 and 1958 and it reached a stage when Ayub
Khan achieved that status that he felt the army should take control until stability had been restored
and questions answered.

East Pakistan’s politicians wanted more say in the running of the central government which increased
tension.

The constitutional and political problems had been at their peak and the rift of East and West was
growing.

Q: ‘Constitutional reforms were the most important of Ayub Khan’s domestic policies during the
‘decade of development’ between 1958 and 1969.” Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer.
[14]

Q; ‘Ayub Khan’s agricultural reforms were more successful than any other of his domestic policies
between 1958 and 1969’. Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

Land was redistributed to farmers with medium sized farms and agriculture was revitalised to such an
extent that crop outputs were at record levels. However there were other factors which were
important aspects of his domestic policies.

In 1962 an oil refinery was established in Karachi and a Mineral Development Corporation was set up
for the exploration of mineral deposits.

An Export Bonus Scheme was set up offering incentives to industrialists who increased exports.

National growth rate rose more than 7% and the economy grew three times faster than any other
South East Asian country.

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However the new wealth was concentrated in the hands of a few and the general population didn’t
benefit. As a result of these policies economic growth rose sharply.

In 1959 Basic Democracies were introduced which was a four tier structure of government allowing
elections at various levels. The success of these councils which were set up was such that martial law
was lifted.

Q: Explain why Ayub Khan called the years 1958 to 1969 the ‘Decade of Progress’. [7]

Medical facilities were improved and attempts were made to control the population through a family
planning programme.

Economic growth was enabled through industrial developments funded by loans from the West.
Agricultural reform meant an increase in agricultural production.

He also tried to deflect increased criticism of his government by highlighting the reforms which in the
main only benefited the wealthy.

East Pakistan

Q: Why did East Pakistan wish to break away from Pakistan? [7]

Q: ‘Economic factors were more important than political considerations in the creation of
Bangladesh in 1971.’ Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

Economic: Most of the wealth of Pakistan was concentrated in the west not only of individuals but
also in terms of government expenditure. This caused great resentment in East Pakistan. A weaker
industrial base and a climate ravaged by regular floods led to even more depression in this area which
caused further discontent. Also the eastern provinces aw little return for the wealth created by the
growing of jute in the area. Again all the benefits went to the west.

Political: Political parties who emerged in both parts believed in regionalism rather than national
sovereignty. The demands of the Six Points of the Awami League were rejected by Ayub Khan, and its
leader Mujib-ur- Rehman was imprisoned. This caused further discontent and separation began to
look inevitable.

GENERAL AGHA MOHAMMAD YAHYA KHAN

(25th March 1969- 20th December 1971)

Agha Mohammad Yahya Khan became the Second Chief Martial Law Administrator of Pakistan when
Martial Law was imposed by Ayub Khan in March 1969. His rule was very troubling for the country
despite of the fact that he tried to strengthen democracy.

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a. CONSTITUTIONAL REFORMS:

Legal Framework Order (LFO): On 25th March 1969, General Yahya Khan announced LFO as he was
committed to bring democracy with ‘one man-one vote.’ He abrogated 1962 Constitution and One
Unit Scheme was annulled and from January 1970, political activities were started. He announced that
elections would be held in both East and West Pakistan for the next Constituent Assembly which will
have to draft the new constitution of Pakistan.

Yahya announced Elections were to be held in October 1970 by annulling the One Unit Scheme.

POLITICAL CRISIS OF 1970-71:

 Bhola Cyclone: On 12th November 1970 a torrential Cyclone struck East Pakistan that not only
destroyed the infra-structure and crops but also killed about 5,00,000 Bengalis. Yahya Khan
extended financial aid but due to political disorder and resentment from Mukti Bahini and Awami
League, the help and aid could not be reached. On the other hand, India extended help which was
accepted.
 Results of Elections: In December 1970, Elections were held in both wings of the country foe 13
reserved and 300 general seats. Awami League under Mujeeb-ur-Rehman got 160 seats out of 162
in the East whereas Pakistan Peoples’ Party under Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto won 81 seats out of 138 in the
West. The ideology of ‘Joy Bangla’ was successful in the East and ‘Islamic Socialism’ worked in the
West of Pakistan.
 It created deadlock between the two parties. For almost one year no government could be made in
Pakistan. Bhutto wanted coalition government and Mujeeb wanted only Awami League to rule.
 1971: Yahya met both Bhutto and Mujeeb in Dhaka and the future plan of the government was
discussed however, Mujeeb was insisting to make Six Points as a part of constitution.
 Yahya postponed the first session of the national assembly as he was not willing to hand over the
power to Mujeeb.
 As the situation in his home district of East Pakistan worsened, Noor-ul Amin was appointed Prime
Minister by President General Yahya Khan on 6th December 1971.

 Operation Searchlight: In March 1971, Yahya Khan announced Operation Searchlight against Mukti
Bahini (Liberation Group) and Mukti Bahini. Pakistan Army under General Tikka Khan and General
Niazi operated and tried to control the situation. Mujeeb-ur Rehman was arrested and many leaders
fled to India. This became a major reason of the Indo-Pak War of 1971.

 Indo-Pak War of 1971: India declared war in East Pakistan in support of East Pakistanis on 3rd
December 1971. For 13 days the war was fought which Pakistan could not resist as it had millions of
Mukti Bahini members from India fighting against Pakistan. Pakistan surrendered on 16th December
1971 and brought the war to an end.

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YAHYA’S RESIGNATION: Bhutto returned from the United States on 20th December 1971 and took over
Yahya’s government as the first Civilian Martial Law Administrator. Yahya resigned and presented
himself for House Arrest. Later he went to London.

SAMPLE ANSWERS:

Q: What was Bengali Language Movement? [4]

In January 1952, Prime Minister Nazimuddin publicly announced in Dacca's meeting that only Urdu
will be the official language of Pakistan. On 21st February 1952, a demonstration in the Bengali
Language movement demanding equal and official status to the Bengali language. They closed down
Urdu Department of Dhaka University and showed protest. The protest turned bloody, with many
fatalities caused by police firings.

Q: What was EBDO/ EBDA? [4]

Ayub Khan as the Chief Martial Law Administrator gave an order in 1959. It was an altered act of
PRODA. The Elective Bodies Disqualification Order (EBDO) authorized special tribunals to try former
politicians for "misconduct," an infraction not clearly defined. Prosecution could be avoided if the
accused agreed not to be a candidate for any elective body for a period of seven years. About 7,000
individuals were "EBDOed." Some people, including Suhrawardy, who was arrested, fought
prosecution. The Ordinance was abolished in December 1966.

Q: What was 1956 Constitution of Pakistan? [4]

The 1956 Constitution was imposed on 23rd March 1956 by General Iskander Mirza. Objective
Resolution was the basic block of the Constitution. It asked for federal form of government with
unicameral legislature. It made Pakistan as an Islamic Republic. It made Urdu and Bengali as the
official languages. It made Quran and Sunnah the law of the country. The Parliament was to be
elected for five years and the Prime Minister was the leader of the Parliament. The 1956 Constitution
was banned by Ayub Khan at the time of first Martial Law in 1958.

Q: What was the 1962 Constitution? [4]

The Constitution was introduced by General Ayub Khan in March 1962. It kept all powers of the
government to the President with no Prime Minister. It asked for unicameral legislature. It asked for
federal government with more dominance over provincial autonomy. The President had to be Muslim
by religion. This constitution was annulled by Yahya Khan in March 1969.

Q: What was Mukti Bahini? [4]

Mukti Bahini also termed as the Freedom Fighters collectively refers to the armed organizations that
fought against the Pakistan Army during the Bangladesh Liberation War. It was dynamically formed by
Bengali regulars and civilians after the proclamation of Bangladesh's independence on March 26,
1971.

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Q: Describe the Six Points of Mujeeb? [4]

The Six Points of Mujeeb-ur-Rehman were given in February 1966 on the reason of unjust behaviour
of the West and less spending of wealth on East Pakistan. It demanded for all provincial powers
except Defence and foreign policy. It asked for a paramilitary force for Bengal, its own taxation
system. It also demanded for its own currency. The Points became a reason of violence as Bengalis
wanted it as their constitution whereas West Pakistan rejected it badly.

Q: Why were there so many governments changed during 1951 and 1958? [7]

Pakistan faced a trouble time during 1951 and 1958 and many Prime Ministers were removed for a
number of reasons.

The Prime Ministers were considered incompetent as they were not able to solve the food shortage
and economic crisis of 1953-54. East Pakistan faced severe weather conditions and the Bengalis were
agitated with the ignorant behaviour of the Central government of the country. In general elections
of 1955, East Pakistanis had lost faith and trust Muslim League from their area.

The issue of Bengali and Urdu conflict created more issue as the first and second draft of the Basic
Principle’s Committee were rejected by the Bengalis and in 1952 serious riots took place in east
Pakistan despite of a Bengali PM of the country. Similarly, the One Unit Scheme given by Mohammad
Ali Bogra could not make the East Pakistanis happy for their economic problems.

The jostle of power between the Prime Ministers and the Governor Generals/ President was a big
reason. Mohammad Ali Bogra was dismissed by Ghulam Mohammad when he challenged Governor
General’s power. Similarly, the military coup of March 1951 against Liaquat Ali Khan or the dismissal
of four Prime Ministers during 1955 and 1958 by General Iskander Mirza was a major evident of the
fact that their relations were very weak.

Q: ‘Constitutional reforms were the most important of Ayub Khan’s domestic policies during the
“Decade of Progress” between 1958 and 1969.’ Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer.
[14]

General Ayub Khan ruled for eleven years from 1958 till 1969 and remained prominent for a number
of his domestic policies however, his constitutional reforms did not bring that effective impact as
compared to his economic policies which became more successful.

Amongst his economic policies, agricultural reforms were the most important. Ayub Kahn’s
government focused more on bringing up the production of main crops and improving the economic
condition of the farmers. In October 1958, Land Reforms were introduced in which 500 acres of
irrigated land and 1000 acres of Barani land was made taxable. He built dams, barrages to irrigate
more lands. This brought Green revolution in the country as more lands were then cultivated.

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Secondly, Ayub established Industrial Development Bank of Pakistan (IDBP) to promote industries.
Industrialists were provided with loan to set up their business. National Investment Trust was
established to promote investors in the government policies for industries. Major industries like
Cement, Cotton Textile, Sugar, Iron and Steel Industries were established at many major towns like
Karachi, Faisalabad, Lahore which gave a boost to economic growth of the country.

Thirdly, Ayub Khan brought an immediate policy in 1958. 1-5 class education was made free at all
government schools from Class 1-8 education was made compulsory for all jobs in Pakistan which
made many students able to get enrolled at schools. Large investment was done in the sector of
education. New schools, colleges, nursing homes and medical colleges were opened to give skilled
training to many illiterate people which helped in bringing up the rate of literacy and many got jobs
after getting trained.

However, on the other case, his constitutional reforms were important but remained controversial to
many. In 1959 Basic Democracies were introduced which was a four-tier structure of government,
allowing elections at various levels. The success of these councils which were set up was such that
martial law was lifted. The Basic Democracies were not really political success as many political parties
found it as a part of Ayub’s power gaining.

Similarly, the 1962 Constitution brought strength to the democracy of the government however the
ultimate power was laid with the President with a dominant control over provincial autonomy which
was not liked by political parties. Later the constitution was annulled by Yahya Khan in March 1969.

With the help of the given statements, it can be said that Ayub Khan remained successful in his
reforms during the Decade of Progress and the most important contribution was his economic
reforms which gave benefits to the millions rather than his constitutional reforms which remained in
disagreements despite of all their positive for the President Ayub till 1969.

Q: Why did Mujeeb give his Six Points? [7]

Mujeeb-ur-Rehman gave his famous Six Points as the manifesto of Awami League in February 1966 for
the following reasons.

Firstly, he wanted to achieve Provincial autonomy as he believed West Pakistan was dominating East
Pakistan through the central government, he thus wanted to achieve political rights so that the East
Pakistani could also gain the benefits of economic developments.

Secondly, Mujeeb wanted that taxes be collected by provinces and not the central government in the
West, since he believed that East Pakistan was unfairly spending the revenue on the development of
West Pakistan. Thus gave the points for the economic independence of East Pakistan so they would
not be exploited by West Pakistan.

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He believed that these points contained the main demands of East Pakistan (Provincial autonomy,
Minority rights, Separate currencies etc.). Thus he made the points to gain support of East Pakistan in
the elections of 1970.

Q: Why did General Ayub Khan declare Martial Law in 1958? [7]

Pakistan was under political disorder during 1955 and 1958 and then Martial Law was imposed by
General Ayub Khan.

The rift between the East and West Pakistan grew during 1950s as the government was centered in
the West and the control on finance and budget was a reason that created the political tension
further worse. East Pakistan’s politicians wanted more say in the running of the central government
which increased tension.

There were a number of Prime Ministers between 1956 and 1958 who were dismissed by General
Iskander Mirza as he claimed they were incompetent and were not able to solve the problems of East
Pakistan floods which had been a major problem of the agitation in East Pakistan.

The constitution had been finalized in 1956 and both Urdu and Bengali were announced as the official
languages however it had got delayed and the gulf between the East and West had grown a lot and it
reached a stage when Ayub Khan achieved that status that he felt the army should take control until
stability had been restored and questions answered.

Q: Explain why Ayub Khan called the years 1958 to 1969, the ‘Decade of Progress’? [7]

Ayub Khan remained the leader of the country from 1958 to 1969 however, when his reforms started
to fail, he celebrated the Decade of Progress from 27th October 1967 to 27th October 1968.

Medical facilities were improved and attempts were made to control the population through a
family planning programme. This enabled the government better plans to benefit the population and
the GDP rate remained more than 7%. Pakistan’s economy developed three times faster than India
that time and got the title of Asian Tiger.

Economic growth was enabled through industrial developments funded by loans from the West.
Many countries including the UK and other European countries raised their investment in Pakistan.
With the help of the loan and aid, infrastructure was made better and new industries were started
under the Second Five Year Plan.

Agricultural reform meant an increase in agricultural production. Many millions of acres were
irrigated and the country showed improvement in agriculture sector. He also tried to deflect
increased criticism of his government by highlighting the reforms which benefitted the wealthier
class.

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Q: Who of the following contributed the most to Pakistan’s domestic policies between 1948
and 1958:

(i) Liaquat Ali Khan;

(ii) Malik Ghulam Muhammad;
(iii) Iskander Mirza?
Explain your answer with reference to all three of the above. [14]

Ans:

Pakistan was made in 1947 with a number of problems inherited from India. There were many
domestic policies brought by the leaders, Liaquat Ali Khan, Malik Ghulam Muhammad and Iskander
Mirza however, Liaquat Ali Khan remained most important due to many reasons.

Liaquat Ali Khan made the first move towards constitutional development with his Objectives
Resolution in 1949. This focussed on the principles of Islam and human rights. It was designed to
deflect criticism from religious leaders who said the new state was not Islamic enough. This was then
followed by the drafting of a constitution, which attracted much criticism as it was seen by many as
being insufficiently Islamic.

Secondly, he also managed to keep the economy going and produced surplus budgets for the new
state. He started the National Bank in November 1949 to help the economy and made the borrowing
of government’s loan. The installation of a paper currency mill in Karachi. Pakistan Security Press was
established in Karachi which printed Pakistani Currency notes and the government system and
economic policies became better.

Thirdly, he gave education policy of the country and established Sindh University. This represented
major reform of Liaquat Ali Khan that how important the establishment of schools and other
institutes to raise literacy rate in Pakistan which was very crucial for the country.

On the other hand, Malik Ghulam Muhammad as Governor General was responsible for the 6 Year
Plan for Pakistan that covered agriculture, power, industry and transport. It played an important part
in bringing about economic development in Pakistan. However, there were severe problems in
Pakistan that hampered development at this time such as food shortages and a drought. Rioting
followed and the government found difficulty in dealing with these matters and resulted in many
changes in personnel. Little constitutional development could take place because of these problems.

Similarly, Iskander Mirza became Governor General and introduced the new Constitution in 1956,
under which he was able to become President. However, its introduction was short lived as he
scrapped it in 1958 and declared Martial Law. He did introduce the One Unit Policy in 1955 which he
claimed would bring about greater efficiency and development in West Pakistan. In introducing this
policy, he prevented East Pakistan gaining a majority in the Assembly. His rule became increasingly

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unpopular and lost the support of many leading politicians despite declaring Martial Law and having
appointed Ayub Khan as PM in 1958, he was forced to resign by Ayub Khan.

