Conventional porosity

logging methods
edited by G. Pethő & P. Vass
 Porosity measurements
There are three conventional porosity logging methods:
• sonic or acoustic logging,
• density logging,
• and neutron logging.
Two of them, the density and neutron logging, belong to the group of
nuclear measurements.
Although they are called “porosity” logging methods, none of them
measures the porosity directly.
For all the three methods the value of the measured quantity is influenced
by not only the formation porosity but also the shale or clay volume
fraction, the fluid content and the rock matrix.
If the types of fluid and matrix are known or can be determined from other
log curves, the porosity of the clean formation can be calculated from the
porosity logs.
Their depth of investigation is typically shallow (n x cm – n x 10 cm), so
most of the detected effects come from the flushed zone.
 Sonic or acoustic log
Acoustic wave theory
Rocks can be considered as elastic bodies from the perspective of
acoustic wave propagation.
The acoustic logging method is based on the fact that high frequency
(tens of kHz) ultrasonic waves coming from a transmitter are able to
propagate through rocks.
The acoustic wave propagation is a spatial and temporal variation of
the stress and strain fields within the rock formations.
There is a very close interaction between the stress and strain.
A change in one of them causes the change of the other, and vice
versa.
It is important to note that not the particles travel through the medium
during the propagation of an elastic wave, but the change in the stress
and strain fields.
The particles of a medium are oscillating about their equilibrium
positions during the wave propagation.
 Sonic or acoustic log
There are two principal types of elastic waves:
• body waves
• and interface or surface waves.

Body waves travel three-dimensionally within an elastic medium.

Interface or surface waves propagate along and near by the interfaces of
two different media (e.g. along the borehole wall).

Body waves
Two types of body waves are distinguished by the deformation patterns
propagating through the medium.
When periodic alternations of contraction and expansion are taking place
during the wave propagation, the particles are oscillating along axes
parallel to the direction of the wave propagation.
That type of body wave is called compressional wave or P-wave (primary
wave).
 Sonic or acoustic log
Body waves
The compressional wave belongs to the group of longitudinal waves.
Compressional wave motion entails both volume change and deformation.
It can propagate in both solids and fluids.

The figure illustrates the deformation

pattern during the propagation of a
compressional wave.

http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/waves.html
 Sonic or acoustic log
Body waves
The other type of body waves is called shear wave or S-wave (secondary
wave)
In the case of a shear wave only the shear component of the stress field
plays role in the shear wave motion.
The particles of the medium are oscillating along axes perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation.
So, that type of wave belongs to the group of transverse waves.
The propagation of shear waves entails only deformation without any
volume change in the medium.
A shear wave cannot propagate in fluids because fluids are not able to
resist shear forces.
 Sonic or acoustic log
The deformation pattern of the propagation of a shear wave.

