Construction Methods
110401542
3c – Loading and Hauling
Operations
Dr. Khaled Hyari
Department of Civil Engineering
Hashemite University
Loaders
• Loader: A tractor equipped with a front-end
bucket (bucket loader, front-end loader)
• Both wheel loaders and track loaders are
available
١
Loaders II
• Most modern wheel loaders are articulated
– They are hinged between the front and rear
axles to provide greater maneuverability
• Loaders most commonly used for
– Excavating soft to medium-hard material
– Loading haul units
– Stockpiling material
– Backfilling
– Moving concrete and other construction
materials
3c - ٣
Wheel vs. Track Loaders
Wheel loaders Track loaders
• Excellent job mobility • Capable of overcoming
• Capable of over-the-road steeper grades and side
movement between jobs at slopes than are wheel
speeds of 40km/h and loaders
higher • Their low ground pressure
• While their ground and high tractive effort
pressure is relatively low enable them to operate in
and may be varied by the low-traficability soils
use of different-size tires • Because of their low
and by changing inflation speed, their production is
pressures, they do not less than that of a wheel
have all-terrain capability loader over longer haul
of track loaders distances
3c - ٤
٢
Estimating Loader Production
Production = volume per cycle x cycles per hour
• Basic cycle time includes time required for:
– Loading
– Dumping
– Making reversals of direction
– Traveling a minimum distance
• Typical values for basic cycle time
3c - ٥
Estimating Loader Production II
• Use manufacturers’ performance curves to
estimate travel time whenever possible.
• Studies show that there is little variation in
basic cycle time for wheel loaders up to a
distance of 25m between loading and
dumping distance
• Therefore, travel time should not be added
until one-way distance exceeds this distance
3c - ٦
٣
Estimating Loader Production III
• Typical ravel time curves for wheel loaders
3c - ٧
Estimating Loader Production IV
• Example 4-7
Estimate the hourly production in loose
volume (LCM) of a 2.68 m3 wheel loader
excavating sand and gravel (average
material) from a pit and moving it to a
stockpile. The average haul distance is 61
m, the effective grade is 6%, the bucket fill
factor is 1.0, and job efficiency is 50 min/h.
3c - ٨
٤
Estimating Loader Production V
Solution:
Production = volume per cycle x cycles per
hour
Basic cycle time = 0.5 min (Table 4-6)
Travel time = 0.3 min (Fig 4-14)
Cycle time = 0.8 min
Production
= 2.68 x 1.0 x (60/0.8) x (50/60)
= 168 LCM/h
3c - ٩
Estimating Loader Production VI
• Example
Estimate the hourly production in loose
measure of a 4.6 m3 wheel loader moving
loose material from a stockpile into dump
trucks. The average one-way haul distance is
107m (350 ft). The effective grade is 6% and
the bucket fill factor is 0.9. Job efficiency is
estimated at 50 min/hr.
3c - ١٠
٥
Estimating Loader Production VII
Solution:
Production = volume per cycle x cycles per hour
Basic cycle time = 0.35 min (Table 4-6)
Travel time = 0.6 min (Fig 4-14)
Cycle time = 0.95 min
Production
= 4.6 x 0.9 x (60/0.95) x (50/60)
= 217.9 LCM/h
3c - ١١
Scrapers
٦
Scrapers II
Scraper uses
• Scrapers are capable of excavating, loading,
hauling, and dumping material over medium to long
haul distances
• The scraper excavates by lowering the front edge
of its bowl into the soil
• The bowl front edge is equipped with replaceable
cutting blades
• Only the elevating scraper and the Auger scraper
are capable of achieving high efficiency in loading
without the assistance of a pusher tractor or
another scraper
3c - ١٣
Types of Scrapers I
• Push-Loaded:
Single Powered
Axle
3c-14
٧
Types of Scrapers II
• Push-Pull: Tandem- Powered Axle
15
Types of Scrapers III
• Auger Loading Mechanism
3c-16
٨
Types of Scrapers IV
• Elevating
3c-17
Estimating Scraper Production
• Estimated production = Volume per cycle x Cycle
per hour x E
• Cycle time =
Fixed cycle time + variable cycle time
Spot time Haul Time
Load time Return Time
Maneuver time
Dump time
• Spot time: The time required for a unit to position
itself in the cut and begin loading, including any
waiting for a pusher 3c - ١٨
٩
Estimating Scraper Production II
Table 4-7:
Typical
Pusher loaded Self-loaded
values of
fixed cycle
time for
scrapers
4c - ١٩
Estimating Scraper Production III
• Variable cycle time (travel time) includes:
– Haul time
– Return time
• Estimated by:
– Travel-time curves
– Average speed method with performance curve
• It is necessary to break a haul route up into
sections having similar total resistance
values
• The total travel time is found as the sum of
the section travel times
3c - ٢٠
١٠
Estimating Scraper Production IV
• In determining the payload per scraper
cycle, it is necessary to check both the
rated weight payload and the heaped
volume capacity
• The volume corresponding to the lesser of
these two values will govern
3c - ٢١
Estimating Scraper Production V
• Example:
Estimate the production of a wheel tractor-
scraper given the job information below. Use
the travel time curves of Fig 4-4 and 4-5.