In the light of the above facts, it can be proven that despite of many problems faced by Liaquat Ali
Khan during his time, his domestic policy of formulating the first draft of constitution and the
Objective Resolution laid the foundation of democracy for Pakistan.

Q: Why did Pakistan face political crisis during Yahya Khan’s rule? [7]

Yahya Khan’s time was full of trouble in terms of political crisis during 1970 and 1971 for a number of
reasons.

Firstly, Yahya delayed the Elections of 1970 due to political disorder in the country which was created
by Awami League and other political parties. Similarly, the Bhola Cyclone of 12 th November 1970 had
killed thousands of people in East Pakistan and the Bengali had created hatred against Yahya as they
believed he was ignorant towards their problems.

The Elections of 1970 created another confusion when Yahya’s unfavoured Mujeeb-ur Rehman was
able to yield 160 seats out of 162 in East Pakistan making it the largest party in the national assembly.
Mujeeb’s rigid behaviour towards not including Peoples’ Party a part of coalition government urged
Yahya to delay the first session of the assembly and later this resulted in boycotts and agitation from
the East.

The Operation Searchlight of March 1970 was yet another major reason which brought serious crisis
for Yahya’s government as he was not able to control the aggression of the militants of Mukti Bahini
and millions of Bengali civilians who had the slogan, ‘Joy Bangla.’ The Indian involvement in the
matter and later the War of 1971 brought Yahya’s government to a final end and he resigned on 20 th
December 1971.

PAST PAPER PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

Q: WHAT WAS THE OBJECTIVE RESOLUTION? [4]

Q: WHAT WAS THE BASIC PRINCIPLE’S COMMITTEE? [4]
Q: WHAT WAS RAWALPINDI CONSPIRACY? [4]
Q: WHAT WAS PRODA? [4]
Q: WHAT WAS MAULVI TAMIZUDDIN CASE? [4]
Q: WHAT WAS ONE UNIT SVHEME? [4]

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Q: WHAT WAS TASHKENT DECLARATION? [4]
Q: WHAT WAS 1962 CONSTITUTION? [4]
Q: WHAT IS EBDA? [4]
Q: WHAT WAS BASIC DEMOCRATIC SYSTEM? [4]
Q: WHAT WAS THE U2 AFFAIR? [4]
Q: WHAT WERE THE SIX POINTS? [4]
Q: WHAT WAS LFO? [4]
Q: WHAT WAS BHOLA CYCLONE? [4]
Q: WHAT WAS MUKTI BAHINI? [4]
Q: WHY WERE THERE SO MANY GOVERNMENTS CHANGED IN PAKISTAN DURING 1955 AND
1958? [7]
Q: WHY DID AYUB KHAN DECALRE MARTIAL LAW IN 1958? [7]
Q: WHY DID AYUB CELEBRATE THE DECADE OF DEVELOPMENT? [7]
Q: WHY DID AYUB FACE TROUBLE AFTER 1965? [7]

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SIR ADNAN QURESHI _____ PAKISTAN STUDIES-HISTORY-CHAPTER 13___________________

CHAPTER 13: WHY DID EAST PAKISTAN SEEK INDEPENDENCE TO FORM THE INDEPENDENT STATE OF
BANGLADESH?

Timeline of the Chapter:

1966: Sheikh Mujeeb-ur-Rehman set out his demands ‘Six Point Programme’ and wished his points
to be a part of constitution. The People in East Pakistan supported the idea.

1969: General Yahya annulled the One-Unit Scheme and announced free elections with One man-
one vote policy. 162 General and 7 reserved seats out of 313 total seats were allocated for East
Pakistan.

31st March 1970: Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan announced LFO (Legal Framework Order) and
announced Elections to be held in October 1970.

12th November 1970: A deadly tropical Cyclone struck East Pakistan resulting 5,00,000 deaths. The
government of West Pakistan was slow at responding to it. The people of East Pakistan blamed the
government for being responsible for it. India offered help but the government of Pakistan refused
which also angered the people in East Pakistan.

7th December 1970: Elections were held in both the wings of Pakistan which were first being held in
October 1970. Pakistan People’s Party under Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto got 81 seats out of 138 in West
Pakistan and Awami League under Sheikh Mujeeb-ur-Rehman got 160 seats out of 162 in East
Pakistan.

The Awami League aimed to form government in Pakistan with entire cabinet from East Pakistan.
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto wanted to be a part of government.

January 1971: General Yahya Khan wanted a compromise between Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and Sheikh
Mujeeb-ur-Rehman for coalition government but it looked difficult.

February 1971: Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto announced that the PPP would not take part seats in the National
Assembly unless Mujeeb-ur-Rehman talked with other parties and reached an agreement about
power sharing. The meeting of Constituent Assembly was postponed.

1st March 1971: General Yahya postponed the opening of the assembly. The people of East Pakistan
considered themselves as betrayed by General Yahya and started mass civil obedience, strikes,
demonstrations and refusing to pay taxes. Yahya recalled the provincial governor and appointed
General Tikka Khan as Chief Martial Law Administrator.

15th March 1971: Talks between General Yahya, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and Mujeeb-ur-Rehman at Dhaka.
General Tikka brought in reinforcements. However, the talks failed.

26th March 1971: ‘Sovereign People’s Republic of Bangladesh’ was announced secretly by Bengalis.

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31st March 1971: India declared its support for the people of Bengal against West Pakistan. The Indian
Army began to help and train the rebels in East Pakistan which was named as ‘Mukti Bahini.’ The
relations of Pakistan and India became worst. The Pakistani High Commission was closed in Calcutta
and the Indian High Commission was closed in Dhaka.

August 1971: Soviet Union signed a Treaty of Peace with India. Pakistan urged help from China and
USA but was asked to negotiate. General Yahya Khan also wanted to talk with the Awami League.

21st November 1971: Mukti Bahini launched an attack on Jessore. General Yahya declared a state of
emergency and started a crackdown against the Bengalis in East Pakistan.

29th November 1971: East Pakistan announced its provincial government.

6th December 1971: India recognized Bangladesh government in exile.

7th -16th December 1971: India-Pakistan War. Pakistan and India had war in East Pakistan as well as in
Kashmir and Punjab. Since Pakistan’s position was weak, it lost the control on many areas gradually.
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto attended United Nations Security Council Talks for cease fire.

16th December 1971: General Yahya accepted defeat and ordered the Pakistan Army to surrender.
Mukti Bahini-People’s Army massacred thousands in Dhaka who had collaboration or supported
Pakistan. About 93,000 Pakistani soldiers became the victim of Bangalis.

20th December 1971: General Yahya Khan resigned as President of Pakistan and was replaced by
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto as the first Civilian Martial Law Administrator. General Yahya was kept under
House arrest.

21st December 1971: The Republic of Bangladesh was announced officially.

10th January 1972: Sheikh Mujeeb-ur-Rehman became the first Prime Minister of Independent
Bangladesh. He was released from the jail by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto.

3rd July 1972: Pakistani President Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi signed
Simla Accord. Prisoners of war were returned. India gave 5191 square miles of Pakistani territory back
to Pakistan.

ESTABLISHMENT OF INDEPENDANT BANGLADESH-1971

East and West Pakistan became separated on 21st December 1971 after the Indo-Pak war of
December 1971 with a lot of political and military reasons. However, the rift between the two wings
had started well before partition. There were a number of reasons which led to the partition of
independent Bangladesh.

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 GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS:

 The distance and lack of communication between East and West Pakistan with a distance of 1000
miles or 1200 kilometres. East Pakistan was on the eastern part of the subcontinent and West
Pakistan was on the north-west of the subcontinent. There was a big land mass dominated by Hindus
between the two wings. This was a major reason and for many people, the two wings under one
name was a wrong decision of partition by the British government.
 No railway and road connection due to Indian presence. Sher Shah Suri had built the Grand Trunk
Road which connected Kabul to Calcutta via Peshawar, Lahore and Delhi. It was a major road between
the two wings of Pakistan. The rail road was also there but due to Indian territory in between, it was
not allowed as a connection between the two wings.
 The influence of India on East Pakistan being in control of 90% of its border. Pakistan’s east wing
(now Bangladesh) was surrounded by India which added more trouble in controlling the Indian
influence as Pakistan Army was mainly based in the west. The border division by the Radcliffe Awards
was also not done properly and many had their businesses, possessions left in India. Their movement
to India was usual and routine.

POLITICAL FACTORS:

 The Indian Propaganda against the ignorance from West Pakistan. In East Pakistan, many of the
lecturers, doctors and civil servants were Hindus who did not migrate as they had better wages. They
developed the feelings of annoyance and agitation amongst the East Pakistanis when they highlighted
that the government was misusing the resources of the east wing. There was a small growth in the
GDP of East Pakistan as compared to the West during 1958 and 1970 in particular.

 The role of Bureaucratic governments of West Pakistan during floods in the East. The governments
of Malik Ghulam Mohammad, Mohammad Ali Bogra and General Iskander Mirza did not do much in
solving the economic disparity between the two wings. At the time of flogs during 1954-55 the East
Pakistanis were ignored. Similarly, during the 1970 Bhola Cyclone when more than 5,00,000 Bengalis
died, Yahya Khan made a delay in sending the aid which agitated the Bengalis.
 The role of anti-Pakistan elements played a very important role in destabilizing the control of
Pakistani government in East Pakistan. The 1955 Elections brought a serious defeat of Muslim League
in the east which was an indicator of the declining interest of the Bengalis on the Central government.
Similarly, the gap of policies created issues during General Ayub Khan’s time.
The Awami League was formed in 1949 as a political party to safeguard the interests of Bengalis
however, it turned anti-federation party due to the policies of West Pakistan and the famous Six
Points of Mujeeb-ur-Rehman in 1966 was a change game plan for the Bengalis. It was the Awami
League that won majority of seats in East Pakistan in 1970 elections and then denied to form a
coalition government. Likewise, the Awami League asked for a non-co-operation against the
government of West Pakistan with the slogan, ‘Bengal for Bengalis.’
The Liberation group, Mukti Bahini also played an anti-Pakistan role when they held protests and
asked people to leave government jobs. They burnt the statues of Yahya Khan. The Pakistani High

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 Commission was closed in Calcutta and the Indian High Commission was closed in Dhaka. Many
Pakistani civilians and soldiers lost their lives in the attacks of Mukti Bahini.
 Issues on Constitution since 1950 on the official language. The delay on drafting the constitution was
another major reason that created problems for East Pakistan. The two proposals of the Basic
Principle’s Committee in 1950 and 1952 faced retaliation from the East on the issue of Urdu-Bengali
Conflict. Although the Constitution of 1956 stated both languages as official but it had disturbed the
unity of the nation.
 The results of 1970 Elections and lack of compromise between Bhutto and Mujeeb was the most
immediate reason which divided the two wings of the country as the leading party Awami League as
based only in East Pakistan whereas the second leading party Pakistan People’s Party was stationed in
West Pakistan. There was no air of compromise between the two parties as Mujeeb was not willing to
make a coalition government. The most possible option could be the presence of two Prime Ministers
for the two wings which was also not agreed. Yahya Khan was also not interested in resigning as the
President of the country.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS:

 Differences between art, music, dress style of the West and East alienated both sides. The West
insulted Bengali dresses/dress styles. West went on to consider themselves culturally superior. West
Pakistanis considered Bengalis only suitable for lower paid jobs and there were very few bureaucrats
and civil servants from Bengali group who were given superior posts in the offices of the west.
 Issue of Bengali language identity was a very sensitive factor which spoiled the political and social
stability soon after the partition when Jinnah announced that Urdu would be the official language in
February 1948.
 Economic disparity between the two wings created deep rooted hatred amongst the Bengalis soon
after the partition. East Pakistan had more than 55% of the population with a lot of resources
however, the resources were used in the developmental projects of West Pakistan. The per capita
income during 1958 and 1970 remained as Rs.330 to Rs.373 of West Pakistan whereas at the same
time it came down from Rs.305 to Rs.288 in East Pakistan.
 Jute Based Economy of Pakistan a major reason that created issues for the unity of the two wings.
Jute was mainly grown in the east and Pakistan’s economy was using it as the sole export. The income
generated from it was used to develop the projects in West Pakistan. Later Pakistan started to
establish industries in the west. Ayub Khan’s Decade of Development had mega projects which were
established in West Pakistan.
 Educational disparity was also brought by the government of Pakistan when it badly affected the
literacy of East Pakistan. When Pakistan was made in 1947, the literacy rate of East Pakistan was more
than 25% as compared to less than 10% of West Pakistan. During 1948 and 1960, the growth of
primary schools remained 163% in West Pakistan whereas it remained 38% in growth for East
Pakistan.
 Calamities in East Pakistan created serious problems for the agriculture, infrastructure and economic
life of the Bengalis. On 12th November 1970 brought Bhola Cyclone, and torrential rains and
devastation resulted in more than 5,00,000 casualties and the economy of East was shattered. Often

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floods came in East Pakistan during 1950s and 1960s which affected the socio-economic growth of the
east in particular.

SAMPLE ANSWERS:
Q: What was Bhola Cyclone? [4]
On 12th November 1970, a deadly tropical Cyclone struck East Pakistan resulting 5,00,000 deaths. The
government of West Pakistan was slow at responding to it. The people of East Pakistan blamed the
government for being responsible for it. India offered help but the government of Pakistan refused
which also angered the people in East Pakistan.

Q: What was Mukti Bahini? [4]

A liberation group of Bengalis which came into being after 1966 when Sheikh Mujeeb-ur-Rehman
gave his Six Points. During 1971 Operation Searchlight was started by Yahya Khan, Mukti Bahini
showed protests and fought against the Pakistan forces. Most of the leaders fled to India during
operation as it was considered to be funded and aided by India. It became a major reason in splitting
Pakistan in December 1971.

Q: What was Operation Searchlight? [4]

A planned military operation started by President Yahya Khan on 25th march 1971 in East Pakistan to
curb Bengali Nationalist Movement by Mukti Bahini. General Tikka Khan was given charge of the
operation along with General Niazi. Many leaders were arrested and many fled to India. This
operation resulted in more than 2,00,000 casualties reported by foreign journalists.

Q: What was Bengali Language Movement? [4]

In 1948, the Government of the Dominion of Pakistan ordained Urdu as the sole national language,
sparking extensive protests among the Bengali-speaking majority of East Bengal. Facing rising
sectarian tensions and mass discontent with the new law, the government outlawed public meetings
and rallies. The students of the University of Dhaka and other political activists defied the law and
organised a protest on 21 February 1952. The movement reached its climax when police killed
student demonstrators on that day. The deaths provoked widespread civil unrest.

Q: Why did East Pakistan wish to become independent of West Pakistan? [7]

East Pakistan wished to become independent country Bangladesh in 1971 due to a number of social,
economic and political reasons from the west.

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The government officials and bureaucrats were mainly from West Pakistan and East Pakistan was not
getting its share in the government It was resentful of the fact that it was under-represented in the
Pakistani army and the Civil Service. Due to the distance from the West, it felt that it was under
political repression and with an undemocratic government.

The political crisis of East Pakistan played another role in dividing the two parts as the elections of
1970 gave surprising results and Awami League became the largest party with no compromising tone
for the west. This led to violence and bloodshed in East Pakistan. Yahya Khan.

Because it had a weaker industrial base than the West and suffered from floods, it resented that it
received little attention from the rest of Pakistan. During 1950s East Pakistan received severe floods
which affected the crops and created food shortage.

Q: ‘Economic factors were more important than political considerations in the creation of
Bangladesh in 1971.’ Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

The independence of Bangladesh in 1971 was led by a number of factors and economic factors played
more important than the political reasons.

Most of the wealth of Pakistan was concentrated in the west not only of individuals but also in terms
of government expenditure. This caused great resentment in East Pakistan. A weaker industrial base
and a climate ravaged by regular floods led to even more depression in this area which caused further
discontent. Also the eastern province saw little return for the wealth created by the growing of jute in
the area. Again all the benefits went to the west.

Secondly, economic disparity between the two wings created deep rooted hatred amongst the
Bengalis soon after the partition. East Pakistan’s resources were used in the developmental projects
of West Pakistan. The per capita income during 1958 and 1970 remained as Rs.330 to Rs.373 of West
Pakistan whereas at the same time it came down from Rs.305 to Rs.288 in East Pakistan.