http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/waves.html
 Sonic or acoustic log
Physical principles of the measurement
High frequency (tens of kHz) acoustic pulses are emitted periodically
from a transmitter installed in the logging tool.
First the impulse-like ultrasonic wave packet (or wave trains)
propagates through the mud (mud wave) and arrives at the borehole
wall (which is a boundary between two media of different elastic
properties).
Here, it changes into different types of acoustic waves which travel on
their own way within the rock or along the borehole wall. In fact the
energy of incident mud wave divides into different parts propagating in
the forms of different waves.
From porosity determination point of view the critically refracted
compressional wave has essential importance.
The critically refracted compressional wave propagates within the rock
formation with the velocity depending on the density and elastic
properties of the rock. The direction of wave propagation is parallel to
the borehole wall, and the wave-motion causes the small vibration of
the borehole wall.
 Sonic or acoustic log
Physical principles of the measurement
Thus, the points of the borehole wall act as secondary sources of waves,
which means that secondary waves are generated and propagate in the
mud toward the sonic logging tool.
These secondary waves can be detected by the receiver located at some
distance from the transmitter in the logging tool.
The time elapsed between the generation of the wave and the detection of
the first wave arrival (transit time) at the receiver is recorded.
The simplest form of a sonic logging tool contains two receivers located at
different distances from the transmitter (3' and 5' or 2' and 4').
The effect of the generated sonic wave arrives later at the farther receiver.
The ratio of the difference between the transit times of the two receivers to
the distance between the two receivers is called interval transit time (t or
DT).
It gives the transit time needed for the compressional wave to travel one
foot distance in the formation (s/ft).
It is also known as slowness, because it is the reciprocal of the velocity.
 Sonic or acoustic log
If a new acoustic pulse is generated by the transmitter, a synchronizing
signal is sent to each receiver to start listening.
By selecting long enough time between two subsequent acoustic pulses,
the detection of a wave coming from a previous pulse after the next has
been generated can be avoided.
When not only the first arrival but the entire acoustic waveform belonging
to a generated acoustic pulse is recorded by the receivers, arrival times
and amplitude attenuations (energy decrease) of additional wave
components can also be investigated.
The different parts of a full waveform represent different types of acoustic
waves.
The most important ones are the following:
• compressional wave or P wave (it gives the standard interval transit
time, because it is the fastest of all waves, DTC),
• shear wave or S wave (it generally follows the compressional wave in
most cases, DTS),
• and Stoneley wave (it is an interface wave propagating along the
borehole wall, and generally slower than the shear wave).
 Sonic or acoustic log
Acoustic pulse generation
• a single pulse typically ranges from 100 to 200 s depending on the
type of logging tool,
• the time gap between two neighbouring pulses is about 50 ms (at least
250 times longer than the duration of a pulse,
In practice, more than one pulse is used to determine a single (average)
interval transit time value for a given depth level.

Malcolm Rider: The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs

 Sonic or acoustic log
Full acoustic waveform recorded by a receiver
Conventional acoustic logging used for porosity determination records only
the first arrival time of the waveform, which belongs to the compressional
wave.

Malcolm Rider: The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs

 Sonic or acoustic log
Borehole-compensated acoustic tool geometry (BHC)
It has two transmitters located at the lower and upper parts of the logging
tool (T1, T2).
Two receivers belong to each transmitter (R1 & R3  T1, R2 & R4  T2)
The receiver which is closer to its transmitter is called near
receiver, and the farther one is the far receiver.
The first arrival of the far receiver is detected later than that of
the near receiver.
The time difference gives how long it takes for the
compressional wave to run a distance identical with the
distance between the receivers in the formation collaterally
with the borehole wall.
The time difference divided by the distance between the
receivers gives interval transit time of compressional wave (or
compressional slowness).
By using two pairs of transmitters , two independent interval
transit times are measured for each depth level.
If the diameter varies near the logging tool and/or the logging
tool is not centralized perfectly, the values of interval transit
Malcolm Rider: The Geological time belonging to the different transmitters will not be identical.
Interpretation of Well Logs
 Sonic or acoustic log
Borehole-compensated acoustic tool geometry
By computing the average of two interval transit times, the unwanted
effects of the borehole geometry and logging tool position can be
eliminated. 𝑡1,3 − 𝑡1,1
Δ𝑡1 =
𝐿1,3
t1,3 first arrival time measured by R3
t1,1 first arrival time measured by R1
L1,3 distance between R1 and R3
t1 interval transit time for T1
𝑡2,2 − 𝑡2,4
Δ𝑡2 =
𝐿2,4
t2,2 first arrival time measured by R2
t2,4 first arrival time measured by R4
L2,4 distance between R2 and R4
t2 interval transit time for T2
Δ𝑡1 + Δ𝑡2
Δ𝑡 =
2
t borehole-compensated interval transit time
(compressional slowness)
Malcolm Rider: The Geological
Interpretation of Well Logs
 Sonic or acoustic log
Operational conditions of borehole-compensated acoustic logging (BHC):
• the sonic porosity logging can be applied only in open holes,
• it requires centralization in holes smaller than 16 inches (frequently
used with a three-arm caliper tool),
• it requires decentralization in holes larger than 16 inches (to minimize
the signal attenuation),
• the tool must not push to the borehole wall (some stand-off is needed)
to avoid the generation of acoustic noise during the movement of the
tool,
• the liquid filled borehole is required (water or water-based mud, oil or
oil-based mud) so that the coupling of acoustic waves between the
logging tool and the borehole wall will be provided.
• in air- or gas-filled borehole the measurement can not be implement.
Remark:
a special sonic tool geometry with a single transmitter and two receivers is
used for cement bond logging (CBL) in cased and cemented holes.
 Sonic or acoustic log
Interpretation goals
• determination of porosity (from interval transit time, DT),
• lithology identification (with density and/or neutron logs),
• production of synthetic seismograms (with the density log),
• determination of formation mechanical properties (from the full acoustic
waveform, with density log),
• detection of zones with abnormal formation pressure,
• permeability identification (from the full acoustic waveform),
• determination of cement bond quality (in a cased hole after cementing).

