4D Analysis I
Find the radius of convergence of each of the following power series.
X
(i) n2 z n
n>1
Known (Ratio Test): If n an z n is a power series with an 6= 0 for all
P
n, and there exists l ∈ [0, ∞] such that |an+1 /an | → l as n → ∞, then
the radius of convergence is 1/l ∈ [0, ∞].
(i) Use the ratio test with an = n2 . We have for all n that
[3] |an+1 /an | = (1 + 1/n)2 → 1 as n → ∞. So radius of convergence is 1.
X 1/3
(ii) nn z n
n>1
n is a power series with n |a | → l
P p
Known (Root Test): If n an z n
as n → ∞ for some l ∈ [0, ∞], then the radius of convergence is
1/l ∈ [0, ∞].
1/3
(ii) Take an = nn . We have for all n that
2/3
|an | = nn = e(log n)/n
p
n −2/3
.
And for all α > 0 we have
log n
→0
nα
as n → ∞. (To see this, note that for all α, n > 0 we have
1
nα = eα log n > α2 (log n)2 .)
2
Since exp is continuous, we get
2/3
e(log n)/n →1
[7] as n → ∞, so by root test radius of convergence is 1.
[10]
10E Analysis I
State and prove the Intermediate Value Theorem.
IVT: If f : [a, b] → R is continuous and c ∈ R is such that f (a) 6 c 6
f (b) or f (b) 6 c 6 f (a) then there exists x ∈ [a, b] with f (x) = c.
Proof: WLOG f (a) 6 c 6 f (b). Let S = {t ∈ [a, b] : f (t) 6 c}. This is
non-empty (contains a) and bounded above (by b) so has a supremum
s. We claim f (s) = c.
Well, if f (s) > c then by continuity of f there exists δ > 0 such
that [s − δ, s] ⊂ [a, b] and f |[s−δ,s] > c, so s − δ is an upper bound for S
which is strictly less than s—contradiction.
Similarly if f (s) < c then there exists δ > 0 sch that [s, s + δ] ⊂
[a, b] and f |[s,s+δ] < c so s + δ ∈ S, contradicting the fact that s is an
upper bound for S.
[5] Thus f (s) = c, so we can take x = s.
A fixed point of a function f : X → X is an x ∈ X with f (x) = x. Prove that every
continuous function f : [0, 1] → [0, 1] has a fixed point.
Consider the function g : [0, 1] → R given by g(t) = f (t) − t. This is
continuous and satisfies g(0) = f (0) > 0 and g(1) = f (1) − 1 6 0, so
[4] by IVT there exists x ∈ [0, 1] with g(x) = 0, i.e. f (x) = x.
Answer the following questions with justification.
(i) Does every continuous function f : (0, 1) → (0, 1) have a fixed point?
[2] (i) No. f (x) = x2 .
(ii) Does every continuous function f : R → R have a fixed point?
[2] (ii) No. f (x) = x + 1.
(iii) Does every function f : [0, 1] → [0, 1] (not necessarily continuous) have a fixed
point?
(iii) No. (
1 x=0
f (x) =
0 x > 0.
[2]
(iv) Let f : [0, 1] → [0, 1] be a continuous function with f (0) = 1 and f (1) = 0. Can
f have exactly two fixed points?
(iv) Yes. Take f to be piecewise linear with the following graph
y
1 y=x
y = f (x)
0 1 x
[5]
[20]
12D Analysis I
State and prove the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
FTC: If f : [a, b] → R is continuous then the function F : [a, b] → R
defined by Z t
F (t) = f (x) dx
a
is differentiable on (a, b), and one-sided differentiable at a and b, with
derivative f .
Proof: Fix t ∈ [a, b]. We need to show that
F (x) − F (t)
→ f (t)
x−t
as x → t in [a, b]. Well, take x ∈ [a, b] not equal to t; WLOG t < x.
Then
1 x
Z Z t Z x
F (x) − F (t)
− f (t) =
f (y) dy − f (y) dy − f (t) dy
x−t |x − t| a
a t
1 x
Z
= f (y) − f (t) dy
|x − t| t
Z x
1
6 sup |f − f (t)| dy
|x − t| t [t,x]
= sup |f − f (t)|
[t,x]
→0
as x → t, since f is continuous. So F is right-differentiable on [a, b)
[9] (and similarly left-differentiable on (a, b]) with derivative f .
Rx
Let f : [0, 1] → R be integrable, and set F (x) = 0 f (t) dt for 0 < x < 1. Must F
be differentiable?
No. Take (
−1 x 6 1/2
f (x) =
1 x > 1/2.
This is clearly integrable, with F (x) = |x − 1/2| − 1/2, which is not
[4] differentiable at 1/2.
Let f : R → R be differentiable, and set g(x) = f ′ (x) for 0 6 x 6 1. Must the
Riemann integral of g from 0 to 1 exist?
No. Take (
x2 sin x12 x 6= 0
f (x) =
0 x = 0.
This is differentiable at 0, with derivative 0, since |f (x)| 6 |x|2 for all
x (so |f (x)/x| → 0 as x → 0). Clearly differentiable away from 0, with
derivative
1 2 1
g(x) = 2x sin 2 − cos 2
x x x
by the chain rule. This is unbounded on (0, 1], so not Riemann
[7] integrable.
[20]