Thirdly, the Bhola Cyclone also brought a lot destruction of November 1970 resulted in more than
5,00,000 deaths and devastated crops and infrastructure and livestock. People became homeless and
jobless and many suffered from extreme hunger. It was natural that the people had to show agitation
against West Pakistan’s government on their negligence.

On the other hand, the political reasons also contributed to the separation of Bangladesh. Political
parties who emerged in both parts believed in regionalism rather than national sovereignty. The
demands of the Six Points of the Awami League were rejected by Ayub Khan, and its leader Mujeeb-
ur- Rehman was imprisoned which spoiled the political stability.

Similarly, the election results of 1970 brought the two wings on the verge of separation when Awami
League won the majority but Yahya Khan and Bhutto delayed the formation of government. Later
when the Operation Searchlight was started by Yahya in March 1971, it ignited the war of complete
mass protest and brutal killings in East Paksitan.

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Thus this can be said that the both wings got separated in a span of twenty-four years after the
independence of Pakistan, the economic life of East Pakistanis was badly affected had to show their
retaliation against West Pakistan despite of all political efforts and the country became independent
on 21st December 1971.

PAST PAPER PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

Q: ‘ECONOMIC FACTORS WERE MORE IMPORTANT THAN POLITICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN THE

CREATION OF BANGLADESH IN 1971.’ DO YOU AGREE? GIVE REASONS FOR YOUR ANSWER. [14]
(J2004)

Q: ‘POLITICAL FACTORS WERE MORE IMPORTANT THAN ANY OTHER FACTOR IN THE CREATION OF
BANGLADESH IN 1971.’ DO YOU AGREE OR DISAGREE? EXPLAIN YOUR ANSWER. [14] (J2011)

Q: ‘THE GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OF EAST PAKISTAN WAS THE MOST IMPORTANT REASON FOR
THE CREATION OF BANGLADESH IN 1981’. DO YOU AGREE OR DISAGREE? GIVE REASONS FOR YOUR
ANSWER. [14] (N2007)

Q: WHY DID THE VICTORY OF THE AWAMI LEAGUE IN THE 1970 ELECTIONS IN PAKISTAN CAUSE A
CONSTITUTIONAL CRISIS? [7] (S/2016)

Q: WERE POLITICAL CONCERNS MORE IMPORTANT THAN ECONOMIC ONES IN THE CREATION OF
BANGLADESH IN 1971? EXPLAIN YOUR ANSWER. [14] (S/2014)

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 SIR ADNAN QURESHI ___ PAKISTAN STUDIES-HISTORY-CHAPTER 14_

CHAPTER 14: HOW SUCCESSFUL WAS PAKISTAN IN THE TWENTY YEARS FOLLOWING THE ‘DECADE
OF PROGRESS’?

Synopsis of the Chapter:

3rd-16th December 1970: Indo-Pak War in East Pakistan in which Pakistan surrendered.

20th December 1970: Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto became the first Civilian Chief Martial Law Administrator.

21st December 1970: East Pakistan became Bangladesh as an independent state.

20th January 1972: Pakistan started its Nuclear Program with the help of China.

April 1972: Martial Law was lifted and the new assembly was called. A Committee to draft a new
Constitution was also set up.

27th April 1972: The PPP and PNA/JUI coalition government was formed.

2nd July 1972: Pakistan President, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and Indian Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi signed
the Simla Agreement or the Simla Accord.

October 1972: Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto set up FSF (Federal Security Force).

3rd September 1972: nearly all schools and colleges were nationalized.

14th August 1973: The Third Constitution was passed. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto became the Prime Minister
and Chaudhry Fazal Elahi became the President. Ahmedis were declared as Non-Muslims.

7th January 1977: General Elections were announced by Bhutto after facing opposition from JUI and
PNA.

March 1977: PNA (Pakistan National Alliance) led by General Asghar Khan blamed Bhutto for rigging
the election results.

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 ZULFIQAR ALI BHTTO:

Civil Martial Law Administrator: 20th December 1971- 2nd July 1972.

President: 2nd July 1972-14th August 1973

Prime Minister: 14th August 1973-5th July 1977.

Mir Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto served as the Foreign Minister of Pakistan during Ayub Khan’s reign, from 1963
and worked hard for establishing strong foreign policy of the country. He resigned from Ayub’s
government in 1966 after feeling dissatisfied over Tashkent Declaration. He started his political party,
Pakistan People’s Party on 30th November 1967 with the slogan of ‘Islamic Socialism’ promising (Roti,
Kapra aur Makaan) to every individual. A Bengali Communist, J.A.Rahim and Punjabi leader,
Mubasshir Hasan helped Bhutto in establishing the party. Bhutto became the most promising leader
in West Pakistan during 1970 election after getting 81 seats outs of 138.

President Bhutto addressing the nation via radio and television saying 'My dear countrymen, my
dear friends, my dear students, labourers, peasants... those who fought for Pakistan... We are
facing the worst crisis in our country's life, a deadly crisis. We have to pick up the pieces, very small
pieces, but we will make a new Pakistan, a prosperous and progressive Pakistan, a Pakistan free of
exploitation, a Pakistan envisaged by the Quaid-e-Azam'.

— Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, 1971.

DOMESTIC POLICIES:

a. CONSTITUTIONAL/ POLITICAL:

 Changes in the military:

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto brought major changes in the army. About 29 major army officers were removed
from their job including Chief of Air Staff, General Asghar Khan and Commander-in-Chief General Gul
Hasan. The Commander-in-Chief was changed as the Chief of the Army Staff and General Tikka Khan
was chosen as the Army Chief for his strong role in 1971 War.
After 1973 Constitution, the Prime Minister was entitled to choose the Chief od Army Staff which gave
a direct control of Bhutto over the army.
General Zia-ul Haq’s selection as the Chief of Army Staff on 1st August 1976 was also a part of Bhutto’s
reform in the army.

 Federal Security Force:

In Oct 1972, Federal Security Force, a special police force was formed with special authority almost
like the army. FSF arrested a number of politicians and removed army officers which had played a
negative role in 1971 War. Martial Law was lifted up and Pakistan became a Presidential country and
Bhutto became the President.

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 1973 Constitution:
Bhutto had a vision to put Pakistan to road to parliamentary democracy. One of the major
achievements in Bhutto's life was drafting of Pakistan's first ever consensus constitution to the
country. The Constitution was implemented on 14th August 1973 and Bhutto became the Prime
Minister of the country.
During his period in office the government carried out seven major amendments to the 1973
Constitution.
 The First Amendment led to Pakistan's recognition of and diplomatic ties with Bangladesh.
 The Second Amendment in the constitution declared the Ahmadis as non-Muslims and defined the
term non-Muslim.
 The rights of the detained were limited under the Third Amendment.
 The powers and jurisdiction of the courts for providing relief to political opponents were curtailed
under the Fourth Amendment.
 The Fifth Amendment focused on curtailing the power and jurisdiction of the Judiciary.
 The main provision of the Sixth Amendment extended the term of the Chief Justices of the Supreme
Court and the High Courts beyond the age of retirement.

 Balochistan Military Operation:

Bhutto was popular in Punjab and Sindh only and PNA (Pakistan National Alliance) headed by
General Asghar Khan and Jamiat e Ulema e Islam (JUI) headed by Moulana Moudoodi had coalition
government in NWFP and Balochistan in April 1972. There were elements in Balochistan which were
reportedly alleged by Iran for destabilizing its border province.
In 1973, arms had been discovered in the Iraqi Embassy in Islamabad for Baloch rebels for which
Bhutto dismissed the Governor of Balochistan. Bhutto planned a military operation in Balochistan.
Iran gave $ 200 million aid and 30 Huey Cobra helicopters to Pakistan which resulted in internal
provincial rift and later more problems for Bhutto.
The Operation lasted from 1973 to 1978 and it took the lives of 3,300 Pakistani troops, 5,300 Baloch,
and thousands of civilians.

 Elections of 1977:
Pakistan had general elections on 5th January 1977. Bhutto again won the highest seats in Sindh and
Punjab but was not able to get majority in NWFP and Balochistan. Bhutto formed the government but
the two parties, JUI and PNA blamed Bhutto for doing rigging in the elections in March 1977. It led to
serious political violence in the country and mass protest was done by the political parties. Pakistan’s
Chief of Army Staff, General Zia-ul-Haq came to power and removed Bhutto’s government on 5th July
1977.

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b. ECONOMIC REFORMS:
 Land reforms:
In the light of Ayub’s reforms, the land reforms were introduced on 1st March 1972. The ceiling fixed
for individual holdings for the irrigated land was fixed at 150 acres and that for the un-irrigated land
it was fixed at 300 acres as compared to Ayub’s 500 and 1000 acres for irrigated and un-irrigated land
respectively.
The second wave of land reforms were introduced in 1977. 100 acres and 200 acres was the ceiling for
the individual land holdings for irrigated and un-irrigated land respectively. The important land
reforms included the reduction of land ceilings and introducing the security of tenancy to tenant
farmers. Huge tax exceptions were also introduced for small landowners to encourage the growth of
agriculture.
In 1975, small landholders of 12 acre irrigated and 25 acres un-irrigated were exempted from land
revenue and cesses. Generous tax deductions allowed for the purchase of agricultural machinery,
agriculture credit also channeled into financing mechanization.

 Industrial reforms:
Bhutto founded the National Development Finance Corporation (NDFC). In July 1973, this financial
institute began operation with an initial government investment of 100 million PRs. Its aim was
finance public sector industrial enterprises but, later on, its charter was modified to provide finance to
the private sector as well.
In 1972, major industries were nationalized. Cement, Sugar, Iron and Steel, Cotton textile were
improved. Several Industrial Zones were made in Karachi. Faisalabad, Lahore, Peshawar etc. Loans
were given to industrialists to establish large scale industries.
Pharmaceutical companies were banned from charging for a particular medical brand name and so
medicines became cheaper. However, this did see the profits of chemists fall drastically.
Bhutto also established the Port Qasim and Pakistan Steel Mills at Karachi, the Heavy Mechanical
Complex (HMC) at Taxila and several cement factories.

 Agricultural reforms:
In 1976, the Bhutto government carried out the establishment of Federal Flood Commission (FFC),
and was tasked to prepare national flood protection plans, and flood forecasting and research to
harness floodwater.
Bhutto later went on to upgrade a number of dams and barrages built in Sindh Province.
The Government initiated schemes for combating water logging and salinity, Salinity Control And
Reclamation Programme (SCARP).
Due to these measures agricultural land resumed thus far is over 800,000 acres.
The landowners were not pleased in reduction of land and it turned out to be against Bhutto.

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 Banking and trade reforms:
In 1974, banks were nationalized by Bhutto. The number of bank branches rose by 75% from
December 1971 to November 1976, from 3,295 to 5,727. It was one of the most radical move made
by Bhutto, and the Bank infrastructure was expanded covering all towns and villages with a
population of 5,000 in accordance with targets set after the nationalisation of banks. By 1974, exports
exceeded one billion dollars, showing a 60% increase over the combined exports of East and West
Pakistan before separation

c. SOCIAL REFORMS:

 Health reforms:
The Drug Act, 1972, was enacted which prohibited the manufacture and import of any drugs under
brand names after 23 December, 1972 and their sale after 31 March, 1973. This angered the multi-
national companies and they winded up their business from Pakistan however local manufacturing
was improved.
By a Presidential Order of 19th March 1972, 32 life Insurance companies were nationalized. Emphasis
is also being placed on medical education. Medical colleges in Karachi, Larkana, Quetta, Faisalabad
and Rawalpindi are being established.
Bhutto also tried to improve the infant mortality and age expectancy rates by introducing Rural
Health Centres and Basic Health Units (BHUs). The infant mortality was 135/1000 births in 1973.
Doctors and nurses were deployed in all around the country and they could not take transfer unless
they served a particular period of time.

 Educational reforms:
On 15th March 1972, educational policy was shared. In 1974 all schools were nationalized by Bhutto.
The Bhutto government established a large number of rural and urban schools, including around
6,500 elementary schools, 900 middle schools, 407 high schools, 51 intermediate colleges and 21
junior colleges.
Bhutto also abandoned the Western education system and most of the literature was sent back to
Western world; instead his government encouraged the local academicians to publish books on their
respected fields. Though the local books were made cheaper to the public, these reforms came with
controversy. His government made Islamic and Pakistan studies compulsory in schools. Book banks
were created in most institutions and over 400,000 copies of text-books were supplied to students.
The Government's Education Policy provides for the remission of fees and the grant of a number of
scholarships for higher education to the children of low-paid employees.
establishing the world class Quaid-e-Azam University and Allama Iqbal Open University in Islamabad
in 1974, as well as establishing Gomal University Dera Ismail Khan in 1973
Bhutto established the Allama Iqbal Medical College in 1975.
However, there were many rural areas where schools were not established despite of spending
millions of rupees and the literacy rate moved from 26% to 27% only.

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 Labour Reforms:
In 1972 the Bhutto government initially provided for some old age benefits for workers through
group insurance, increased rates of compensation and higher rates of gratuity. The government
introduced a pension scheme of old age benefits which would provide a payment of Rs.75 a month to
workers after retirement at the age of 55 for men and 50 for women, on condition that the worker
had completed a minimum of 15 years’ insurable employment which was applied to all factories,
industries, and establishments employing ten or more workers drawing monthly wages up to Rs.
1,000.
In 1973, the government instituted Labour Courts to solve the issues dealt by labor. Labor Law
Ordinance 1975, to satisfy the militant labor force.
Govt. raised the wages and salaries which laid tremendous inflationary stress on the economy.
The industrialists & factory owners were made responsible for bearing the expenditure of education
of one child of every worker or labourer. They guarantee to the workers their long overdue
fundamental rights of freedom of association and collective bargaining, and assurance of greater
security of service; representation in management, group-insurance, old age pension, free
education for children and housing and medical facilities.

 Law Reforms:
In a historic declaration bringing to an end the notorious and outdated British system conferring on
District officers the power of both judiciary and executive, Mr. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto announced the
separation of the judiciary from the executive. Under these reforms the legal procedures have been
simplified, rights and duties have been clearly defined and criminal litigation made more liberal which
meet the long felt needs and cherished desires of the people.

 Peoples’ Welfare Programme:

To improve the life of a common people in both urban and rural areas, the Government has launched
a massive people’s works programme which seeks to harness the country’s vast manpower resources
in their spare time, of course with due compensation, mostly in kind, on projects.
During 1972-73 allocation for the programme amounted to Rs. 220.3 million in four provinces and Rs.
13 million on schemes in Azad Kashmir and the Northern Areas. This programme also envisages to
provide 450,000 residential plot units in the Punjab and Sind. Metalled and un-metalled roads will
also be constructed which would provide facilities to the farmers to market their good and reduce the
margin of profit of the middlemen. The allocation for 1973-74 is Rs. 18 million.

FOREIGN POLICY:

 Simla Accord:
From 29th June to 2nd July, 1972 Indira Gandhi and Bhutto met at Simla. Both countries agreed to
respect each other’s borders, in line with the UN Charter. In other words, the occupied territories
shall be returned and the troops shall be pulled back to the pre-war positions. Both take gradual steps
to normalize their mutual relations, which included restoration of communication & transport,

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 increase in the cultural, economic ties & diplomatic relations. Jammu & Occupied Kashmir’s cease fire
line shall be respected.
Both countries agreed to continue their talks about Kashmir and the return of the prisoners of war.
Bhutto brought back 93,000 POWs to Pakistan and secured 5,000 square miles held by India and
compromised on Kashmir stance on international platforms and recognizing Bangladesh which were
the key Indian demands.

 Visit to Soviet Union:

In May 1974, India carried out nuclear tests for which Pakistan tried to bring economic sanctions on
India by the help of United States however, Pakistan did not succeed in its plans. In 1974, Bhutto, as
Prime Minister, visited Soviet Union. Bhutto intensified Pakistan's foreign policy towards more onto
Movement of Non-Aligned Countries, and sought to developed relations with both Soviet Union and
the United States. Prime Minister Bhutto deliberately undertook to improve relations with the Soviet
Union and the Communist bloc. Bhutto sought to developed and alleviated the Soviet–Pakistani
relations, with Soviet Union established Pakistan Steel Mills in 1972 which was completed in 1976 by
the investment of $ 1 billion.

 Military and Nuclear Programme with China:

Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission's militarization was initiated on 20 January 1972 with the help of
China and, in its initial years, was implemented by Pakistan Army's Chief of Army Staff, General Tikka
Khan. The Karachi Nuclear Power Plant (KANUPP-I) was inaugurated by Bhutto during his role as
President of Pakistan at the end of 1972 with the aid and assistance of China.
China became the military partner after the trade embargo of 1965 and had come closer to Pakistan.
The Karakoram Highway was initiated in 1963 and Heavy Mechanical Complex was also built by the
help of China.