Presentation of conventional acoustic log data

Interval transit time (DT) is usually displayed in tracks 2 and 3 of a log.
A computed, sonic-derived porosity curve (SPHI or ϕS) is sometimes
displayed in tracks 2 and 3, along with the DT curve.
Track 1 usually contains a caliper (CALI), a gamma ray (GR) and a
spontaneous potential (SP) curve.
 Sonic or acoustic log

Daniel A. Krygowski: Guide to Petrophysical Interpretation

 Sonic or acoustic log
The main factors influencing the value of interval transit time:
• the mineral composition of the rock matrix,
• the porosity and the type of fluids filling the pore space,
• the rock microstructure (includes the texture and the small scale rock
structures),
• the vertical effective stress acting on the rock,
• the temperature.

The composition of rock matrix

The velocity of compressional wave in a rock depends on the density and
the elastic properties (bulk modulus, shear modulus) of the minerals
building up the solid rock framework.
If the rock matrix is made up of more than one mineral, the effect of a
component on the interval transit time of the entire rock matrix is
proportional to its volume fraction and its own interval transit time.
 Sonic or acoustic log
It can be described by the following formula:
1 2 𝑛
Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎 = 𝑉1 ∙ Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎 + 𝑉2 ∙ Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎 +…+𝑉𝑛 ∙ Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎

The interval transit time of minerals with higher density have lower interval
transit time (it means that the compressional wave propagates faster
inside them).
The interval transit time of the most important minerals are known from
laboratory measurements, and the values can be looked up in tables.

The effect of porosity and the type of fluids filling the pore space
As the porosity of the rock increases, the interval transit time decreases.
This is because the fluids filling the pore space have significantly higher
interval transit time than the solid components of a rock.
Namely, the interval transit time of the fluids primarily depends on their
density similarly to the solid materials.
So, the natural gas (because of its lowest density) increases the interval
transit time of a porous rock in the greatest measure.
 Sonic or acoustic log
Velocities of compressional wave and interval transit times for different
rock matrix and fluids.

George Asquith and Daniel Krygowski: Basic Well Log Analysis

 Sonic or acoustic log
The effect of rock microstructure
The propagation of acoustic waves in a porous rock is influenced by
among other things:
• the grain size distribution of the sediment,
• the shapes and arrangement of grains,
• the type of porosity,
• the pore size distribution.
In the case of rocks with low primary porosity (< 5-10%), mostly the rock
matrix determines the interval transit time of the rock.
For unconsolidated near-surface sediments with high porosity (40-50%),
the measured interval transit time characterizes the fluid filling the pore
space rather than the solid components.
Acoustic logging is not sensitive to the secondary porosity of rocks,
because acoustic waves are able to pass round the larger cavities and
fractures during their propagation through the rock.
So, the porosity derived from acoustic logs gives the primary porosity of
rocks.
 Sonic or acoustic log
The influence of vertical effective stress acting on the rock
The effective vertical stress is the difference between the lithostatic (or
overburden) pressure and the pore pressure at any given depth.
𝑃𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜 − 𝑃𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒
Because the vertical effective stress compresses the rock, it influences the
compaction of the rock and the size of the surface by which the grains are
in direct contact with each others.
With increasing vertical effective stress, the compressional wave
propagates faster in the rock (the interval transit time becomes lower), and
the wave velocity approaches an asymptotic upper limit (velocity limit).