– Scraper type: single-engine
– Operating conditions: average single
pusher
– Material: sandy clay: 1898 kg/BCM;
1571kg/LCM
– Rolling resistance: 50kg/t
3c - ٢٢
١١
Estimating Scraper Production VI
– Scraper capacity:
• rated payload= 34,020 kg
• heaped volume= 24 LCM
– Altitude derating factor = 4%
– Job efficiency = 50 min/h
– Haul route:
• Section 1. Level loading area
• Section 2. Down a 4% grade, 610 m
• Section 3. level dumping area
• Section 4. up a 4% grade, 610 m
• Section 5. level turnaround, 183 m
3c - ٢٣
Estimating Scraper Production VII
4c - ٢٤
١٢
Estimating Scraper Production VIII
3c - ٢٥
Estimating Scraper Production IX
Solution
1. Check load
• Weight of heaped capacity
• Rated payload
2. Calculate effective grade
• Haul
• Return
• Turnaround
3. Find cycle time
• Travel time
• Fixed time
• Adjust for altitude
4. Find production
Estimated production = Volume per cycle x Cycle per hour x E
3c - ٢٦
١٣
Estimating Scraper Production X
1. Check load
• Weight of heaped capacity
• Rated payload
Weight of heaped capacity = 24 LCM x 1571 kg/LCM
= 37,794 kg > rated payload = 34,020 kg
Therefore, maximum capacity
= 34,020 kg / (1571 kg/LCM) = 21.7 LCM
OR, in bank measure
= 34,020 kg / (1898 kg/BCM) = 17.9 BCM/load 3c - ٢٧
Estimating Scraper Production
2. Calculate effective grade
• Haul
• Return
• Turnaround
Haul = -4% + 50/10 = 1%
Return = 4% + 50/10 = 9%
Turnaround = 0 + 50/10 = 5%
3c - ٢٨
١٤
Estimating Scraper Production
3. Find cycle time
• Travel time
• Fixed time
• Adjust for altitude
• Travel time
– Section 2 (haul, 610m, 1% grade): 1 min (Fig 4-4)
– Section 4 (return, 610m, 9% grade): 1.6 min (Fig 4-5)
– Section 5 (turnaround, 183m, 5% grade): 0.45 min (Fig 4-5)
Travel time = 1.04 [1 + 1.6 + 0.45]
= 3.2 min Altitude
adjustment
3c - ٢٩
Estimating Scraper Production
3. Find cycle time
• Travel time
• Fixed time
• Adjust travel time for altitude
• Fixed time
– Spot time = 0.3 min Table (4-7)
– Load time = 0.6 min Table (4-7)
– Maneuver and dump time = 0.7min Table (4-7)
Fixed time = 0.3 + 0.6 + 0.7 = 1.6 min
Total cycle time = 3.2 + 1.6 = 4.8 min
3c - ٣٠
١٥
Estimating Scraper Production
4. Find production
Estimated production
= Volume per cycle x Cycle per hour x E
= 17.9 BCM x (50/4.8)
= 186.5 BCM/h
3c - ٣١
Push Loading
3c-32
١٦
Push Loading
• Some scrapers require the assistance of
pusher tractors to obtain maximum production
• 3 basic loading methods
– Back-track
– Chain
– Shuttle
3c - ٣٣
Push Loading II
3c - ٣٤
١٧
Push Loading III
• Back-track loading
– Most commonly used since it permits all scrapers
to load in the same general area
– Offers the advantage of always being able to
load in the direction of the haul
– The slowest of the three methods because of the
additional pusher travel time
3c - ٣٥
Push Loading IV
• Chain loading
– Suitable when the excavation is conducted in a
long cut
3c - ٣٦
١٨
Push Loading V
• Shuttle loading
– Requires two separate fill areas for efficient
operations
– Infrequent use
– Pusher can serve scrapers hauling in opposite
directions
3c - ٣٧
Push Loading VI
Pusher cycle time
• Pusher cycle time consists of:
– Maneuver time: while the pusher moves into
position and engages the scraper
– Load time
– Boost time: the pusher assists in accelerating
the scraper out of the cut
– Return time
3c - ٣٨
١٩
Push Loading VII
• Calculating the number of pushers required
– The number of scrapers that can be handled
by one pusher without a scraper having to
wait for a pusher
• Number of scrapers served = scraper cycle
time / pusher cycle time
• Number of pushers required = number of
scrapers / number served by one pusher
3c - ٣٩
Push Loading VIII
• When the number of pushers actually
used is less than the required number to
fully serve the scraper fleet, expected
production is reduced
– Production =
(No. of pushers / required No.)