 Second Summit of OIC:

From 22nd to 24th February 1974, Bhutto hosted the Second Summit of the Islamic Conference (OIC)
at Lahore where he delegated and invited leaders from the Muslim world to Lahore, Punjab Province
of Pakistan. About 34 major Muslim countries including Sheikh Mujeeb-ur-Rehman (Bangladesh),
King Fahad (Saudi Arabia), Moammar Gaddafi (Libya), Sardar Daud (Afghanistan), Anwar-us-Sadaat
(Egypt) and Yasir Arafat (Palestine) were few major ones. Bhutto was a strong advocate of Afro-Asian
Solidarity and had cemented ties with Afro-Asian and Islamic countries and by 1976 had emerged as
the Leader of the Third World.
Pakistan was able to convince the Muslim world on the unanimous policy on the matter of Kashmir
and Palestine, the idea of united force and currency. Iran was the only Muslim country which did not
participate as it had issues with Iraq and Libya.
Pakistan also recognized Bangladesh at the time of Second Summit of OIC and developed foreign
relations by establishing embassy at Dhaka.

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 Visit of China:
During Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s visit to Beijing in February 1972, he successfully negotiated an economic
and military aid package, worth $300 million for Pakistan, and China also agreed to write off loans
amounting to over $110 million.
China became close to Pakistan’s stance on Kashmir and agreed to support Pakistan on military and
economic platforms. Pakistan started its nuclear programme with the help of China and many major
projects were financed by China.

 Withdrawal from SEATO and Commonwealth:

Pakistan came out of the Commonwealth in 1972 in reaction to its insistence to accept Bangladesh as
an independent country. Similarly, Pakistan came out of SEATO in response to not getting its support
at the time of 1965 ad later 1971 wars.

Q: What was Balochistan Military Operation?

In January 1973, Bhutto ordered the Pakistan Armed Forces to suppress a rising insurgency in the
province of Balochistan. He dismissed the governments in Balochistan and the North-West Frontier
Province once more. Following the alleged discovery of Iraqi arms in Islamabad in February 1973,
Bhutto dissolved the Provincial Assembly of Balochistan. The operation, under General Tikka Khan,
soon took shape in a five-year conflict with the Baloch separatists. The sporadic fighting between the
insurgency and the army started in 1973 with the largest confrontation taking place in September
1974. Later on, Pakistan Navy, under Vice-Admiral Patrick Julius Simpson, also jumped in the conflict
as it had applied naval blockades to Balochistan's port. The Navy began its separate operations to
seized the shipments sent to aid Baloch separatists. Pakistan Air Force also launched air operations,
and with the support of navy and army, the air force had pounded the mountainous hidden heavens
of the Separatists. The Iranian military, also fearing a spread of the greater Baloch resistance in Iran,
aided the Pakistani military as well. Among Iran's contribution were 30 Huey cobra attack helicopters
and $200 million in aid.

GENERAL ZIA-UL HAQ:

Synopsis of the Chapter:

5th July 1977: General Zia-ul Haq, the Commander-in-Chief of the Army accused Bhutto for bringing
the Civil War and dismissed him.

5th July 1977: Martial Law was imposed by General Zia-ul-Haq.

September 1977: Bhutto was charged with conspiracy to murder of one of the politicians under FSF.
Lahore High Court announced Bhutto for Death Sentence.

18th March 1978: The case was then challenged in Supreme Court.

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4th April 1979: Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was hanged in district jail in Rawalpindi.

1977: Zia banned Federal Security Force. Hudood Ordinance by Zia.

1979: Federal Shariah Court was set up by Zia.

1980: Zakat Ordinance by Zia.

25th December 1979: USSR attack on Afghanistan brought Zia under limelight in international politics.

1st December 1984: Zia held the referendum.

1985: General Zia denationalized many companies. During his time, Pakistan received a huge sum of $
4 billion every year as remittances.

February 1985: Zia announced general elections in March 1985.

March 1985: The Movement for the Restoration of Democracy (MRD) opposed General Zia. Zia
defeated the MRD and chose Muhammad Khan Junejo, former member of PPP as Prime Minister.

30th December 1985: Martial Law was lifted by General Zia. Eighth Amendment was passed.

29th May 1988: General Zia dismissed Muhammad Khan Junejo. Zia dissolved the National Assembly
and announced the next elections to be held in October 1988.

17th August 1988: General Zia along with Pakistan ISI Chief, nine other Pakistan Army Generals and
US Ambassador died in a plane crash in Bahawalpur.

1st December 1988: Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s daughter and Co-Chairperson of Pakistan People’s Party,
Benazir Bhutto won the elections and became the youngest Pakistani Prime Minister with 35 years of
age.

GENERAL ZIA-UL HAQ:

Martial Law Administrator: 5th July 1977- 18th September 1978.

President: 16th September 1978 -17th August 1988.

General Zia-ul Haq was chosen by Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto on 1st August 1976 after General
Tikka Khan retired as the Chief of Army Staff. Zia was preferred by Bhutto over five senior officers. Zia
revived the Islamic Ideology Council to enforce the Islamization programme after coming to rule.

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 Operation Searchlight:

On July 5, 1977, Zia removed Bhutto in a bloodless coup, suspending the constitution and declaring
martial law. He announces elections will be held in 90 days. But simultaneously begins a censorship
regime. Political activists and journalists are arrested and flogged in public.

ZIA’S MAJOR POINTS ON ISLAMIZATION:

 December 2, 1978: Shariat benches constituted at the high court levels while an appellate Shariat
bench constituted at the Supreme Court level. Shariat benches could revisit any law deemed to be un-
Islamic. Prayers to be offered in congregation at all government offices during working hours. All
offices and shops to remain shut at the time of Friday prayers.

 February 10, 1979: Islamic penal laws enforcing ‘Hudood Ordinance’ (The Offence of Qazf) are
promulgated in pursuance of ‘Nizam-i-Islam’.

The Hudood Ordinance included:

 May 26, 1980: Establishment of Federal Shariat Court is announced. Three Ulemas were appointed as
judges to the Federal Shariat Court to make Shariah as the law of the country.
 Zina Ordinance restricted people for abstaining from adultery. In case of married man and woman
involved in adultery, the punishment was stoning to death as per Shariah.
 Theft Ordinance restricted the society as the punishment was cutting down the hand publicly on the
act of theft.
 Ramadan Ordinance eating or drinking during fasting was to be fined and punished.
 Alcohol Ordinance restricted people from abstaining themselves from alcohol by keeping the
punishment of 80 lashes of cane publicly. Making and sale of alcohol was banned in the country.
 Zakat Ordinance of 1980 imposed a wealth tax of 2.5 per cent above a certain amount which will be
deducted from all accounts of banks on 1st of Ramadan by the Zakat Committee. The Zakat
Committee would use the amount for social welfare of the society.
 Ushr tax was imposed as 5 per cent on all agricultural income which would be implemented on all
agricultural lands.
 Qanun-e-Shahadat Order (Law of Evidence Order) considering woman’s testimony (Shahadat) as half
of that of a man’s. Strict laws on media women for covering their heads. Women were discouraged to
get jobs in public offices and were restricted to teaching and nursing only.
 March 18, 1982: Changes introduced to the Pakistan Penal Code; Section 295-B stipulated a life term
for defiling, damaging or desecrating a copy of the Holy Quran.
 Study of Islamiyat and Pakistan Studies was made compulsory in all schools and colleges till grade 12.
 April 27, 1984: Ahmedis were restricted not to speak their faith publicly and not making their
mosques.
 June 15, 1988: Zia promulgates the Shariat Ordinance, making Sharia supreme law of the land.

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Zia’s Constitutional/ Political Reforms:

5th July 1977: Martial Law was imposed by General Zia-ul-Haq and he became the Chief Martial Law
Administrator. He banned Federal Security Force.

13th May, 1978: Eleven journalists are sentenced by military courts and four journalists were
flogged. He also banned all political activities.

16th September, 1978: Gen Zia assumes office of President; retains the office of Army Chief.

1st December 1984: Zia held the referendum under the name of Islamisation. 95 percent of the votes
were given in his favour but the turnover was very low.

February 1985: Zia announced general elections in March 1985. The Movement for the Restoration
of Democracy (MRD) opposed General Zia. Zia defeated the MRD and chose Muhammad Khan
Junejo, former member of PPP as Prime Minister.

23rd March 1985: Jonejo became the Prime Minister of the country.

30th December 1985: Martial Law was lifted by General Zia. Junejo gave the power of dismissing the
Prime Minister and National Assembly to General Zia under the Eighth Amendment to the
constitution.

29th May 1988: General Zia dismissed Muhammad Khan Junejo to save any action against Army
generals of Ojhri Camp, an incident near Rawalpindi when a blast killed more than 100 innocent
people including women and children at an old army weapon reserve. Zia dissolved the National
Assembly and announced the next elections to be held in October 1988.

Q: What was Memorandum of Restoration of Democracy?

The Movement for the Restoration of Democracy (MRD), was a political alliance formed to oppose
and end the military government of President General Zia-ul-Haq. Directed and chaired by Benazir
Bhutto of Pakistan People’s Party, its primary objectives and aims were to restoration of the
democracy as well as gaining the civilian control of the military. It was formed on 8th February 1981,
the alliance had Pakistan People’s Party (PPP), Awami National Party (ANP), Pakistan Muslim League
(Khwaja Khairuddin group), Pakistan Democratic Party, Tehreek-e-Istiqlal, Awami Tehreek, Jamiat-e-
Ulema-e-Islam, and Mazdoor Kissan Party. The alliance was rooted in rural areas of Sindh Province
and remained mostly nonviolent, was strongest among supporters of the Pakistan People's Party
(PPP). It played a major role against Zia’s regime in 1985 and many of its leaders were arrested. It was
dissolved on 24th August 1988 after the death of Zia.

Q: What was the Eighth Amendment?

The Eighth Amendment allowed the President to unilaterally dissolve the National Assembly and
elected governments. The Majlis-e-Shoora amended the Constitution of Pakistan in 1985. It is called

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 Article 58 2(b) which gave special powers to the President to dissolve the National Assembly. The first
Prime Minister dismissed under the Eighth Amendment was Mohammad Khan Jonejo in 1988.

Q: What was Ojhri Camp Incident?

On 10th April 1988, the twin cities of Islamabad and Rawalpindi received a dreadful shock. It all began
with a low-density explosion, followed by a huge one, after which all kinds of missiles, rockets and
projectiles started raining down in all directions. Gen Zia-ul Haq was attending a meeting of the
Organisation of Islamic Conference (OIC) in Kuwait and had to rush back home. The officials assured
the people that there was no reason for fear and that it was just an accidental explosion at the arms
and ammunition depot at Ojhri, located between Rawalpindi and Islamabad. Over a 100 people were
killed and many more injured.

Q: What was Islamization of Zia?

Islamisation of Zia was started in 1977 by making the country under the Shariah law. Shariat Courts
were established with senior Ulemas as judges. Quran and Sunnah became the supreme law of the
country. Hudood Ordinance was passed in 1979 bring Shariah punishments on adultery, theft, alcohol
drinking etc. He tried to eliminate the element of ‘Islamic Socialism’ started by Bhutto. Ahmedis were
banned for their religious activities in the country. Women were to follow Qanoon-e-Shahadat
Ordinance for which some NGOs were displeased.

Zia’s Economic Reforms/ Denationalization Programme:

 Pakistan established more industries during 1977 and 1985 in particular and the growth of Industrial
sector remained high.
 Almost all banks, industries and schools and colleges were denationalized in the light of getting more
investment from other countries. During 1977 and 1986 the GNP remained 6.2% and it gave a boost
to the economy.
 The growth of agriculture sector remained 3.9% during 1977 and 1988 from 2% in 1972 and 1977
whereas the growth of manufacturing sector had a growth of 9.2% per annum as compared to 3.7%
in 1972-77.
 Pakistan’s manufactured exports increased fourfold from US $ 1.3 billion 1980 to US $5.6 billion in
1983 with cotton textile and raw cotton contributing 60%.
 The growth of major crops like wheat, cotton, rice and sugarcane showed remarkable growth.
 His denationalization Programme gained welcome from the masses despite of military rule. Pakistan
received $ 4 billion as remittances from overseas Pakistanis particularly from the Middle East.
 The aid of $ 3.2 billion from the United States brought a rise in economic development and GNP of
Pakistan.
 To boost agriculture, interest free loans were given to the farmers which added more to the growth of
agriculture sector.
 The Karakoram Highway was completed which gave another rise to the trade to China from Pakistan.

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 The Hub Dam was constructed near Karachi to provide uninterrupted water supply to the residents
and industries of Karachi.
 Civil Aviation Authority of Pakistan was started in Dec 1982.

Zia’s Foreign Policy:

 Afghan Miracle:
On 25th December 1979, USSR attacked on Afghanistan which brought Zia under limelight in
international politics. About three million Afghans migrated to Pakistan. Talibans were supported by
Zia in anti-communist beliefs to fight against USSR and was appreciated by West. Pakistan received
3.2 billion dollars in six years by United States to help the refugees.
Zia gained high importance in the eye of the United States from 1979 and 1985. Later when USSR
started to decline from the war, Zia lost importance in UN policy as well.

 Visit to China:
Zia visited China and it became the largest military partner for both military and nuclear programme.
Karakoram Highway was completed by China in 1984. Several deals were signed for the training and
military supply to strengthen the army.

 Relations with Muslim countries:

After the earthquake of Afghanistan in 1974, Zia visited Afghanistan and PM Sardar Daud appreciated
the relief aid given from the Muslim neighbor. Sardar Daud also came to Pakistan.
In 1979, after President Imam Khomeini came to power in Iran, Zia paid a visit and cleared Pakistan’s
stance on the support of United States in against the rising Russian influence in Afghanistan. Pakistan
had a clear support for Iran during the Iran-Iraq War.
During Zia’s time, Pakistan also supplied military power to Libya, UAE and Saudi Arabia under UN
peacekeeping missions. By 1985 there were in excess of 50,000 Pakistanis working in the Middle East
as a direct result of this policy.

 Cricket Diplomacy:
Indian Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi was assassinated in 1984 and Pakistan was accused for her
murder which deteriorated the relations with India. Pakistan planned a cricket series with India and
Zia visited India in 1987 and met Rajiv Gandhi while watching the match at New Delhi. Though the
relations did not improve as Rajiv Gandhi did not accept Pakistan’s clearance under the military
dictatorship.

 Pakistan and the United Kingdom:

The British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher visited Pakistan in October 1981 and visited
Afghanistan border with Zia. This visit brought the Commonwealth and the United Kingdom closer to
Pakistan and later rejoined Pakistan in the Commonwealth in 1989.

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 General Zia’s rule became unpopular due to following points:

 The Afghan miracle brought guns and weapons as a part of smuggling.

 The Afghan refugees became a main reason of drug smuggling in the country.
 Except the Punjab, all other three provinces had opposition against Zia.
 The growing power from the West against USSR as Pakistan was a major ally.
 Army had a strong hold on the matters of the country. When PM Muhammad Khan Junejo called the
All Parties Conference in March 1988, Army took serious note of it.
 The destruction of the dump weapons of Army weapons at Ojhri Camp near Islamabad when Army
officers could be punished. General Zia dismissed Junejo before he could take any action.

End of Zia’s rule:

17th August 1988: General Zia along with Pakistan ISI Chief, nine other Pakistan Army Generals and US
Ambassador died in a plane crash in Bahawalpur. The case remained an unresolved mystery.

Ghulam Ishaq Khan, Chairman of the Senate, took over as acting President and announced the
general elections.

1st December 1988: Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s daughter and Co-Chairperson of Pakistan People’s Party,
Benazir Bhutto won the elections and became the youngest Pakistani Prime Minister with 35 years of
age.