The effect of temperature

It was proven by the results of laboratory measurements that the velocity
of compressional wave decreases with the increase of temperature.
The change in wave velocity depends on the type of rock, the porosity and
the fluid content of the pore space.
 Sonic or acoustic log
Determination of porosity (from interval transit time, DT)

The equation used for calculating the total, primary porosity is based on a
very simple rock model which is made up of a homogeneous rock matrix
and a single fluid phase filling the pore space:
Δ𝑡𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 𝜙 ∙ Δ𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 + 1 − 𝜙 ∙ Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎
 porosity, tlog interval transit time in the formation, tma interval transit
time in the solid rock matrix, tfluid interval transit time in the fluid.
By the arrangment of the linear equation above, we can get the so-called
Wyllie time-average equation (Wyllie et al., 1958):
Δ𝑡𝑙𝑜𝑔 − Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎
𝜙𝑆 =
Δ𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 − Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎
where S is the sonic-derived porosity.
The formula is valid for clean, water-filled, consolidated rocks with primary
porosity.
Relation between interval transit time and porosity in
a dolomite formation

Malcolm Rider: The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs

 Sonic or acoustic log
Correction for unconsolidated rocks
If the value of vertical effective stress at a given depth is not enough for
the compressional wave to approach the (upper) velocity limit of the rock,
the rock is regarded as unconsolidated.
Unconsolidated rocks are characterized by interval transit times greater
than 100 s/ft (~330 s/m).
These high measured values results in higher sonic-derived porosity than
the actual one.
In order to correct the effect of unconsolidated rocks, an empirical
compaction factor (Cp) must be added to the Wyllie equation:
Δ𝑡𝑙𝑜𝑔 − Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎 1
𝜙𝑆 = ⋅
Δ𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 − Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎 𝐶𝑝
The compaction factor is obtained from the following formula:
Δ𝑡𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒 ∙ 𝐶
𝐶𝑝 =
100
tsh is the interval transit time in a shale adjacent to the formation of
interest,
C is the compaction coefficient of shale (a constant which is normally 1.0)
 Sonic or acoustic log
Correction for hydrocarbon
The presence of hydrocarbon in the pore space increases the interval
transit time of a formation.
If the effect of hydrocarbons is not corrected, the sonic-derived porosity
will be higher than the actual porosity.
The following empirical corrections are proposed to eliminate the effect of
hydrocarbon on the sonic-derived porosity (Hilchie,1978):

 = S  0.7 (for gas)

 = S  0.9 (for oil)
Some typical acoustic log responses

Malcolm Rider: The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs

 Density log
Physical principles of the measurement
Medium-high energy gamma rays (0.2-2.0 MeV) are emitted from a
chemical source (usually Cesium 137) screwed on the skid plate of a
density logging tool (the source is installed before lowering down the tool,
and removed after pulling up the tool).
A focused stream of gamma rays reaches the formation and most of the
gamma photons interact with the electrons of the atoms in the formation.
Two interactions have important role from the point of view of formation
density logging:
• Compton scattering,
• photoelectric effect.
For Compton scattering, a gamma photon of medium energy (0.5-1.5
MeV) collides with one of the electrons of an atom. The gamma ray
transfers a portion of its energy to the electron, and a gamma ray of
reduced energy leaves the site of the collision in a modified direction. Both
the energy and the direction of propagation of the gamma ray changes
due to the interaction. As a result of successive scattering events, the
energy of gamma photons gradually decrease below 150 keV.
 Density log