x No. of scrapers x Production per scraper
3c - ٤٠
٢٠
Push Loading IX
• Example
The estimated cycle time for a wheel
scraper is 6.5 min. Calculate the number of
pushers required to serve a fleet of nine
scrapers using single pusher. Determine
the results for both back track and chain
loading methods
3c - ٤١
Push Loading X
Back track loading:
Pusher cycle time = 1.5 min
No. of scrapers served = 6.5/1.5 = 4.3 scrapers
No. of required pushers
= No. of scrapers / No. of scrapers served by one
pusher = 9 / 4.3 = 2.1 pushers = 3 pushers
3c - ٤٢
٢١
Push Loading XI
Chain loading:
Pusher cycle time = 1min
No. of scrapers served = 6.5/1 = 6.5 scrapers
No. of required pushers
= No. of scrapers / No. of scrapers served by one
pusher = 9 / 6.5 = 1.4 pushers = 2 pushers
3c - ٤٣
Push Loading XII
• Example
Find the expected production of the
previous example if only one pusher is
available and the chain loading method is
used. Expected production of a single
scraper assuming adequate pusher
support is 173 BCM/h
3c - ٤٤
٢٢
Push Loading XIII
Production =
(No. of pushers / required No.)
x No. of scrapers x Production per scraper
= (1/1.4) x 9 x 173 BCM = 1112 BCM/h
3c - ٤٥
Job Management
• Techniques for maximizing scraper production
– Use downhill loading whenever possible to
reduce the required pusher power and load
time
– Use chain or shuttle loading methods if
possible
– Use rippers to loosen hard soils before
attempting to load
– Have pushers give scrapers an adequate
boost to accelerate units out of cut
– Keep the cut in good condition by providing
adequate drainage to improve trafficability
3c - ٤٦
٢٣
Job Management II
– Maintain the haul road in the best possible
condition (use a grader)
– Make the haul road wide enough to permit high
speed hauling without danger
3c - ٤٧
Trucks and Wagons
• Hauling: The transportation of excavation
• Hauling Equipment: Loader, Dozer, Scraper,
Trucks, Wagons, Conveyor Belts, Trains
• Wagons: Earthmoving trailers pulled by tractors or
truck-tractors
Truck
3c - ٤٨
٢٤
Trucks and Wagons II
Hauling Equipment
• Trucks
– Most commonly used
• Conveyor belts
– Portable units used for movement of bulk
construction materials within a small area or
for placing concrete
– Conveyors are capable of moving earth and
stone relatively long distances at high speed
3c - ٤٩
Determining the Number of Haul Units
• Truck or Wagon cycle time
– Fixed: spot, load, maneuver, and dump
– Variable: haul and return
• Load time = haul unit capacity / loader production
at 100% efficiency
3c - ٥٠
٢٥
Determining the Number of Haul Units II
• Load time = number of bucket loads x
Excavator cycle time
• Number of haulers required (N)
= haul unit cycle time / load time
• Expected production
= (actual number of units / N ) x Excavator
production
3c - ٥١
Determining the Number of Haul Units III
Example
• A) Calculate the number of trucks
theoretically required and the production of
this combination
• B) Calculate the expected production if two
trucks are removed from the fleet
– Shovel production at 100% = 283 BCM/h
– Job efficiency = 0.75
– Truck capacity = 15.3 BCM
– Truck cycle time (excluding loading) = 0.5 h 3c - ٥٢
٢٦
Determining the Number of Haul Units IV
Solution
A) Loading time = 15.3 / 283 = 0.054 h
Truck cycle time = 0.5 + 0.054 = 0.554 h
Number of trucks = 0.554/0.054 = 10.3 trucks
=Use 11 trucks
Production = 283 BCM/h x 0.75 = 212 BCM/h
B) Production = (9/10.3) x 283 x 0.75 = 186
BCM/h
3c - ٥٣
Job Management
• Special consideration should be given to the
size of the haul unit in relation to the
excavator
• Empirical studies found that haul units
capacity should be 3-5 times excavator
bucket capacity
• Clamshells and draglines require even larger
sizes (5-10 times excavator bucket capacity)
• A major source of inefficiency is the time lost
in spotting haul units for loading 3c - ٥٤
٢٧
Job Management II
• Techniques for maximizing haul units production
– Do not overload haul units. Overloading results in
excessive repair and maintenance
– Maintain haul roads in good condition to reduce
travel time and minimize equipment wear
– Develop an efficient traffic pattern for loading,
hauling, and dumping
– Roads must be wide enough to permit safe travel
at maximum speeds
– Provide standby units (20% of fleet size) to
replace units that break down
3c - ٥٥
٢٨