PAST PAPER QUESTIONS PRACTICE:

Q: ‘ISLAMIC REFORMS WERE THE MOST IMPORTANT OF ZIA-UL-HAQ’S DOMESTIC POLICIES

BETWEEN 1977 AND 1988.’ DO YOU AGREE OR DISAGREE? GIVE REASONS FOR YOUR ANSWER.
[14] (J2010)

Q: ‘SOCIAL REFORMS WERE THE MOST IMPORTANT OF ZULFIQAR ALI BHUTTO’S DOMESTIC
POLICIES BETWEEN 1971 AND 1977.’ DO YOU AGREE? GIVE REASONS FOR YOUR ANSWER.
[14]

Q: ‘CONSTITUTIONAL REFORMS WERE THE MOST IMPORTANT OF ZUFIQAR ALI BHUTTO’S

DOMESTIC POLICIES BE- TWEEN 1971 AND 1977.’ DO YOU AGREE? GIVE REASONS FOR YOUR
ANSWER. [14]

Q: IN WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING DID ZULfiKAR ALI BHUTTO HAVE MOST SUCCESS:

(i) REFORM AND CONTROL OF THE ARMED FORCES;

(ii) CONSTITUTIONAL REFORM;
(iii) EDUCATION AND HEALTH REFORMS?

EXPLAIN YOUR ANSWER WITH REFERENCE TO ALL THREE OF THE ABOVE. [14]

Q: IN WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING DID ZIA-UL-HAQ HAVE MOST SUCCESS BETWEEN 1977 AND 1988:

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(i) ISLAMIZATION;
(ii) ECONOMIC AFFAIRS;
(iii) POLITICAL AFFAIRS?

EXPLAIN YOUR ANSWER WITH REFERENCE TO ALL THREE OF THE ABOVE. [14]

Q: ‘ISLAMIC REFORMS WERE THE MOST IMPORTANT OF ZIA-UL-HAQ’S DOMESTIC POLICIES

BETWEEN 1977 AND 1988.’ DO YOU AGREE? GIVE REASONS FOR YOUR ANSWER. [14]

SAMPLE ANSWERS:

Q: Why did Bhutto come to power? [7]

Ans: Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto came as the Civilian Martial Law Administrator in 1971 when the condition of
Pakistan was quite worse.

Firstly, Army had been defeated by India during 1971 war and was at a low ebb, Yahya (Martial Law
Administrator and President) had been disgraced and kept himself under House arrest. The army was
at a low ebb. Bhutto took the opportunity to seek power.

Secondly, East Pakistan had been independence in 1971 and became Bangladesh. Yahya and army
were blamed for their defeat. Bhutto decided to take advantage of this and force Zia down and
attempt to shape Pakistan.

Thirdly, Bhutto’s program of reforms: Food, Clothing and Shelter was attractive and appealed to the
electorate. Thus he won a majority in West Pakistan in the national assembly in 1970 elections by
winning 81 seats. Thus it was his democratic right.

Q: Why Bhutto fell from power? [7]

Ans: Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto came down from his office in 1977 for several reasons which were his political
and administrative weaknesses.

Firstly, Bhutto was blamed for rigging the elections of 1977, which was apparent with PPP’s
“shocking” landslide victory. In some areas, the results were announced even before the votes were
counted. This effected his credibility and sowed the seeds for his decline.

Secondly, greatly angered the opposition alliance, the PNA which began large scale strikes and
demonstrations in all parts of Pakistan. This instability gave Zia, the Chief of army staff a reason to
take over by imposing Martial Law which ended Bhutto’s government.

Thirdly, the economic policies angered the populace. (nationalization, land reforms) and began to
work against his rule. The landlords were not happy as their lands were confiscated by Bhutto. Many
multinationals did not continue their businesses in Pakistan as Bhutto started to take the ownership
of their companies.

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Q: Why Bhutto was executed? [7]

Ans: Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was removed from his office in 1977 and was later executed for several
reasons.

Firstly, when Zia released Bhutto in 1977, he tried to reassert his political power by gaining the
support of the people as he was so well known for his policies. This was a threat to the rule of Zia.

Secondly, Bhutto, along with three others was accused of murdering a political opponent, Nawab
Mehmood Khan Kasuri, by sending the FSF. The trial took place, lasted for two years, found Bhutto
guilty in 1978 and was hanged on 4th April 1979.

Thirdly, Bhutto had threatened Zia that he would charge him for tampering with the constitution by
imposing Martial Law, Zia feared punishment under article 6 of the constitution. Thus got Bhutto was
executed.

Q: ‘Social reforms were the most important of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s domestic policies between 1971
and 1977.’ Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

Ans: Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto remained successful for his domestic policies and the social reforms were the
most highlighted one which gave immense importance to his rule.

Firstly, amongst Bhutto’s social reforms, free primary education was introduced. New schools were to
be built and all private sector schools were nationalised. The aim was to increase the literacy rate and
raise academic standards. The changes in education led to overcrowding in existing schools while new
ones could be built. The reforms were not very successful since the building of new schools and the
recruitment of new teachers could not be achieved quickly and was also very expensive. Many
families resented the educational reforms since it meant a loss of earnings to them.

Secondly, he also tried to improve the infant mortality and age expectancy rates by introducing Rural
Health Centres and Basic Health Units. Pharmaceutical companies were banned from charging for a
particular medical brand name and so medicines became cheaper. However, this did see the profits of
chemists fall drastically and many international drug companies closed down their operations in
Pakistan. However other aspects of his domestic policies were also important.

Thirdly, Bhutto worked on improving the Social Welfare by introducing People’s Welfare Programme
to improve the life of a common people in both urban and rural areas.
During 1972-73 allocation for the programme amounted to Rs. 220.3 million in four provinces and Rs.
13 million on schemes in Azad Kashmir and the Northern Areas. This programme also envisages to
provide 450,000 residential plot units in the Punjab and Sind. Metalled and un-metalled roads will
also be constructed which would provide facilities to the farmers to market their goods.

However, there were constitutional reforms which gave a limelight to Bhutto. The new constitution
drawn up in 1973 established a Senate which offered the opportunity for professionals, academics
and specialists to work together. It also safeguarded the interests of minority provinces which now

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had an equal status in the Senate. He produced the 1973 Constitution in an attempt to return to a
form of parliamentary democracy and it was important since it is the basis upon which Pakistan has
been governed to the end of the 20th Century apart from when it was suspended due to martial law.
One of the main weaknesses of the new constitution was that the focal point of political power lay
with the party leadership and Bhutto in particular. When things went wrong the blame was clearly
laid at his feet.

Similarly,

Q: Why did Zia ul-Haq introduce his Islamic reforms between 1977 and 1988? [7]

Ans: Zia-ul Haq introduced a number of Islamic reforms during 1977 and 1988 for a number of
reasons.

Firstly, Zia introduced the Islamic laws in an attempt to produce a strong and stable government
managed by people committed to Islamic values. He ignored the political process because he felt that
Pakistan was weaker as a result of these. He therefore made the Islamic laws very strict in order to
produce a strong government by imposing a strict legal code.

Secondly, he also wanted to implement laws which punished people for showing disrespect towards
the Holy Prophet and ensured that Islamic education was implemented in schools so as to raise
Islamic awareness amongst students.

Thirdly, he also wanted to distribute some wealth to the poor and needy by introducing Islamic taxes
in the country. The Zakat Ordinance in 1980 by Zakat Committee ensured dedication of 2.5% of the
tax which was used on social welfare.

Q: ‘Zia-ul Haq’s foreign policy was more successful than his domestic reforms’. Do you agree or
disagree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

Ans: General Zia-ul Haq came to power in July 1977 and ruled till August 1988 and took a number of
measures for foreign policy which remained successful as compared to domestic policies.

Firstly, the foreign policy remained the highlight of Zia’s time. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in
1979 led to the West working very closely with Pakistan and providing military and economic support
in return for becoming a base for anti-Soviet activities. About $3.2 billion were received by Pakistan
from the United States in terms of aid for afghan miracle support.

Secondly, Zia’s standing in the West increased and he was able to gain more investment from Europe
as well as aid from United States during the Afghan miracle time. The British Prime Minister Margaret
Thatcher visited Pakistan and developed cordial relations which helped Pakistan later to rejoin the
Commonwealth.

Thirdly, the relations with Afghanistan during 1977 and 1986 remained very successful when Sardar
Daud visited Pakistan and the air of trust was developed between the two Muslim neighbours
improved. Similarly, Pakistan played an important role in the peacekeeping in Saudi Arabia, Libya and

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UAE. By 1985 there were in excess of 50,000 Pakistanis working in the Middle East as a direct result of
this policy.

On the other hand, Zia introduced Islamic laws in an attempt to produce a strong and stable
government managed by people committed to Islamic values. He ignored the political process and
therefore the Islamic laws were very strict in order to produce a strong government. The Hudood
Ordinance and Shariah Courts restricted the society under Islamic laws.

Similarly, with regard to economic affairs, efforts to increase investment were met with some success
since many of the previous nationalisation programmes were reversed and the private sector was
encouraged to re-invest. Efforts were also made to increase the efficiency of government-run
industries. The GNP remained 6.2% during this time and many major industries were established.

In the same way, there was a need by Zia to establish a measure of legitimacy to his presidency by
declaring legal all the military actions since 1977. The passing of the Eighth Amendment in 1985 gave
the President the power to dismiss the Prime Minister of the time. As a result of this, martial law was
lifted but Zia remained President, unchallenged.

In the light of the above statement, it can be said that the policies given by Zia in terms of foreign area
remained important and remittances and aid raised the economy however, the his policies for
changing the constitution and Islamisation programme did not fulfil the purpose and created more
issues for him.

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CHAPTER 15: HOW EFFECTIVE WERE PAKISTAN’S GOVERNMENTS IN THE FINAL DECADE OF
THE 20TH CENTURY?

Synopsis of the Chapter:

2nd December 1988: Benazir Bhutto came to power as the female PM of Pakistan at the age of 34.
29th- 31st December 1988: Benazir Bhutto met Rajiv Gandhi at fourth SAARC Conference in
Islamabad.
30th September 1988: Violence in Sindh after the killing of Muhajir community.
August 1989: Coalition Government of PPP and MQM ended.
October 1989: No Confidence Motion by Nawaz Sharif against Benazir Bhutto.
1989: Pakistan rejoined the Commonwealth after the military rule of Zia ended.
27th May 1990: Pucca Qila Incident near Hyderabad.
6th August 1990: Benazir Bhutto was dismissed by President Ghulam Ishaq Khan.
October 1990: Elections were held.
6th November 1990: Nawaz Sharif sworn in as the next Prime Minister.
May 1991: Shariah Bill was passed by Sharif government.
February 1992: Nawaz Sharif launched Yellow Cab Taxi Scheme.
18th April 1993: Nawaz Sharif’s government was dismissed by President Ghulam Ishaq Khan which
was challenged by the PM at the Supreme Court.
26th May 1993: Nawaz Sharif came to power after the decision of Supreme Court.
18th July 1993: Prime Minister Sharif and President Ghulam Ishaq Khan resigned after negotiations
with General Abdul Waheed Kakar.
18th July-13th November 1993: Chairman Senate, Wasim Sajjad served as caretaker President.
November 1993: Elections were held.
19th October 1993: Benazir Bhutto came to power after forming coalition government.
November 1993: Baloch PPP leader Farooq Ahmed Khan Leghari became the new President.
September 1994: Train March was started by Nawaz Sharif as the opposition leader to Benazir
Bhutto.
25th March 1995: US first lady Hillary Clinton visited Pakistan for a short visit.
September 1996: Benazir Bhutto’s brother, Mir Murtaza Bhutto was killed in police ambush.
5th November 1996: Benazir Bhutto’s government was dismissed by President Farooq Leghari.
17th February 1997: Nawaz Sharif came to power with two-third majority in assembly.
27th November 1997: the first ever Motorway M-2 between Lahore and Islamabad was opened.
1998: the long awaited fifth Census was conducted by Nawaz government.
28th May 1998: Pakistan became the seventh nuclear power after the tests at Chagai Hills.
12th October 1999: General Pervaiz Musharraf removed Nawaz Sharif’s government.

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 BENAZIR BHUTTO FIRST TERM

(2nd December 1988- 6th August 1990)

2nd December 1988: Benazir Bhutto became the Prime Minister of Pakistan defeating Islami Jamhuri
Itehad (IJI) led by Nawaz Sharif.

President Ishaq Khan asked Benazir Bhutto to form the government which PPP did with MQM. Since
both the parties represented Sindh province, IJI had strong government in the Punjab. Benazir also
did not have much support from NWFP and Balochistan.

Achievements of Benazir’s first term:

 She restored Political System and democracy in Pakistan by ending ban on trade and students’ unions
during Zia’s time. She released political prisoners who were arrested during the military rule. Thus
provided freedom of speech and restored political and democracy system in Pakistan.
 She started Integrated Research Programme on missile development in Pakistan. First military
satellite “Badr-1” was launched with the help of the China. Thus provided missile system and satellite
surveillance to Pakistan Army as well as to improve telecommunication and weather forecasting in
Pakistan.
 Pakistan re-joined the group of Commonwealth countries in 1989 after becoming a country with
democratic government and grants from the UK started. Several peace missions were sent by Pakistan
to play an important role in international peace.
 She hosted the 4th SAARC conference in 1988 in Islamabad. All member countries attended, as well
as Rajiv Gandhi (Indian Prime Minister). After a long time, India and Pakistan came closer and showed
agreement for solving their mutual issues including Kashmir. Benazir shared her vision of making this
region free from deadly nuclear weapons however India had reservations on it.
Likewise, Pakistani Kashmiris has an uprising in the Indian Kashmir for which India refused to continue
Kashmir talks.
 She paid a visit to the USA and met President George W.Bush. She secured transfer of already
purchased US weapons which had created issues between Pakistan and United States at the time of
Pressler Act of 1985 and President Zia was not able to continue the receiving of F-16 planes for which
Pakistan had already paid.

Failures of Benazir’s 1st Term:

 Benazir was the female Prime Minister, belonged to Sindh and the male dominated society and
bureaucrats from Punjab did not support her. She had to face problems as the main politicians,
advisors and ministers were male and it was difficult for them to work under a female leader.
 She had serious Conflict with President Ghulam Ishaq Khan on appointment issue of some judges and
army officers. The President had discretionary powers to appoint armed forces chiefs and judges of
superior court, but Benazir wanted to appoint these herself. This refusal by President created tension
between both and weakened political system in Pakistan.

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 Confrontation with Nawaz Sharif, who was heading the opposition alliance IJI (Islami Jamuri Ittihad).
They made the government in Punjab and he became Chief Minister. Political opposition increased so
much that they both wanted to remove each other from power, this confrontational path against
opposing parties further weakened Benazir’s political system.
 She faced corruption on nepotism (giving jobs to friends) charges, her husband (Asif Ali Zardari) was
accused of corruption, bribery, blackmailing and kickbacks. Her mother, Nusrat Bhutto was appointed
as the Senior Minister with a portfolio, and her father in law, Mr. Hakim Ali Zardari was chairman of
the Parliamentary Public Accounts Committee. These charges badly affected her reputation and
opposition exploited these charges against her to eventually remove her from government.
 No Confidence Motion in October 1989 by Nawaz Sharif as the leader of opposition brought political
challenge to Benazir and she was able to win the small majority by the help of MQM and IJI led by
Nawaz got 107 out of 237 votes. They needed 119 to remove the government.
 Inflation and unemployment remained the biggest blow to her government as Pakistani rupee
devalued and the GDP growth rate came down from 4.8% in 1988-89 to 4.6% in 1989-1990 which
affected the economy of the country.
 Drug trafficking in the country became a common problem as the 1.7 million Afghan refugees became
the main agent of drugs and other criminal activities. The political parties developed criminal wings to
misuse their power on people.
 Problems in Kashmir grew when Pakistani Kashmiris rebelled in Jammu and Kashmir and India blamed
Pakistan for supporting them militarily and financially. Indo-Pak relations deteriorated after that.
 Incomplete visit to Kuwait when Iraqi invasion started. She was on the visit to Kuwait and major
trade agreements were to be signed but she had to wind up the visit due to Iraqi invasion at the time
of pre-Gulf War.
 In September 1989, problems between MQM and PPP started when 250 Muhaijrs were killed in
violence in Hyderabad. MQM ended its alliance with PPP in August 1989. Pucca Qila Incident of 1990
brought violence in Hyderabad city when Muhajir community was showing protest and Sindh Police
killed 31 people including women and children.

Benazir Bhutto was dismissed by Ghulam Ishaq Khan on the charges of corruption and bad
governance. She asked for evidence and wanted investigation against the decision. Ghulam Mustafa
Jatoi was made the care taker Prime Minister and elections were called in October 1990.