Schematic of Compton scattering Schematic of photoelectric effect

If the energy level of a gamma photon decreases below 150 keV, the
occurrence of a photoelectric effect will become more and more probable.
In the course of a photoelectric effect, a gamma photon with lower energy
collides with an electron.
The electron absorbs the gamma ray, which disappears and transfers its
entire energy to the bound electron. If the energy of the incident gamma
ray is sufficiently high, the exited electron can leave the atom.
Due to the gamma ray absorption, the photoelectric effect decreases the
number of gamma photons in the formation.
 Density log

As a result of these two interactions, both the number and the average
energy of gamma rays decrease with the distance from the source.
The rate of change depends on the properties of the formation (rock
matrix, porosity, fluid content etc.).
Two detectors (a near and a far detector) in the tool count the number of
returning gamma rays in the unit of counts per second (cps).
The higher the average electron density (number of electrons per unit
volume) of the formation near the logging tool the lower the detected count
rate (or counting rate).
The ratio of near-to-far detector count rates is related to the average
electron density of the formation.
For the most frequent elements in the Earth’s crust, the electron density is
proportional to the bulk density.
Thus, the ratio of the near-to-far detector count rate can be converted into
the unit of bulk density (g/cm3) by means of a suitable calibration process
preceding the logging operation.
 Density log
An advanced variants of the conventional density logging is the so-called
spectral-density or Z-density logging (also known as photoelectric factor
logging).
In spectral density tools, both detectors measure the count rate at two
separated energy ranges simultaneously.
The count rates of higher energy gamma rays (coming from Compton
scattering) are related to the bulk density, while the count rates of lower
energy gamma rays (mainly affected by the photoelectric effect) are used
to determine the so-called photoelectric factor.
While the bulk density is related to the porosity of the formation, the
photoelectric factor characterizes the lithology of the formation (it primarily
depends on the average atomic number of the elements forming the rock).
The photoelectric factor is just less dependent on the porosity and the fluid
type.
 Density log
Operational conditions of density logging:
• the tool can be run either in open holes or in cased holes,
• it requires a decentralized position in the borehole because of its
shallow investigation depth (15-20 cm),
• there is no limit for the types of borehole fluids (gas or air, water or
water-based mud, oil or oil-based mud can be used).

A DC motor actuated backup

arm opposite the skid plate
(including the sensors and
source) holds the density tool
against the borehole wall.
The movement of the arm is
calibrated to indicate borehole
diameter.

http://www.gowellpetro.com/product/litho-density-logging-tool-ldlt.html
 Density log
Figure: Spectral density tool, SDL (Halliburton)
The ratio of the near-to-far detector count rate is
converted to density. The conversion is based on a
calibration process which uses calibrator blocks with
known densities (a magnesium block with a density
of 2.804 g/cm3, and an aluminium block with a
density of 1.78 g/cm3).
For density logging, it is important to distinguish the
• bulk density (b or RHOB),
• from the matrix density (ma).
The bulk density is the density of the entire formation
(includes solid and fluid parts) and indirectly
measured by the logging tool.
The matrix density is the density of the solid
framework of the rock (without the laminated shale
and the dispersed clay).
The bulk density of a rock without any porosity is
identical with the matrix density of the rock.
Daniel A. Krygowski: Guide to Petrophysical Interpretation
 Density log
Presentation of density log curve

The bulk density curve (RHOB in g/cm3) is displayed in the merged tracks
of 2 and 3 or separately in track 3.
A correction curve (DRHO in g/cm3) is also displayed with it.
This curve indicates the magnitude and the sign of the correction added to
the bulk density curve in order to decrease the effects of the borehole on
the measurement (primarily the effects of the mud cake thickness and
density are corrected).
The density correction curve is used as a quality control (QC) indicator of
the measurement.
Whenever the absolute value of the correction curve (DRHO) exceeds
0.15 g/cm3, the value of the bulk density (RHOB) is not reliable.
A density-derived porosity curve (DPHI) is sometimes presented along
with the bulk-density (RHOB) and correction (DRHO)
curves. This computed curve is not corrected for the effects of shale or
clay and low density fluids (e.g. gas).
Track 1 usually contains a gamma ray (GR) and a caliper log curve (CAL).
 Density log

Daniel A. Krygowski: Guide to Petrophysical Interpretation

 Density log
Interpretation goals
• determination of porosity (from bulk density, RHOB),
• lithology identification (with acoustic and/or neutron logs)
• gas indication (with neutron logs).
• production of synthetic seismograms (with acoustic logs).
• determination of formation mechanical properties (with full wave
acoustic logs).
• determination of clay content (shaliness) (with neutron logs).
• borehole size (from an attached caliper).

Determination of formation porosity

The measured bulk density (b) of a clean formation primarily depends on
the matrix density, the porosity, and the density of the fluid in the pores.
To determine the density porosity of a clean formation, the matrix density
and the type of fluid in the formation must be known.
 Density log
The formula by which the density-derived porosity can be calculated is
based on the relationship below:
𝜌𝑏 = 𝜙 ∙ 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 + (1 − 𝜙) ∙ 𝜌𝑚𝑎
where  is the total porosity, fluid is the density of the fluid in the pore
space, ma is the density of matrix, and b is the measured bulk density.
By the arrangement of the formula, we can calculate the density-derived
porosity of a clean formation saturated with a single fluid phase:
𝜌𝑚𝑎 − 𝜌𝑏
𝜙𝐷 =
𝜌𝑚𝑎 − 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

Because the matrix density varies in a

wider range than the fluid density,
errors in estimating the matrix density
have a larger effect on the calculated
porosity.

George Asquith and Daniel Krygowski: Basic Weil Log Analysis

 Density log
Correction for hydrocarbon
Where the depth of invasion is very small, the measured bulk density is
also affected by the formation fluid.
In the case of low density hydrocarbons, the density-derived porosity is
always greater than the actual porosity.
Oil (~0.8 g/cm3) has not a significant effect on the density-derived porosity,
but low pressure gas has (gas effect).
In the cases of formations saturated with gas in the vicinity of the
borehole, the substitution of actual density of gas (gas) in the porosity
formula as a density of fluid (fluid) is not enough to compensate the effect
of gas.
An apparent gas density (a,gas) must be computed by taking into account
the composition and the actual density of gas, as well as the formation
temperature and pressure.
Some typical density log response

Malcolm Rider: The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs

 Neutron log

Physical principles of the measurement

Neutron is a subatomic particle without electric charge.

Its mass is almost the same as that of a proton (slightly larger).
Normally, neutrons are located in the nuclei of atoms.
Generally, a chemical neutron source (a mixture of americium-beryllium,
Am-Be) is used for emitting high energy neutrons (4-6 MeV) with high
initial velocity (> 103 km/s) during the operation of neutron logging.
The emitted neutrons penetrate into the formation and collide with the
nuclei of the atoms.
Due to the successive collisions, neutrons gradually lose their energy,
which entails their slowing down.
Below a certain energy level, the nuclei of the atoms are already able to
absorb (or capture) the neutrons, which transmit the rest of their kinetic
energy to the nuclei.
 Neutron log
From an energetic point of view, the „lifetime” of a free neutron (the length
of time between its emission and capture) in the formation can be divided
into the following phases:
• fast neutron phase,
• slowing-down phase,
• diffusion phase,
• and absorption phase.
All these phases generally take less than a millisecond.
The classification of neutrons is based on their energy:
high energy > 10 MeV
fast neutrons 10 keV – 10 MeV
intermediate 100 eV – 10 keV
slow 10 eV – 100 eV
epithermal 0.2 eV – 10 eV
thermal 0.025 eV
As a neutron is getting farther from the source its energy is decreasing, so
the density of higher energy neutrons (number of neutron per unit volume)
decreases, but the density of lower energy neutrons increases with the
distance from the source.
 Neutron log
Depending on the energy of the neutron and the properties of the nucleus,
different types of interactions can be occurred between them.
In the fast neutron phase, the neutrons have sufficient energy to excite or
activate the nuclei.
The exited nuclei emit gamma rays with their characteristic energies in
order to calm down. The activated nuclei decay into other isotopes.