MIAN M. NAWAZ SHARIF FIRST TERM

(6th November 1990- 18th April 1993* dismissed, July 1993* resigned):

Nawaz Sharif won the elections under IJI (Islami Jamhuri Ittehad). He had served as a senior member
of General Zia’s Government from 1984. He had been the unanimous leader of the Grand Alliance
after serving Opposition leader and Chief Minister of Punjab during Benazir’s reign 1988-90.

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 Major reforms of Nawaz Sharif’s first term:
 He started the Privatization programme and a number of major industries and companies were sold
to private sector. Started national reconstruction programme to develop industries, reversing the
effects of Z.A Bhutto’s nationalization policy. More than 50 industrial units and two banks and PTCL
were privatized in 1994 with $ 1 billion. The burden on the national treasury was removed and the
confidence of private sector was restored.
 The Motorway Project was started in 1992 between Islamabad and Lahore, first motorway in South
Asia. This facilitated Industries and reduced burden on existing road network and improved transport
sector.
 Initiated Ghazi Barotha Hydro Power Project. This hydropower project could produce 1450MW.
Stimulated the economy with the help of large scale projects.
 Gwadar Port first phase was initiated with the aid of China.
 Addressed important federal issues, the water apportionment accord (solved 4 province water
distribution problem) award of National Finance Commission. (settled issue of revenue distribution).
Thus stopped dispute at Federal level between provinces and center that were long lasting.
 The Yellow Cab Taxi Scheme in 1992-93 provided employment to many Pakistanis. Thousands of cars
were imported from South Korea and were given to people on monthly installments to combat
unemployment in the country.

Problems faced by Nawaz Sharif in 1st term:

 BCCI (Bank of Credit and Commerce International) Scandal of 1991 brought blames on Sharif. On 5
July 1991 almost all the Pakistani-run BCCI branches throughout the world were liquidated following
discovery of extensive fraud practices committed by the institution's top executives. Nawaz Sharif’s
family and his interior minister, Chaudhry Shuja’at Hussain was blamed for corruption charges and
misusing the funds of the bank. This case not only affected Pakistan’s reputation internationally but
also gave serious allegations of massive corruption by the Sharif family.
 He lost support because of the Co-operative Societies Scandal of 1992. Co-operative Societies were
state owned and accepted by deposits from members and provided them with loans for business. But
this failed due to mismanagement and funds went to Sharif’s family. Savings of the poor were wasted
and Nawaz’s reputation was damaged. Millions of rupees were loaned and then exempted which
were used in making mills and factories rather than establishing social welfare departments and
institutions.
 Shariat Bill was passed in 1991 to make Quran and Sunnah the law but there was little done to
enforce the law. The bill was criticized by political opponents because of Islam’s increased role in the
government, and no concrete measures were taken to enforce the laws so religious parties opposed
it. The opposition was a major failure.
 Confrontation with President Ishaq Khan as Sharif wanted to repeal the 8th Amendment which could
reduce President’s powers but was not able to revoke it. Thus tension and clashes between them
weakened the government. It became a major cause of ending Nawaz’s term.

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 After the sudden death of General Asif Nawaz Janjua due to cardiac arrest on 8th January 1993, Chief
of Army Staff, Sharif wanted to nominate the candidate of his choice. However, President Ishaq Khan
appointed General Abdul Waheed Kakar on 12th January 1993 who was not favoured by Sharif.
 The Afghan migrants had brought the Kalashinkov Culture to Pakistan after the 1979 Russian
Invasion of Afghanistan. Many of the political parties had criminal wings and it resulted in strikes,
kidnappings, ransom etc. The drug use was also added to Pakistani society.
 Tensions with MQM as it blamed Nawaz for spending resources only in Punjab and Azad Kashmir
neglecting Sindh. Karachi and Hyderabad remained in tough tie due to police operation against MQM.

Dismissal of Nawaz Sharif:

Before 1993 Parliamentary elections, President Ghulam Ishaq Khan on 18th April 1993, with the
support of the Pakistan Army, used his reserve powers (58-2b) to dissolve the National Assembly, the
lower house. Khan appointed Mir Blake Sher Mazari as the interim Prime Minister. Nawaz Sharif,
moved to Supreme Court of Pakistan and challenged the decision of Ghulam Ishaq Khan.

On 26th May, 1993, Sharif returned to power after the Supreme Court ruled that the Presidential
Order as unconstitutional and reconstituted the National Assembly on its immediate effect. After
weeks of negotiations, both decided to resign with the fear of possible army invasion in July 1993.

Chairman of the Senate, Wasim Sajjad, replaced Ishaq Khan and Moinuddin Ahmed Qureshi became
the caretaker Prime Minister. Elections were called for October 1993.

BENAZIR BHUTTO SECOND TERM

(19th October 1993- 5th November 1996)

In October 1993, Benazir Bhutto became the Prime Minister for the second time despite of getting
less number of seats than Nawaz Sharif. Islami Jamhoori Ittehad had broken up by that time. In
November 1993, Farooq Ahmed Leghari was elected as the President as Ghulam Ishaq Khan had
resigned. Since he was from PPP, it was expected to have good relations between the Prime Minister
and President.

Major Successes of Benazir Bhutto:

 She started the First Women’s Development Bank with its branches in Islamabad, Karachi and
Lahore. Set up first woman bank for females. She created job opportunities for females who
constituted more than 50% of population and helped protect their rights in a very male dominated
society. It provided an opportunity for them to become an active part of the country’s economy and
supported small scale and self-employed businesses by women. Later the bank opened many other
branches in other towns.
 She started Women’s Police Station initially in Islamabad and Karachi where all staff including the
senior officers were women. It was made to make the access to the police stations for reporting their
issues better. Several cases of domestic violence were handled well by these police stations which
were not reported before that due to male dominance in police.

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 Some reduction in Pakistan’s trade deficit as more programmes of privatization was continued from
Nawaz Sharif’s time. There was a slight rise in foreign exchange reserves. Loan and grant assistance
from World Bank and IMF. This helped to improve the economy however the GDP of Pakistan
remained very low in this term.
 Pakistan entered United Nations’ peacekeeping operations. A group of 5000 troops was sent to
Somalia to take part in international peace. This helped Pakistan in playing a positive role and gaining
positive image on international platforms.
 The US first lady, Hillary Clinton visited Pakistan in 1996 which was another remarkable start of Pak-
US relations. United States lifted economic and military sanctions on Pakistan. Pakistan was able to
convince the United States to get 28 F-16 planes or the refund of its payment after the Brownian
Amendment was passed in 1995 in the US Senate.
 Entered into co-operative arrangements with United States and many new economic support
programmes were started by United States when Benazir Bhutto had a visit to USA and President
Clinton met her.
Problems faced by Benazir Bhutto:

 In 1994, Sharif began a ‘Train March’ and gave violent speeches against corruption and weak
government policies. Trains were moved from Karachi, Lahore, Multan and other cities to seize
Islamabad. This was a big problem faced by Benazir Bhutto’s government.
 In September 1996, brother of Benazir Bhutto, Murtaza Bhutto was killed in a police ambush in front
of his house in Clifton Karachi. He had been working against Benazir with a group named ‘Al-Zulfiqar’
and was involved in the hijacking of PIA plane in 1981. His murder raised many questions on the
government’s accountability and many blamed Benazir Bhutto for his murder.
 Kashmir tension grew between India and Pakistan as India as it blamed Pakistan for supporting the
Kashmiri mujahideens. The talks between the two countries were abandoned.
 Issues on the provincial government in Sindh continued as MQM did not support the policies and
claimed that PPP was not giving rights to urban population and had strong influence on local police
which was made responsible for the judicial murder of their workers and supporters.
 Terrorism/bombings and serious strikes and mass protests in the country in 1995 at Karachi, Quetta
and Peshawar resulted in 2000 people murdered in different events which brought pressure on the
government and more involvement of security forces. This resulted in further instability of the federal
government as Benazir had not gained majority in Punjab and opposition was stronger than federal
government.
 In 1995, Benazir Bhutto came across an incomplete military take over which could be the end of her
tenure. She with the help of some senior army officers was able to control the situation. About 40
army officers were arrested in that.
 Due to the country’s weak economy growth (nearly 2%), the value of Pakistani rupee was declined by
30%. It raised inflation in the country and the privatization policy of Benazir Bhutto was questioned by
local and international monetary agencies.
 She clashed with the Superior courts and their judges. In 1996, the Supreme Court and 4 provincial
high courts ordered the sacking of 24 judges appointed by her govt. The Supreme Court further

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 ordered the federal government to appoint judges on permanent basis rather than on an acting basis
and also to take seniority of judges into account with their appointments. This dismissal created a
political crisis as two highest pillars of state were in a dispute thus making the whole political system
weaker and invited criticism, lending strength to her opposition.
 Benazir’s husband, Asif Ali Zardari was accused of making his fortune and his corruption was a harm
to Benazir’s government. He was imprisoned in 1996. Benazir was unable to back or support him as
there were massive corruption charges proved. This brought a big blow to her government. She was
already facing problems with the blames of her mother and brother for misusing the authority of her
government.

Dismissal of Benazir Bhutto:

President Farooq Leghari had promised to revoke the Eighth Amendment but he did not. He
dismissed Benazir from the office on 5th November 1996 on the charges of corruption and bad
governance.

Malik Meraj Khalid became the caretaker Prime Minister. Elections were held in February 1997 in
which Pakistan Muslim League won and Nawaz Sharif became the Prime Minister.

MIAN MOHAMAMD NAWAZ SHARIF’S SECOND TERM

(17th February 1997- 12th October 1999)

Nawaz Sharif, the head of PML-N, became the next Prime Minister with a huge majority in the
Assembly.

Major Reforms of Nawaz Sharif’s 2nd Term:

 The M-2 Project of Lahore-Islamabad Motorway costing $ 9 billion was completed in 1997 with some
delay. It was started in the previous term of Sharif. This made the connection of the cities of northern
Punjab swift and less time consuming. Sharif also announced to spread the network of motorways
everywhere in Pakistan.
 India conducted nuclear tests in Pokhran in February 1997 which brought pressure on Pakistan.
Nawaz Sharif declared to have our right to test the weapons too. Pakistan became the 7th Nuclear
Power of the world on 28th May 1998 by conducting six nuclear tests at Chagai. Pakistan had to face
serious economic sanctions due to that. However, locally Sharif became a strong leader with much
support of all political parties.
 He started the Space Commission Programme which was a continuation of Bhutto’s and Benazir’s
plans. New developments were made when Chashma Nuclear Power Plant (CHASHNUPP) was
completed with the help of China.
 In 1998, Census was conducted after the delay of 17 years. It provided a better opportunity to the
government in order to plan better economic plans for the country. According to the Census, Pakistan
had 130.8 million people.

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 In 1997, Sharif announced a scheme, ‘Qarz Utaro, Mulk Sanwaro’ in a view to get over with the loans
of International Monetary Fund and World Bank. People were requested and encouraged to invest in
the scheme in the form of charity and long term investment. However, the plan was not able to be
successful and Sharif was able to pay back the loan of a billion dollar only. There were blames of
mismanagement in the plan too.
 Three major amendments were done in the constitution, the Thirteenth, Fourteenth and Fifteenth
Amendments provided strength of Senate to Sharif however the Fourteenth and Fifteenth
amendments remained a point of question ad disagreements.
 After the Kargil War of 1998, Indian Prime Minister, Atal Bihari Vajpaee came to Lahore and in in
February 1999, Lahore Declaration was signed. Both countries pledged to remain peaceful and agreed
to start dialogues on Kashmir. Bilateral trade stated from the border. Lahore-Delhi Bus Service and
Samjhota Express (Train Service) were also started.

Problems faced by Nawaz Sharif in 2nd Term:

 Nawaz Sharif passed Thirteenth Amendment revoking the authority of the President to dismiss the
Prime Minister and the Assembly. He also took away the power of appointing the chiefs of staff.
However, this created another kind of rift between the Prime Minister, President and the Chief of the
Army Staff.
 The Fourteenth Amendment (The Anti Defection Bill) was also passed which stopped political people
to switch political parties It was an attempt of Sharif to keep a majority in the parliament and not to
lose members to sustain their power.

 The Fifteenth Amendment allowed Shariah as the main law of the country however, it was seen by
the people that the law was never full enforced.
 Chief of Army Staff, General Jahangir Karamat was dismissed by Nawaz in 1998 due to his
suggestions being considered military intervention. He was blamed to get involved in the National
Security Council. The dismissal of this 4 star general damaged civil military relationship and paved the
way for a military coup. He was replaced by General Pervaiz Musharraf. The Parliament questioned
Sharif for that undemocratic move but Sharif did not answer.
 Nawaz Sharif’s tax inspections became a big news in media. Najam Sethi (a famous journalist) was
kidnapped by Nawaz’s private police and kept hidden for several days. He was later released. This
gave an impression that Sharif’s government was not fair with the Press and it created uncertainty in
the government.
 Nawaz Sharif’s supporters stormed Supreme Court against a case of corruption. Justice Sajjad Ali
Shah was forced to suspend the case. However, instead of getting peoples’ support, it came out be a
big stain on Sharif’s government.
 Military started covert operation with the help of local fighters and captures heights of Kargil and
Drass regions in India. Nawaz blamed Musharraf for this, and accused military of hiding this from him.
International pressure forced him to withdraw. The withdrawal from US pressure and army blame
created serious differences between civil and govt. and the army leading to a military coup.

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 Plane Murder Conspiracy became an immediate reason for his dismissal as when the Musharraf was
returning from an official tour to Sri Lanka his plan was not allowed to land. In this time, he replaced
Musharraf with the then ISI Chief Zaiuddin Butt. But corps commanders didn’t accept it and took over
Karachi airport and Prime Minister, and PTV. This humiliating practice angered the top part of the
army and they retaliated to dislodge Nawaz.

On 12th October 1999, while Musharraf was flying back from Sri lanka, the ‘Plane Conspiracy’ took
place when Nawaz Sharif ordered the Civil Aviation Authority not giving permission to the plane to
land in Karachi. The army took control of the country and asked Nawaz Sharif to surrender. Nawaz
Sharif was arrested.

Later, Nawaz Sharif along with his family was exiled to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia on the special
request of Saudi Royal Family for ten years.

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 CHAPTER 16: PAKISTAN’S ROLE IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS 1947-1999
Synopsis of the Chapter:
30th September 1947: Pakistan joined the United Nations.
August 1947- October 1948: War with India on Jammu and Kashmir.
January 1948: Pakistan and India signed Ceasefire papers on Kashmir. LOC was created.
1949: Pakistan’s first Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan received invitation from the Soviet Union.
January 1950: Pakistan recognized Communist government in China.
1950: Liaquat Ali Khan visited US instead of USSR.
September 1954: South East Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO) was established and joined by
Pakistan.
1955: Central Asia Treaty Organization was formed with Britain, Iran, Iraq and Pakistan.
1956: Pakistan joined Commonwealth. Pakistan also supported Egypt on the matter of Suez Canal.
May 1960: U2 Incident. Cold War started between USA and USSR. Pakistan was in trouble.
September 1960: Indus Water Treaty was signed between India and Pakistan on the matter of rivers.
1962: Indo-Sino War. Pakistan supported China.
1963: Siachen Glacier was given to Pakistan from China. Trade agreements were signed.
1963: USSR declared Kashmir as a neutral issue between India and Pakistan.
July 1964: Regional Co-operation for Development between Pakistan, Iran and Turkey was formed.
1964: Pakistan voted for China for its permanent seat in UN Security Council. Pakistan also supported
Chinese policy for Taiwan. China supported Kashmir Policy of Pakistan.
September 1965: War with India. Trade Embargo by US on Pakistan.
January 1966: Tashkent Declaration was signed in USSR between Pakistan and India.
December 1971: Civil war in East Pakistan, War with India.
January 1972: Simla Accord signed between India and Pakistan. Pakistan left Commonwealth.
February 1974: Second Summit of OIC was held at Lahore with 34 Muslim countries.
June 1974: Bhutto’s visit to Bangladesh.
1974: Pakistan started its nuclear programme with the help of China.
December 1979: The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.
1981: UK Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher visited Pakistan.
1984: Pakistan was blamed by India for the murder of Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi.
1985: Pressler Act of USA brought sanctions on Pakistan.
1989: Pakistan rejoined Commonwealth.
1999: May-July, Kargil Conflict of Pakistan with India.
February 1999: Lahore Declaration with India.

PAKISTAN AND THE UNITED STATES:

Pakistan and the United States share a number of strategic partnerships. The relationship started in
1949 when Liaquat Ali khan received an official request from USSR but the anti-communist alliance

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 put him to pay the first official visit to the US. The US has been a major country which provided funds
and aid to Pakistan. However, their relation has been under a zig zag over the years.

Positives of Pakistan-USA relations:

 In 1950, Pakistan Embassy was established in Washington after Liaquat Ali Khan’s visit. Pakistan
joined the Capitalists group under USA and asked USA for more aid for its military and economy.
 In May 1954, Pakistan and USA signed Mutual Defence Assistance Programme under which Pakistan
received US military weapons and training for its soldiers. This was a major move in the relationship of
the two countries.
 In September 1954, South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was signed with France, Philippines,
Thailand, New Zealand, Australia and Pakistan also joined. It was mainly an agreement for the spread
of trade. It was signed by Pakistan on the request of USA and Pakistan entered anti-Communist
Pact.
 In 1955, Turkey and Iraq signed the Baghdad Pact against anti- Communism of the Soviet Union. It
was joined by UK, Iran and Pakistan and was named as Central Asia Treaty Organization (CENTO).
Pakistan signed CENTO for its friendship with USA.
 In December 1979, USA provided aid and took Pakistan as its major ally during the USSR-Afghanistan
War. Pakistan became a highlight of USA for the aid of 4 billion dollars. Pakistan opened its border
for Afghan refugees and got aid of $ 4 billion which boosted its economy.
 The relations improved with the arrival of Benazir Bhutto in the office of the Prime Minister as she
visited USA in 1994 and continued to seek the help of US on the Kashmir issue to mediate and
resolve the matter.
 In 1996, USA first lady, Hillary Clinton and her daughter, Chelsea visited Pakistan. This visit helped
Pakistan and USA in bringing good relations and Pakistan started to receive the aid of F-16 Planes
after the Brownian Amendment. It had been stopped under the Pressler Amendment of 1985.

Negatives of Pakistan-USA relations:

 Pakistan hoped USA aid of weapons during 1965 and 1971 wars but it was not provided because
India was not a communist country. Instead India was given aid and weapons in 1962 during its war
with China. This displeased Pakistan as India was able to stop Pakistan’s aid from USA. Bhutto
withdrew from SEATO in 1972.
 The weak USA support of CENTO never gave any hope to Pakistan. This not only affected Pakistan
for not being able to develop good relations with USSR but also kept it under the direct influence of
USA.
 The ‘U2 Affair’ of May 1960 raised many questions when a spy plan launched from Peshawar was
shot down by USSR in its territory. It grew more tensions between the USA and USSR. USA claimed it
had no connection to the spy plan.
 General Ayub Khan paid a visit to China in 1962 and to USSR in 1965 was not liked by USA as that
visit broke the ice of Pak-Russian relations. USA had imposed trade embargo on Pakistan which
enabled it to develop good relations with USSR.

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 Zia ul Haq’s policies were never welcome by the USA. However, during Afghanistan-Soviet War 1979-
1988, Pakistan became the third largest recipient of US aid and received $ 4 billion. After the war, USA
dropped its aid dramatically by the end of the war.
 In November 1979, US embassy was attacked in Islamabad after the news was spread that USA was
involved in the attack of Haram Mosque. Though USA was not involved in the incident but the
reaction in Pakistan resulted in four deaths including two US citizens.
 In 1985, under the Pressler Amendment, USA refused to give aid to a country that had a nuclear
programme. However, India was not affected because of that. This affected Pakistan to get its
military needs and it was not able to develop good relations with USSR being an US alley.
 USA President, George H.W. Bush refused to deliver 28 F-16 planes for which Pakistan had already
paid. It was given in 1996 after Benazir Bhutto’s visit to the USA under the Brownian Amendment.
 In 1992, the USA came close to declaring Pakistan as a state sponsor of terrorism and placed
economic sanctions on the country. This hurt Pakistan’s policy as India was already claiming Pakistan
as terrorist country and USA followed it.
 In 1998, after the nuclear tests, USA banned many of the military aid programmes to Pakistan.
Many of the educational, medical and military programmes were directly affected due to that.

PAKISTAN AND THE UNITED SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC:

Pakistan tried to establish its ties with the USA in the late 1980’s. The USSR wished to bring Pakistan
close. Their relationship remained in halt for many years. Some experts still say if Pakistan had
created good ties with the Soviet Union, it would have played a strong role in Pakistan’s economy.

Positives of Pakistan-USSR relations:

 In 1949, USSR offered Pakistan’s Prime Minister, Liaquat Ali Khan for a visit to Moscow to develop
relations with Pakistan. It wanted to develop good relations with Pakistan and India both being the
strongest country in the region.
 In 1963, USSR withdrew its open support to India over Kashmir and called it a neutral issue. This
supported Pakistan on the international platforms on the matter of Kashmir and helped to gain more
support from other countries.
 In 1965, General Ayub Khan visited USSR and signed agreements on oil exploration. Russia also
announced to help Pakistan in establishing Pakistan Steel Mills worth $ 1 billion.
 In January 1966, Tashkent Declaration was signed between General Ayub Khan and Indian Prime
Minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri after the Indo-Pak War which was organized by USSR Premier Kosygin.
USSR urged both countries to stop war and they agreed to come back to pre-war condition.
 In 1972, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto visited USSR. Steel Mills Karachi was established by USSR in 1976. It was
the largest Steel Mills in the regions which helped Pakistan in developing its economy. Bhutto was
inspired by the system of government in USSR.

Negatives of Pakistan-USSR relations:

 In 1949, Liaquat Ali Khan refused to pay visit to Moscow as Pakistan was not in favour to go for
Communist government of Russia. This made USSR remain in disagreement with Pakistan when
Liaquat Ali Khan paid a visit to United States in 1950.

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 USSR opposed Pakistan over SEATO and CENTO inclusion in 1954 and 1955 respectively because it
believed it favoured USA only. It assumed that both these treaties were signed to strengthen USA in
the region and Pakistan had been an important ally of US policy.
 In 1955, USSR backed India on the matter of Kashmir as Pakistan was getting aid from the USA. This
was in reaction of Pakistan’s signing anti-Communist pacts and treaties under the US influence.
 In May 1960, the U2 Affair spy plane deteriorated the relations of the two countries. Pakistan
showed ignorance for the fact that the plane had launched from Peshawar however, USSR had clues
from its radar system. Pakistan wanted to clarify the condition however, USSR remained suspicious
on the role of Pakistan.
 In 1971, when Pakistan tried to bring a peace treaty between USSR and China, USSR was offensive
over Pakistan’s ties with China and USA. Similarly, at the time of Indo-Pak War of 1971, India was
fully supported by USSR whereas when Pakistan looked for support from China, USSR forced China to
withdraw from its role in the war.
 During 1979-1988 of USSR invasion of Afghanistan, Pakistan paid its support to USA and its allies
against Communism. Pakistan became a barrier for Afghanistan and full moral and official support
was provided to back it. USSR’s plans did not work due to USA support with Afghanistan and Pakistan
indirectly.

PAKISTAN AND INDIA:

Their relation started from the time of Mughals when Hindus were angered of the Muslim rule.
During the British Raj, Congress and Muslim League contested on the point of language and religion.
From 1947 to 1999, there had been sweet and sour relations between the two countries.

Points and reasons of weak relationship:

 Refugees: About six million of migrants came to East and West Pakistan before and after 1947 and
many of them were brutally killed by Hindus and Sikhs in the Punjab and other bordering areas.
 Boundary Issues: India created issues on boundary with Pakistan. Siachen Glacier is just one example
of that where the two forces often fight together. Areas of Punjab and Calcutta were handed over to
India.
 Kashmir Problem: since partition, Kashmir has been a root cause of almost every problem in the
region. India blames Pakistan for supporting the anti-government groups in India. According to the UN
decisions, the referendum has never been conducted in Kashmir.
 Division of assets: Pakistan did not its share in assets and military equipment from India which
created a problem between the two countries.
 Canal Water Dispute: Since partition, canal water has been a problem for Pakistan. Indus Water
Treaty tried to settle down the confusion a little. However, India still insisted to hold back all rivers
coming to Pakistan. Every year, India lets flood water into Pakistan affecting its agriculture and economy
adversely.

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 Positives of Pakistan-India relations:
 1947: Pakistan’s inclusion in the UN on 1st September 1947 was supported by India. India was
already a member of the United Nations and wanted to retain its name however it agreed to vote for
Pakistan in the UN. Its support made it easy for Pakistan to gain more aid and loans for building its
economy in the early years.
 1948: Though the issue of Kashmir was opened in the UN by India but in January, Ceasefire papers
were signed by Pakistan and India on Jammu and Kashmir. After the United Nations intervened into
Kashmir War and both countries signed for ending the war and Line of Control was created.
 1950: On 8th April, Liaquat-Nehru Pact was signed to solve water crisis as well as it sorted out the
refugee problems between the two countries. Both countries agreed to remain peaceful at the
borders. Both agreed to establish their High Commission offices in New Delhi and Karachi to be able
to deal with visa policy.
 1960: On 19th September, Indus Water Treaty was signed to sort out canal water dispute between the
two countries. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and President Ayub Khan met in Karachi to sign the
treaty organized by World Bank. Three rivers were given to Pakistan and later Pakistan made two
dams, five barrages, seven link canals and one gated siphon to solve irrigation water problems. This
resulted in a big change in Green Revolution in Pakistan.
 1966: In January, Tashkent Declaration was signed between General Ayub Khan and Lal Bahadur
Shastri after 1965 War under USSR sponsorship. Both countries promised to hand over each other’s
confiscated areas and not to fight on Kashmir. This declaration helped in developing good relations
between the two countries.
 1972: In January, Simla Accord was signed between Indira Gandhi and Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto after 1971
war. It was mainly signed to bring back 93,000 captives of the war by India and Bhutto agreed for not
raising Kashmir issue on international platforms. It made the two countries come close after the war.
 1987: At the time of Cricket Diplomacy by Zia, in December 1987, President Zia has a visit to India
and met Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi. They pledged not to attack each other’s nuclear amenities. In
1984, Indira Gandhi had been assassinated in India and India blamed Pakistan for its involvement and
blames on Khalistan Movement, Sikh separatists by India were ignored by Pakistan.
 1999: Lahore Declaration of 21st February 1999 between Nawaz Sharif and Atal Bihari Vajpaee
sorting out many issues between the two counties including the Kargil War. Atal Bihari Vajpaee came
to Lahore through Wagah Border and several projects including Lahore-Agra Bus Service, Train Service
were started and trade agreements were signed. Both countries announced each other as the most
favourable for trade.

Negatives of Pak-India relations:

 Wars of 1948, 1965 and 1971: Both Pakistan and India have faced three major wars. Heavy budgets
had to be kept in maintaining and developing their military expanse. 1965 War remained a major one
in which both countries fought badly and confiscated each other’s vast areas. Kargil Conflict in
Siachen Glacier also caused tension. Lives of hundreds of soldiers from both countries were lost and
the relations remained in serious conflicts all the time.

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 Pakistan’s support of China during Indo-China war of 1962 was disliked by India. When Pakistan
supported China at the time of war, India claimed that it was involving in India’s internal matters.
China handed over Siachen Glacier to Pakistan in 1963 which became a major reason of 1965 Indo-
Pak War.
 Pakistan blamed India in supporting Mukti Bahini in liberating freedom in East Pakistan in 1971.
Pakistanis were killed and massacred in East Pakistan by the civilian dressed army officers of India and
it led to the separation of Bangladesh in December 1971.
 India started its nuclear programme in 1974 which developed pressure on Pakistan to develop its
nuclear programme too. As a result, both countries are now declared nuclear powers and spend a
huge amount of their budget on military and defence.
 Terrorism- Both countries blame each other for spreading and having a hand in terrorism in their
countries. Talks between the two have sorted out the conditions however, the issue remains a
burning problem. India blame Pakistan on its hand in Kashmir and Khalistan Movement. Pakistan
blames India for its involvement in Balochistan and Karachi.
 During 1980s, India blamed Pakistan for supporting Khalistan Movement (a Sikh Movement in Indian
Punjab) in 1980s which declined in 1992.
 India blamed Pakistan for assassination of Indian Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi in 1984 and blamed
Pakistan’s military government of Zia behind the assassination.
 Pakistan and India had talks on Kashmir in 1989 and 1990s but due to Kashmiri mujahideens
activities, India kept on coming out of the talks. Pakistan’s ISI was blamed for providing financial and
military support to Kashmiri mujahideens.
 1990: Babri Masjid demolition in India spoiled the relationship further. Pakistani government raised
the issue internationally which spoiled the relations further.
 In 1999, Siachen Glacier’s Kargil Peak remained a war zone for both India and Pakistan. Hundreds of
soldiers from both sides were killed and it remained a big reason for tough relations of the two
countries.

PAKISTAN AND CHINA:

Pakistan and China share strong ties of bondage and relationship. More or less, they both support
each other on all international forums. China plays a great role in making a number of developmental
projects in Pakistan.

Positives of Pakistan-China relations:

 After Pakistan’s independence, China was amongst the first countries to recognize Pakistan. In
January 1950, Pakistan recognized China after China developed itself as People’s Republic and the
foreign relations of the two countries started.
 In 1962, during India-China war, Pakistan paid its full support to China. Despite being a member of
anti-Communist pacts of SEATO and CENTO, Pakistan’s support to China started as a point of new
relations between the two neighboring countries.
 In 1963, a series of trade agreements were signed and loans were announced to Pakistan by China.
This helped Pakistan in building up its economy better. China also handed over the area of Siachen to
Pakistan which was taken over by China during Indo-Sino War of 1962.

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 In August 1963, Pakistan’s national flag carrier, PIA started flying to many cities of China. This
helped not only the trade and tourism but also economic activities got a boom.
 In 1964, China declared its policy over Kashmir supporting Pakistan. Pakistan also supported China’s
entry as the permanent member to the United Nations Security Council which also gave a strong
support of Pakistan’s Kashmir Policy in the UN. Pakistan also supported China over the matter of
inclusion of Taiwan from the United Kingdom.
 China gave full military support in 1965 War which really helped Pakistan in making its defence
stronger against India. However, it could not do much due to Soviet Union threat in 1971.
 In February 1972, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto paid a visit to China. China turned all previously given loans
into grants. It also supported Bhutto for Pakistan’s nuclear programme which China started in 1974
at Karachi.
 In 1978, the Karakoram Highway was opened between China and Pakistan. It was mainly made by
Chinese money and its engineers. It also gave an access to both countries for their trade and
promoted tourism.
 In 1986, Zia ul Haq paid his first visit to China making China the most important country for military
after USA had imposed sanctions on getting its military weapons under the Pressler Act of 1985.
 Several projects including the Pakistan’s satellite Badr-1, Heavy Mechanical Complex Taxila, Gazi
Barotha Hydel Project, Motorways, Gwadar Port were completed with the aid and assistance of China.
 China funded and supported Pakistan at the time of May 1998 Nuclear tests at Chaghai. It also aided
Pakistan at the time of sanctions imposed by many other countries after the tests.

Negatives of Pakistan-China relations:

 Pakistan delayed its foreign policy on China after it became the People’s Republic in 1950 which gave
an advantage to establish itself an ally of not only USSR but of China as well. India has accepted the
Communist government of China in 1949.
 Pakistan kept an unclear policy on Taiwan inclusion to China for many years as it had US influence
against Communism. Taiwan was under the control of the UK and China wanted her allies to support
her. Due to being a member of the Commonwealth, Pakistan supported it quite later in 1964.
 China could not help Pakistan at the time of Indo-Pak War of 1971 due to Russian threat which
disappointed Pakistan’s government.

PAKISTAN-BRITAIN AND THE COMMONWEALTH:

Pakistan and Britain shared a complicated relations and it has been fluctuating over years. Since
Pakistan was under British Raj for 90 years, it wanted to stay disconnected from many of their acts.
However, it remained a dominion state under Commonwealth until 1956.

Positives of Pakistan-Britain and the Commonwealth:

 In 1950, the ‘Colombo Plan’ was set up and Pakistan received loans and grants from members of
Commonwealth countries. These loans and grants helped Pakistan in establishing its army and
economy on a better scale.

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 In 1955, Malik Ghulam Mohammad attended the Coronation Ceremony of Queen Elizabeth as a part
of foreign delegation and the two countries improved their relations further. Pakistan and Britain
joined CENTO (Central Treaty Organization) in 1955 along with Turkey and Iran to be able to fight
against Communism.
 In 1960, the Indus Water Treaty was signed between India and Pakistan due to the involvement of
many countries and Britain. Later Pakistan received loans to establish dams and barrages from those
countries in which Britain played a major role.
 The commonwealth Immigration act of 1962 introduced a voucher scheme which gave Pakistanis in
Britain the opportunity to arrange jobs and vouchers for friends and family to move here. Thus
immigration was extremely easy and the people were welcomed.
 After the war of 1965, the final agreement was signed between India and Pakistan due to Britain’s
effort. Since Britain was a ruling power in the regions some years back, it used its influence in
stopping the war.
 During the Afghan Crisis of 1979-1988, Britain supported Pakistan with a loan of 30 million pounds
as Pakistan received Afghan immigrants and was not able to accommodate them.
 The British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher visited Pakistan in 1980 and visited Pak-Afghan border
along with General Zia to meet the refugees of Afghanistan after their 1974 Earthquake and Afghan
miracle.

Negatives of Pakistan-Britain and the Commonwealth:

 Since the state of Jammu and Kashmir was not handed over by the Radcliffe Award to Pakistan,
Britain was blamed for spoiling the peace of the region in 1947.
 Though Pakistan joined Commonwealth in 1956, but still did not get its due support from members
of Commonwealth on Kashmir as it remained under military rule (Ayub Khan 1958-1969, Yahya Khan
1969-1971, Zia ul Haq 1977-1988) and had to withdraw its membership in 1972 after Bangladesh
establishment and was withdrawn from its membership 1998 after the nuclear tests.
 Britain supported India in 1965 War though it had signed CENTO with Pakistan. It also sold weapons
to India at the time of war.
 On 2nd February 1972, when Bangladesh was accepted by Britain as an independent country,
Pakistan withdrew from Commonwealth in reaction. Pakistan rejoined Commonwealth in 1989 after
Zia ul Haq’s rule was over as particularly India opposed any country under military rule for being a
member of Commonwealth.
 Despite of being the members of SEATO and CENTO, Pakistan opposed Britain invasion over Suez
Canal in 1956 and supported Egypt on the matter of its control. This made the government of Britain
displeased with Pakistan.
 In May 1998, when Pakistan conducted nuclear tests, Britain imposed sanctions and stopped many
programmes of aid and trade whereas the same sanctions were not imposed on India.

PAKISTAN AND BANGLADESH:

Both Pakistan and Bangladesh shared the same rule of British raj and were made independent as one
unit. However, a number of political, cultural and economic differences made them fall apart in
December 1971.

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 Positives of Pakistan-Bangladesh relations:
 In 1972, when Bhutto came to power, he released Sheikh Mujeeb-ur Rehman in January 1972 from
Adyala Jail, Rawalpindi, who later resumed as the Prime Minister of independent Bangladesh which
was an ice breaking of the relations.
 In February 1974, Mujeeb-ur-Rehman was invited to the meeting of Second Summit of Organization
of Islamic Countries making Bangladesh recognized in the eyes of Pakistan. The two countries
announced to open their embassies in Islamabad and Dhaka.
 In June 1974, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto visited Bangladesh and announced to have cordial relations and to
establish trade.
 In August 1975, after Sheikh Mujeeb-ur-Rehman’s murder by a group of Bangladesh army, the new
leader, Khondekar Mushtaq wished to keep positive in relations with Pakistan.

 In 1985 and 1988, Bangladesh faced severe weather conditions and millions of people were affected.
Pakistan became the first country to give aid to Bangladesh for which the Bangladeshi government
remained obliged.

Negatives of Pakistan-Bangladesh relations:

 In 1974, at the time of Second Summit of OIC, Bangladeshi leader, Mujeeb ur Rehman demanded half
of the assets as Pakistan had in 1971 but Bhutto denied for it and called it unrealistic. The two
countries had a deadlock on the start of bilateral talks at that point of disagreement.
 Bangladesh also claimed all non-Bangladeshis to go to Pakistan which was also considered
impractical and unrealistic. Several leaders were punished and hanged who were in support of unity
of Pakistan at the time of Indo-Pak War of 1971.

PAKISTAN AND AFGHANISTAN:

Afghanistan and Pakistan share a border of 2430 kilometres and decades of relationship. However,
there is a lack of trust particularly at Afghanistan end which never let the two countries come close as
friends.

Positives of Pakistan-Afghanistan relations:

 After the establishment of Pakistan, Afghan leaders were called in Karachi for talks with Jinnah in
1947. They were asked to drop the claim of Pakhtoonistan and were told to have access to the sea.
 Afghanistan announced that it will remain neutral for both India and Pakistan at the time of 1965
War despite pressure from India and Russia. On the matter of Kashmir, Afghanistan supported
Pakistan’s policy.
 Afghanistan received a severe earthquake in 1974 in which thousands of people lost their lives.
Bhutto extended full financial and military aid to help to Afghanistan.

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 Sardar Daud visited Pakistan to attend the Second Summit of OIC in 1974 and it was an important
stone of relationship building between the two countries. Pakistan made generous contribution at the
time of Afghanistan earthquake in 1974.
 In 1976, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto visited Afghanistan on the encouragement of Shah of Iran.
 During the Afghan Crisis 1979-1988, Afghanistan appreciated Pakistan’s role against communist
USSR and its point of unity with Afghanistan. 3 million refugees from Afghanistan settled in Pakistan
and it extended all possible support to Afghanistan. Pakistan became the largest country with the
highest number of foreign immigrants.
 In October 1977, General Zia visited Kabul which was followed by Daud’s visit in March 1978. These
visits made the two countries close and Afghanistan asked for border security from Pakistan’s
officials.
 Pakistan was the first Muslim country to establish relations with Taliban government of Afghanistan
and the Embassy was opened in Islamabad.
 Afghanistan became the member of ECO in 1992 with Pakistan, Iran Turkey and Central Asian
Republics after its reservations were made clear by Pakistan’s government.

Negatives of Pakistan-Afghanistan relations:

 Soon after independence of Pakistan in 1947, Afghanistan claimed its territory on some parts of
NWFP to be called as ‘Pakhtoonistan.’ Pakistan Government did not approve this claim which
resulted in the initial problems of the relationship of the two countries. The afghan tribe also rejected
Jinnah’s offer for using Karachi as their trading seaport.
 On 30th September 1947, Afghanistan became the only Muslim country to vote against Pakistan’s
membership in the UN in reaction of not being given Pakhtoonistan. It claimed Pakistan as British
colony even after its independence.
 Afghanistan rejected Pakistan’s offer of transit trade and made an agreement with Soviet Union.
 In October 1951, when Liaquat Ali Khan was killed by an Afghan national, Afghanistan did not
accept the responsibility and called Pakistan as ‘a British Colony’ which spoiled the foreign relations
of the two countries.
 In March 1955, Pakistan embassy was attacked in Kabul and Iskander Mirza showed agitation over
Afghanistan’s negative policy for Pakistan.
 At the time of 1965 War, Afghanistan’s neutral stance affected Pakistan’s blames on India. Similarly,
at the time of 1971 War with India, Afghanistan accepted that Pakistan had kept an ignorant
behaviour with the people of East Pakistan.
 Afghanistan refused to join RCD in 1964 and claimed it did not want to join it as Pakistan was a
member.
 Nawaz Sharif faced Kalashinkov culture from Afghanistan after the Afghan immigrants settled in
Pakistan and spoiled the internal peace. Afghanistan violated Pakistan airspace and bombed Pakistani
areas.
 Benazir Bhutto’s view of creating friendly relations with Talibans which gave a series of
fundamentalist groups in Pakistan. Later she considered it a mistake after that.

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 PAKISTAN AND IRAN:
Pakistan and Iran have shared strong and supportive ties over a long period of time. They have been
together on various forums and communities. Iran has always supported Pakistan on the matter of
Kashmir.

Positives of Pakistan-Iran relations:

 In 1947, Iran was the first country which started to develop good relations with Pakistan soon after
independence. Iran also opened its consulate in Karachi.
 In 1955, Pakistan and Iran, along with Turkey and Britain signed CENTO which was an important
factor of uniting the two countries. General Iskander Mirza developed very good relations with Iran.
 After the effort of General Ayub Khan Pakistan, Iran and Turkey signed RCD on 21st July 1964. It really
gave a boost to their relations and many departments of Turkey and Iran started to help Pakistan for
its economic growth.
 Iran supported Pakistan unconditionally on the matter of Kashmir and in the 1965 and 1971 wars. It
gave 5000 barrels of oil to Pakistan unconditionally and stopped the sale of its oil to India.
 Iran funded Pakistan in 1973 to put down an uprising in Balochistan when the tribal groups were
disturbing Iran’s areas. Iran paid 200 million dollars and 30 cobra helicopter to Bhutto’s government
be able to fight with those tribes.
 At the time of 1998 nuclear tests, when sanctions were imposed on Pakistan by many countries,
Iran supported Pakistan and gave crude oil as grant to help the economic sanctions.
Negatives of Pakistan-Iran relations:
 1973, before Bhutto started military operation in Balochistan, Iran was constantly complaining that
the elements from Pakistan were involved in spoiling law and order in their lands.
 In the Second Summit of OIC in February 1974, Iran refused to attend as Pakistan had invited
(Moammer Gaddaffi) Libya who had bad relations with Shah of Iran.
 Both Pakistan and Iran were the members of Baghdad Pact which later became the CENTO however,
the organization dissolved quietly in 1979 after the Iran’s revolution when Shah of Iran was removed
and Imam Khomeini came to power.
 After the Iran Revolution in 1979, the new government under President Ayatullah Khomeini found
Pakistan suspicious as Pakistan had great support from the previous Shah of Iran. Shah of Iran was
more close to USA whereas the new government under President Imam Khomeini was not happy with
USA and Pakistan’s military government under Zia was liked by USA at that time.

PAKISTAN AND THE MUSLIM BLOCK:

Pakistan is a major Muslim country that shares its close ties with almost all Muslim countries. Since
1947, Pakistan played a strong role in keeping all Muslim countries under one banner.

Positives of Pakistan-Muslim Block relations:

 In 1955, Pakistan joined CENTO (previously known as the Baghdad Pact) with Iran and Iraq against
any possible invasion from Communist countries.

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 In July 1964, Pakistan, Iran and Turkey joined Regional Co-operation for Development to help each
other in the areas for development.
 In 1969, Pakistan joined OIC with 24 other Muslim nations at Morocco. Later Pakistan held the
Second Summit of OIC in Lahore in 1974 after the Arab Israel War of 1973 in which Palestinians were
fighting against Israel and some Muslim countries joined together in support of Palestine.
 In 1971, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto toured many Islamic countries for gaining support on Kashmir policy and
to retain Pakistan image after its defeat in 1971.
 The Arab Israel War of 1973 brought Pakistan into the limelight when Bhutto gathered support of all
Muslim countries to help the Palestinians against the brutal killings of Israel. Pakistan also accepted
independent Palestine in 1974 and brought various points of reconciliation and freedom rights of the
Palestinians in the United Nations.
 In February 1974, Pakistan hosted 2nd Summit of OIC at Lahore and supported Palestinian Issue after
the 1973-Isaerli-Arab War. 34 leaders of Muslim countries including King Faisal (Saudi Arabia),
Mahateer Mohammad (Malaysia), Sardar Daud (Afghanistan), Yasir Arafat (Palestine), Anwar-us-
Sadaat (Egypt), Mujeeb-ur-Rehman (Bangladesh) and Moammer Qaddaffi (Libya). All Muslim leaders
agreed to develop unanimous foreign policy, Muslim army and unanimous currency. Pakistan was
able to gain a leadership role in the Muslim world.
 Pakistan received more loans from Saudi Arabia, Iran, UAE and Libya than the West after its positive
role in OIC in February 1974. Shah Faisal Mosque, Pak Arab Oil Refinery and many other important
projects were started in Pakistan.
 Pakistan played a very positive role at the time or Iran-Iraq War of 1980s and supported Iran in the
War as it had strong relations with Pakistan.
 During the Gulf War 1990-91, Pakistan played an important role in minimizing the tension between
Iraq and Kuwait-Saudi Arabia. Pakistan army played the role in peace keeping at the religious sites of
Saudi Arabia.
 Pakistan gave military assistance and its military expertise to many Muslim countries. Peace keeping
missions were sent to Somalia, Libya, Syria etc.

Negatives of Pakistan-Muslim Block relations:

 Afghanistan had remained disagreed with Pakistan since 1947 over many issues with Pakistan
particularly the issue of Pakhtoonistan and attack at Pakistan’s Embassy at Kabul weakened the
strength of two Muslim countries in the region. Afghanistan did not join RCD in 1964 due to
Pakistan’s involvement in it.
 Egypt was not pleased with Pakistan’s weak role during Suez Canal Issue in 1956 as Pakistan was a
member of the Commonwealth and could not oppose Britain openly.
 Bangladesh’s independence in 1971 created pressure on Pakistan when many Muslim countries like
Saudi Arabia urged Pakistan to accept it as an independent country.
 Iran did not attend the Second Summit of OIC of February 1974 at Lahore which weakened the plans
of Muslim World’s army and one currency.
 During Iran-Iraq War, Pakistan kept its side more with Iran which did not please Iraq. Pakistan’s
unanimous support for Iran was opposed by some western countries.

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 During the Iraq-Kuwait War of 1990-91, Pakistan joined the international coalition which was feared
by some elements in Pakistan.

PAKISTAN AND UNITED NATIONS:

The League of Nations was termed as the United Nations after the World War II in October 1945. It
has aims to save the world from any possible war, to have equal rights for all people and nations, to
ensure all countries respect international laws and to higher the standards of living and social
progress. The Unites Nations work under the following heads:
Security Council: There are five permanent members (USA, China, Russia, UK and France) and ten
non-permanent members which are chosen for two years.
There are other organizations and agencies like International Court of Justice, The Economic and
Social Council, The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), World Health Organization (WHO).
International Labour Organization (ILO), International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank
(IBRD).
PAKISTAN-UNITED NATIONS RELATIONS:
 Pakistan joined the United Nations on 30th September 1947 as Pakistan was in desperate need of
financial resources for building its economy and wanted to solve Kashmir issue which had started
soon after independence. After joining the United Nations, many of the problems were solved as
Pakistan got loan and aid for different projects. Ceasefire in Jammu and Kashmir was signed in
January 1948 due to the UN.
 Pakistan made its image by working on international affairs and gave its input in every possible way.
 Pakistan has been a member of the 15-member non-permanent Security Council on five occasions in
the past, 1952-53 (Malik Ghulam M), 1968-69 (Ayub Khan), 1976-77(Bhutto), 1983-84 (Zia) and 1993-
94 (Benazir/Nawaz) during the period 1947-99. It helped Pakistan is raising the matter of disputed
Jammu and Kashmir at the international platform.
 Pakistan had worked on several peace keeping missions under the United Nations’ Forces in Bosnia,
Libya, Somalia and Saudi Arabia during Gulf War.
 Pakistan raised Palestine issue in the UN and spoke against Israel illegal invasion. This has helped
Palestinian cause in staying active for UN resolutions.
 Pakistan supported freedom movements in Morocco and Algiers.
 The UN aided Pakistan under World Food Programme for Afghan refugees during 1979-1988 as well
as at the time of floods.
 In 1960, the UN solved Canal Water Dispute between Pakistan and India and the President of the
World Bank made a recommendation that it should provide financial and technical support to resolve
the disagreement.
 The UN ran many social and educational welfare programmes in Pakistan and helped during floods
and other disasters that struck Pakistan.
 Kashmir Dispute was not solved by UN even after the cease fire in 1948 and 1965 wars. India
ignored UN resolutions for holding a plebiscite in Kashmir however, no major effort was done by UN
regarding it.
 Pakistan showed its concern when Bangladesh was made the UN member in September 1974.

PAKISTAN AND SAARC (SOUTH ASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR REGIONAL CO-OPERATION):

SAARC was established in December 1985 at Dhaka with seven under-developing countries of the
region, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and the Maldives. Its basic purpose was
to uplift the economies of all nations in order to bring economic development as this region is
considered as one of the most under-developed. The programme includes exchange of ideas, visits of

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delegations and to work on joint ventures. Pakistan hosted 4th SAARC Conference during 29–31
December 1988 at Islamabad. However, SAARC remained ineffective due to the issues of India and
Pakistan.

Prepared by:

Sir Adnan Qureshi

0333-2248681

[email protected]

www.facebook.com/adnan.qureshi.5473

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