In the course of inelastic scattering, an incident fast neutron collides with

a nucleus. The neutron transmits some part of its energy to the nucleus,
which gets into an excited state. The neutron leaves the atom in a
modified direction, with reduced energy . After a while, the excited
nucleus emits a gamma photon. The energy of the gamma ray is specific
to the nucleus.
 Neutron log
After the neutron has lost the significant part of its initial energy, it enters
the slowing down phase.
In that phase, the typical interaction between neutrons and nuclei is the so
called elastic scattering.
During elastic scattering, the incident neutron has not enough energy to
excite the nucleus, but it can increase the kinetic energy of the nucleus by
their collision.
After the collision, the neutron of reduced energy leaves the nucleus in a
modified direction.
As a result of the successive interactions, neutrons have slowed down to
thermal velocities corresponding to energies of around 0.025 eV within a
few microseconds.
 Neutron log
The dominance of thermal neutrons is the characteristic of the absorption
(or thermal capture) phase.
In this phase, the thermal neutrons propagate in the formation by
diffusion.
They travel randomly without losing major energy until they are captured
by the nuclei of atoms (such as chlorine, hydrogen, or silicon).
A nucleus which captures a low energy neutron gets into an excited state
(that is it has some extra energy).
Because the nucleus is not able to stay in such a state, calms down after
a while by releasing some plus energy in the form of gamma ray.
The energy of emitted gamma ray is specific to the emitting nucleus.
Neutron log
From the perspective of porosity
determination, the elastic scattering of
neutrons is the most important
interaction.
In that process, the relative mass of the
nucleus determines how much energy
the neutron loses due to the collision.
The smaller the relative mass of the
(target) nucleus the greater the average
energy loss per collision.
Because the nucleus of a hydrogen atom
is a single proton, whose mass is very
similar to that of a neutron, hydrogen has
the greatest slowing down power.
A collision with a nucleus of a heavy
atom changes rather the direction of
movement of a neutron than its kinetic
energy.
 Neutron log
The table shows how many elastic collisions with the nuclei of different
elements are needed, on average, for a neutron with an initial energy of 2
MeV to slow down to thermal energy of 0.025 eV.

Chemical Atomic number Average number of

element (Z) elastic collisions
hydrogen 1 18
carbon 6 114
oxygen 8 150
silicon 14 257
chlorine 17 329
calcium 20 368

The table unambiguously indicates that the slowing down of neutrons

primarily depends on the amount (concentration) of hydrogen in the
formation.
 Neutron log
In the case of a widely used (borehole)
compensated neutron logging tool geometry (CNL),
two detectors with different distance from the
neutron source are located in the tool.
Both the near and the far detector counts the
number of returning thermal neutrons.
The detector count rates are inversely proportional
to the hydrogen concentration of the formation.
By assuming that all the hydrogen resides in the
pore space of the formation (as water or
hydrocarbons), the hydrogen concentration can be
related to the formation porosity.

Operational conditions:
The tool can be run in both open holes and cased holes.
But, it requires a decentralized position in the borehole, which is
implemented by means of a steel bow spring.
It can be used with any type of borehole fluids (gas or air, water or water-
based mud ,oil or oil-based mud).
 Neutron log
Calibration
The primary calibration standard for the neutron porosity logging tools is
the API test pit of the University of Houston.
It contains four zones with different but known porosities:
• a zone of pure water, which represents a porosity of 100%,
• a zone of Carthage Marble with a porosity of 1.9%,
• a zone of Indiana Limestone with a porosity of 19%,
• a zone of Austin Limestone with a porosity of 26%.
In the test pit, the manufacturers calibrate their neutron tools in the so
called limestone (or neutron) porosity unit. The secondary workshop
standards (water-filled calibrating tanks by which environments with
different porosities can be simulated) for the logging tools are also
calibrated according to the test pit.
Wellsite verification of the tools is also performed before and after logging
by means of a portable calibrator providing a known thermal neutron
count rate.
For other lithology (not limestone), the measured limestone porosity value
can be converted to a porosity value of a given rock matrix by using
correction data from lithology tables.
 Neutron log
Figure: the structure of the API test pit
used as a primary calibration standard for
neutron logging tools.
The measured porosity value of a
calibrated CNL tool is only valid for a clean
(non-shaly), water-filled limestone
formation.
In other cases, the measured value has to
be corrected for the effects of the factors
(e.g. lithology, hydrocarbon, shale or clay).

Malcolm Rider: The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs

Presentation of neutron porosity logs

Neutron porosity curves are commonly displayed in porosity units (% or
volume fraction) in the merged tracks of 2 and 3 or separately in track 3.
Generally, the scale is from 45% (0.45) to -15% (-0.15).
 Neutron log
Presentation of neutron porosity logs
Since a neutron tool are generally run
with combination of a density tool, the
neutron porosity (NPHI) and the bulk
density (RHOB) or density-derived
porosity (DPHI) log curves are
displayed together.
Track 1 usually contains the gamma
ray (GR) and the caliper log curve
(CAL).

Daniel A. Krygowski: Guide to Petrophysical Interpretation

 Neutron log
Interpretation goals:
• porosity determination,
• lithology identification (with sonic and/or density logs),
• gas indication (with density logs),
• determination of clay content (shaliness) (with density logs),
• correlation (especially in cased holes).
Porosity determination
The neutron slowing down power of a given material is quantified by the so
called hydrogen index of the material (HI).
It gives how rate the unit volume of a given material slows down the
neutrons by elastic scattering compared to the unit volume of pure water at a
temperature of 24 °C.
Its value ranges from 0 to 1 (pure water has the value of 1).
For materials containing hydrogen, the value of HI mainly depends on their
hydrogen concentration.
But HI also depends on the atomic number of elements, namely HI
decreases with the increase of atomic number.
 Neutron log
Porosity determination
In the case of clear, water-filled limestone formations, the measured
(limestone calibrated) neutron porosity (NPHI or N) gives the estimation of
the true porosity ().
The neutron tool response equation for that case:
𝜙𝑁 = 𝜙 ∙ 𝐻𝐼𝑊 + (1 − 𝜙) ∙ 𝐻𝐼𝐿𝑀
where HIw is the hydrogen index of water (=1) and the HILM is the hydrogen
index of limestone.
If the rock matrix is different from limestone, the effect of the rock matrix
must be corrected by means of a graph similar to the one below.

Malcolm Rider: The Geological

Interpretation of Well Logs
 Neutron log
For the neutron porosity corrected for the effect of lithology (N,corr), the
following equation can be written:
𝜙𝑁,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 𝜙 ∙ 𝐻𝐼𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 + 1 − 𝜙 ∙ 𝐻𝐼𝑚𝑎
where HIfluid is the hydrogen index of pore fluid and the HIma is the
hydrogen index of the given matrix.
By the arrangement of the equation, the porosity of the formation can be
calculated:
𝜙𝑁,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 − 𝐻𝐼𝑚𝑎
𝜙=
𝐻𝐼𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 − 𝐻𝐼𝑚𝑎
The formula enables us to take into account the effect of fluids whose HI is
different from that of the pure water (e.g. salt water, oil, gas).
However, for gas bearing formations, the application of additional correction
is needed to obtain a reliable porosity value.
The decrease in measured neutron porosity caused by the presence of gas
is called gas effect.
Because shale minerals contain hydrogen in their crystal lattice and are
able to adsorb lots of water on their surface, the shale or clay content
increases the measured neutron porosity compared to the true porosity.
Therefore, the shale correction is very important for shaly formations.
 Some typical neutron log responses

Negative values of the neutron

porosity indicate that the slowing
down power of the rock is less
than that of the rock used for the
calibration (limestone).
In this case, the measured values
must be corrected for the lithology.
Neutron porosity values marked by
an asterisk refer to fresh water
filled formations and the
Schlumberger CNL tool.

Malcolm Rider: The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs