DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND PATTERNS 17.1 MEANING AND CONCEPTS The study of the charactristics of drainage network of a particular region is approached in two ways e.g. (1) descriptive approach and (2) genetic approach . The descriptive approach involves the study of the characteristics of the forms and patterns of the streams of a given region while the genetic approach involves the investigation of the evolution of streams of aregion in relation to tectonics, litholo- gies and structures. Thus, drainage system refers to the origin and development of streams through time while drainage pattern means spatial arrangement and form of drainage system in terms of geometrical shapes in the areas of different rock types, geologi- cal structure, climatic conditions and denudational history e.g. trellis pattern, dendritic pattern, parallel pattern etc, The examples of drainage systems are consequent streams, subsequent streams, obsequent streams, resequent streams, antecedent and super- imposed streams etc. The origin and subsequent evolution of any drainage system in a region are determined and controlled by two main factors viz. (1) nature of initial surface and slope and (2) geological structure (eg. folds, faults, fractures, joints, dips and strikes of rock beds and types of rocks), Streams or drain- age systems are divided in two broad categories on the basis of the adjustment of the streams to the initial surface and geological structures e.g. (1) sequent streams (which follow the regional slope and = Ahad 17 are well adjusted to geological structures) such as consequent streams, subsequent streams, obsequent streams and resequent streams and (2) insequent streams (which do not follow the regional slope and are not adjusted to geological structures) such as _ antecedent streams and superimposed streams. _ 17.2 MAJOR DRAINAGE SYSTEMS conse (A) Sequent Drainage Systems ar sy 1. Consequent streams on sions Consequent streams are the first streams tobe | quent originated ina particular region. These streamshave | orsy their courses in accordance with the initial slope of land surface. In other words, the consequentstreams. |* St follow the regional slope. These are also called dip streams. In a region of folded structure (when the equ crustal rocks are folded due to lateral compressive tine forces into parallel anticlines and synclines) conse- | Ubse quent streams are formed in the synclinal troughs. pin Such consequent streams are called synelinal conse lank, quent streams, which become the master consequett streams of trellis drainage pattern at much later date. jer The first streams to be initiated on a newly emerged coastal plain are consequent streams which 5 are parallel to each other and thus form paral! | drainage pattern, The longest stream of the whole | system of consequent streams is called master com re sequent (fig. 17.1). Most of the streams draining the |, Sec coastal plains of India are the examples of conse” quent streams, The most ideal landscapes for theiS | as ent ent and as ave of ms dip .YSTEMS AND PATTERNS | (panne Coastal Plain aigin and development of consequent drainage sem are domes and volcanic cones, Consequent \teams are divided in two types e.g. (1) longtudinal ouequent (which follows the axis of the depression Irsyncline in a folded structure) and (2) lateral aasequent (which follows the sides of the depres- ions or the sides of the anticlines). Lateral conse- \nenstreams generally join the master or logitudinal ‘synclinal consequent more or less at right angle. | Subsequent streams The streams originated after the master con- ‘ent stream and following the axis of the anti- tines or ridges and the strikes of beds are called sequent streams. Some of the scientists have ‘ined that the subsequent streams originate on the ‘aks of the anticlines and join the master conse- el at almost right angle (which means that the "al consequents, as referred to above, are the Sequents) while others maintain that the jyrauents are parallel to the master consequent. ” Wooldridge and R.S. Morgan (1960) have (ie that it should be noted that all the first ation tributaries to consequent streams are seuee in the sense that they arise subsequently ‘stablishment and incision of the consequent 1,8. According to them ‘such streams, starting, Uilles on the sides of the primary consequent 2h 259 Fig. 17.1 : Development of master consequent and subsequent streams over a coastal plain. valleys, discover and explore belts of structural weakness, due to softer strata, fault, or joint-planes, and shatter zones’ (Wooldridge and Morgan, 1960, pp. 173-74). EAhmad (1985) hasremarked that “the term subsequent may be used generally not to indi- cate a chronological sequence but a relation be- ‘tween drainage on the one hand and geology, struc- ture and tectonics on the other. Generally, itrefers to the streams transverse to the master consequent.” The Asan river, a tributary of the Yamuna river and the Song river, a tributary of the Ganga river in the Dehra Dun valley (infilled alluvial plain) are the examples of subsequent streams while the Yamuna and the Ganga are the master consequents (fig. 17.2), 3, Obsequent streams The streams flowing in opposite direction to the master consequent are called obsequent streams. In fact, obsequent streams are also consequents because they also follow the slopes of the ranges. The streams originating from the northern slopes of the west-east stretching ranges of the Himalayas flow northward to meet the east-west flowing tribu- taries (subsequent streams) of the southward drain- ing master consequent streams. For example, the Mahabharat Range of the Lesser Himalaya has is- sued several streams from its northern slopes. These. an, Aee Ahad northward flowingstreams jointhe subsequentstream "Sun Kosi which runs west to east, as obsequent "streams because these are opposed to the directions ‘of the master consequents like the Ganga and the ‘Yamuna, Similarly, several streams originating from the northern slopes of the Siwalik Range drain due PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY northward to join east-west subsequent streams of the southward flowing master consequents of the Ganga and the Yamuna, north of the Someshwar Range of Dundwa Range (of the Siwalik Range) These northward flowing tributaries are the exam. ples of obsequent streams. ‘INDO GANG) PLAIN laster Consequents = Subsequents PC = Possible Capture 20 4, Resequent streams ‘The tributary streams flowing in the direction. of the master consequents are called resequents. ‘These are originated at much later date in compari- | son to the master consequents. Since they are of | recent origin, and hence they are called resequent. ‘The resequent streams are originated during the initiation of second cycle of erosion in a folded structure. The gradual denudation of folded moun- tains during the first cycle of erosion results into inversion of relief with the passage of time wherein anticlinal ridges and synclinal valleys are converted into anticlinal valleys and synclinal ridges respec- tively (fig. 17.3). Thus, logitudinal streams are de- vyeloped in the anticlinal valleys. These features are peneplaned by the end of the first cycle of erosion. The initiation of second cycle of erosion begins with “the excavation of new valleys in the synclines. Thus, streams developed in.the synclinal portions Fig. 17.2 : Development of master consequent and subsequent streams in Dehra Dun valley. become resequent streams which though analogous to the original longitudinal consequents developed during the first cycle of erosion but, in fact, they are hundreds of metres below the initial surface (ig. 173). (B) Insequent Drainage System ‘The streams which do not follow the regionél | slopes and drain across the geological structures are called insequent or inconsequent streams. Anteced- ent and superimposed streams are the best repre sentative examples of insequent drainagé systems. _ 1. Antecedent drainage system Antecedent streams are those which are orig nated priorto the upliftment of land surface. In other words, antecedent streams antedate the upliftmet! of an upland or mountain across which they hav? | maintained their present courses through contin | ous downcutting of their valleys. Iti, thus, obviO™ |Zous »ped y are (fig. onal sare ced- | pre- ms. eaINAGESYSTEMS AND PATTERNS cE 1 if a river has developed in a particular region unite subsequent uplift or upwarping ofthe land a across the pre-existing tiver does not divert or spilt the course ofthe riverand therivermaintains | fsprevious course through downcutting its valley at | the rate equivalent to the rate of uplift of the land rea, theriveris called antecedent or anticonsequent. irmay be pointed out that the concept of anteced- ence of a particular river is based on guesses and conjectures because neither the rate of the uplift of jand area nor the rate of downcutting by the rivers is known. ‘The nature and the rate of upliftment of land area is very important parameter for the develop- ment of antecedent drainage system because rivers cannot maintain their previous courses during all iypes of upliftment. For example, if the upliftment of the area occurs very rapidly and is completed within a very short period of time, therivers draining Articlin’: ‘Synatin river Ahad through that area cannot maintain their previous 261 courses because the rate of downcutting of their valleyscannotkeep pace with the rate of the uplifiment and thus the rivers are dismembered and adopt different courses depending on local (new) condi- tions. On the other hand, if the rate of upliftment is stich that the rivers are able to degrade their valleys through active downcutting (valley incision) at the rate equal to the rate of the upliftment, they become able to maintain their previous courses and thus they become antecedent streams. The nature and dimen- sion of the upliftment also determine the anteced- ence of the rivers. Itis the local and not the regional upliftment which gives birth to the development of antecedent streams. The origin and development of antecedent drainage system can be explained with the help of a diagram (ig. 17.4). “A* river (fig. 17.4 (1) has fully rig | ther nent | nave | in | jous | Fie. 17.3: Inversion of relief. The syncline and anticline of stage I have become synclinal ridge and anticlinal valley in stage 5 which denotes the end of the first cycle of erosion, Fig. 174: Stages ofthe developmentofantecedent stream. sill262 developed its valley and course in a region of almost, flat topographic surface. The river is flowing from west toeast. Ata later date there is upliftment of land area across river ‘A’ at point B. The land is rising in a form of a ridge with slow rate of upliftment. This local upliftment of the land rejuvenates the river ‘A’ due to which it deepens its valley with accelerated rate of downcutting. If the rate of downcutting (valley deepening) equals the rate of uplift the bed of the river valley remains constant and the river main- tainsits usual flow direction, River ‘A’ in the second stage (fig. 17.4(2) has deepened its valley so much soto match the rate of upliftment. Itis apparent from figure 17.4(2) that ‘A’ river has cut across the newly uplifted ridge at “C’ and has maintained its previous course. The river continues to deepen its valley through active downcutting so longas the upliftment continues. Thus, the river develops very deep and narrow gorges across the uplifted land area (ridge) wherein the valley sides are of convex slope and rise almost vertically from the valley floor (fig. 17.4 (3). It may be pointed out that tributaries of the master antecedent streams cannot deepen their valleys at par with their master streams and hence their valleys are at higher level than the valleys of their master streams. Thus, the tributary valleys become hanging valleys. Examples : Examples of antecedent streams are found in almost all of the folded mountains of the world. Many of the major Himalayan rivers are the examples of antecedent streams ¢.g. the Indus, the Sutlej, the Ganga, the Ghaghra, the Kali, the Gandak, the Kosi, the Brahmaputraetc. It may be pointed out that the Himalayan mountain system consists of three parallel ranges running from west to east viz. (from north to south) the Greater Himalaya, the Lesser Himalaya and the Outer Himalaya or Siwalik Range. Three kinds of antecedent streams are iden- tified in terms of their antecedence to the aforesaid three ranges of the Himalayas. (1) The Indus, the Sutlej, the Ganga, the Ghaghra, the Kosi, the Brahmaputra etc. are antecedent to all of the three ranges of the Himalayas as they cut across the Greater, the Lesser and the Outer Himalayan ranges. It is believed that these rivers were present before the folding and upliftment of the Himalayan ranges. With the upliftment of these ranges during Tertiary period these rivers maintained their southward courses + PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY through downeutting thei h the rate of upliftment. All of these rivers haye formed deep and narrow gorges while cutting acros¢ the Himalayan ranges. The Indus river has dug oy, 2 17,000- foot deep gorge across the Greater Hima. layas near Gilgit. It may be pointed out that a group of geologists does not believe in the antecedence of the Indus river. According to them the Indus is an example of consequent stream because consequent streams might have developed on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. These rivers might have extended their courses northward through the process of headward erosion resulting into gradual backward shifting of their water divides. Ultimately, the streams of the southern slopes ofthe Himalayas might have captured the streams of the northern slopes and thus they might have ex. tended their courses across the Himalayan ranges, ‘The Arun river has been quoted as the best example of antecedent river by L.R. Wager (1937). The Arun river flows from west to east in its uper reaches following the structural grain of the region to the north of the Himalayas. It suddenly turns due south- ward and drains across the Himalayas through sev- eral deeply entrenched narrow gorges. A few geolo- gists opine that the sudden southward bend of the Arun river is due to river capture. The advocates of the antecedent origin of the Arun river maintain that, the convex course of the river across the Himalayas could be possible only through active downcutting ofthe valley in accordance with the rate of upliftment. A series of terraces on either side of the valley of the Arun river also validate its antecedent origin. (2) The rivers, which are antecedent to only two ranges of the Himalayas viz. the Lesser and the Outer (Siwalik Range) Himalayas, are the Jhelum, the Yamuna, the Ravi, the Ramganga ete. (3) The streams, which are antecedent only to the Outer Himalaya or Siwalik Range, include the Kamla, the Rapti, the Gola etc. 2. Superimposed drainage system Like antecedent streams superimposed streams are also not adjusted to regional geological str tures and slope and thus are insequent or anti consequent streams. Superimposed stream means river which, flowing on a definite geological forma tion and structure, has inherited the characteristics= ty th Ve ts ut Dp of m nt es d of d i eatsaoe SYSTEMS ‘AND PATTERNS _gits previous form developed on upper geological ot mation of entirely different structural character. isis. In other words, a superimposed drainage is ‘ed when the nature and characteristics of the iteys and flow direction of a consequent stream Jeveloped on the upper geological formation and Suture are superimposed on the lower geological famation of entirely different characteristics. It is fotnecessary that the upper geological formation is ie formal to the lower geological formation, rather ithappens that some times the upper rock cover is entirely different from the underlying geological formation viz, the upper cover may consist of hori- anntally bedded sedimentary rocks while the lower cover may be composed of folded sedimentary beds, or domed structure or batholithic intrusives. The ‘consequent streams are developed on almost flat ound surface of the horizontally bedded sedimen- tuy rocks. These streams develop their valleys through vertical erosion (downcutting). With the passage of time the lower structure isexposed to the river which continuesits downcutting and extends its valley downward on the lower geo- logical structure (say anticlinal folds, domes or batholiths) and thus the valley developed on the upper structure is superimposed on the lower struc ture, The lower structure has to accept the form of the valley already developed on the entirely differ- ent upper structure Thus, the river maintains the form of its valley, the flow direction and its drainage patterns as usual, Such rivers are called superim- | posed rivers. Had the lower structure been present onthe ground, the nature of drainage system would have certainly been entirely different but the buried different geological structure has no alternative other than to adapt the nature of valley and flow direction « developed on the upper structure. Such streams are unconformal to, the local geological structure and slopes, Such unconformal valleys have been named 4 ‘superimposed? by J.W. Powell (1857) and D. Maw (1886) and ‘superposed’ by W.J. McGee (1888). ‘The mechanism of the development of a su- Perimposed stream and valley can be explained with the help of a diagram (fig. 17.5). Figure 17.5 depicts ‘Such a region which is characterized by a flat ground surface consisting of horizontally bedded sedimen- ‘ay rocks and the lower structure of anticlinal fold. Fist of all a consequent stream (fig. 17.5(1) devel- Ahad ops on the upper horizontally bedded sedimentary formation, The river is flowing in harmony with the geological formation and structure and local slope. 263 With the passage of time the consequentstream digs out its valley with slow process of valley deepening, In the second stage (fig. 17.5(2) the consequent stream fully develops its valley on hori- zontally bedded sedimentary rocks. Now the anticli- nal part (third stage, fig. 17.5(3) is exposed to the river as the upper horizontal beds of sedimentary rock have been removed due to gradual downcutting. This anticlinal lower structure is entirely different from the upper structure of the horizontal beds of sedimentary rocks but the river extends its valley on this lower unconformal structure of anticline in accordance with its already developed valley on the upper structure i.e, the river degrades the anticline through downcutting and continues to develop its valley further downward. The development of river valley goes on unhindered because the anticline becomes a passive factor in controlling the develop- mentof the river valley as it has no option other than to accept the form of the valley already developed in Fig. 17.5: Stages of the development of superimposed drainage system.« Ahad 1 structure. Now the consequent river and the uy ey .d on the anticline and the its valley are superimpose: line and t river maintains its usual course. Had this anticline been initially exposed to the ground surface, the drainage system would have been entirely different. ‘The fundamental difference between super- imposed and antecedent drainage systems liesin the fact that the former represents the superimposition of the valley developed in the upper geological formation and structure on the lower structure irre- spective of its types and complexities but without any upliftment of the land area while the latter represents the maintenance of former course of the river and its valley inspite of upliftment of the land area across the river course due to concomitant valley deepening and upwarping of the land. Most of the rivers of the Deccan trap (lava) region of Peninsular India are superimposed be- cause new drainage system was evolved on the new surface formed due to cooling and solidification of PHYSICAL GEOGRaPhy ted during late Cretaceous and early Te;, tiary periods and these rivers were superimposed on the lower formation after the removal of lava covers, For example, the Subarnarekha river is superim. ‘osed on Daima and phyllite hills to the west of Chandil in the south-eastern Chotanagpur plateaue region of Jharkhand. Example : The Son river flowing across the Khainjuaridges in the southern part of Rewa plateau (Madhya Pradesh) is a fine example of superim. posed river (fig. 17.6). The Son river flows parallel and very close to the Khainjua ridge between 810 15 E logitude and Deolond (fig. 17.6). In fact, the Khainjua ridge of quartzitic sandstones makes the southern bank of the Son valley. The river suddeny cuts across the Khainjua ridge at Deolond and then flows in south-easterly direction (fig. 17.6). Afterits confluence with the Banas river it again turns north- ward and cuts across the Khainjua ridge and flowsin easterly direction. lavas erup' REWA PLATEAU Fig. 17.6 : ite ieretnoesion of the Son river ‘over Khai i injua ridges of lower Vindhyans in southern part of the Rewa plated7 gpAINAGE SYSTEMS AND PATTERNS ‘The Son cannot bean antecedent river, though spouts across Khainjua ridges attwo places, because ;) the Khainjua ridges are composed of lower (iadhyans sedimentaries, (ii) there are no evidences to support any localized rise. in the ridges after ‘Cambrian period, (iii) the evidence of laterites tothe north of Kaimur scarps denotes the spread of basal- tic lava of the Deccan trappean age of Cretaceous period which might have buried and obliterated revious drainage lines, and (iv) the absence of any Significant stream to the north of the Son does not support the idea of the Son being older than the Crectaceous lava flow. Thus, the Son appears to be superimposed river. It may be argued that the Deccan lava flows during Cretaceous period covered the whole of the Rewa Plateau and consequently buried the pre- existing drainage network and reliefs including Kaimurs and Khainjua ridges. With the initiation of sub-aerial conditions during Tertiary period new drainage lines began to develop over the solidified lava cover (basaltic lava) and the Son developed its present course through several stages. The lava cover might have been removed through continuous but gradual fluvial erosion. Once the Son esta lished its course over the lava covered surface, it continued to erode its valley over the buried struc- tures and thus its valley became superimposed over the Khainjua ridges. 17.3 DRAINAGE PATTERNS ‘The drainage pattern means the ‘form’ (geo- metrical forms) of the drainage systems and the spatial arrangement of streams in a particular local- ity or region. The location, number and flow direc- tions of different streams of a particular region depend on the nature of slope, structural control, lighological characteristics, tectonic factors, cli- matic conditions, vegetal characteristics etc. Since there are much variations in the environmental con- ditions of different regions and hence there are also spatial variations in drainage patterns. Though the drainage patterns of some regions may be similar but not the same, but there are some common char- acteristics which enable us to distinguish different drainage patterns. Generally, the drainage patterns are divided into the following types, (1) wellised pattern, (2) dendritic pattern, (3) rectan- Add gular pattern, (4) parallel pattern, (5) centrifugal or radial pattern, (6) centrepetal pattern, (7) annular pattern, (8) barbed pattern, (9) indeterminate or confused pattern, (10) herringbone pattern, (11) pinnate pattern etc. 1. Trellised Drainage Pattern Trellised drainage patterns are formed by the network of tributaries and master consequent streams which follow the regional slope and are well ad- justed to the geological structures. Such patterns are developed in the area of simple folds charactriszed by parallel anticlinal ridges alternated by parallel synclinal valleys. Several master consequent Longitudinal Consequent Fig. 17.7; Development of trellised drainage pattern on folded structure. longitudinal streams are developed in the elongated longitudinal synclinal valleys. These longitudinal ~ rivers and their valleys occupying the furrows be- tween parallel ridges are parallel to each other. Several streams develop on both the flanks of the ridges and join the longitudinal synclinal streams at right angle. These tributary streams are called as Jateral consequent streams. Thus the resultant net- work of numerous longitudinal streams and trans- verse or lateral consequents is called trellised pat- tern. This pattern also resembles the rectangular266 pattern. In fact, the trellised and rectangular patterns are differentiated on the basis of spacing between the streams. If the streams are closely spaced the resultant pattern becomes trellised while rectangu- lar pattern is formed when the streams are widely spaced. Trellised drainage patterns are generally formed in the regions of cuesta topography where hard beds become escarpments and soft beds are eroded to become valleys or lowlands. 2, Dendritic Drainage Pattern Dendritic or tree-shaped drainage pattern is the most common and widespread pattern to be found-on the earth’s surface. The pattern is called dendritic on the ground that the network of tributar- ies of various orders and magnitudes of the trunk or master stream resembles the branches and roots and rootlets of a tree, The dendritic pattern is associated with the areas of homogeneous lithologies, horizon- tal or very gently dipping strata, flat and rolling extensive topographic surface having extremely low reliefs. Though dendritic pattern is independent of structural and lithological controls but almost w form lithology (presence of same type of rocks in extensive area) presents most ideal condition for the development of dendritic drainage pattern. This pattern develops in a variety of structural and lithological environments such _—_as in the mountainous and hilly-areas (¢.g. dendritic pattern is one of the dominant patterns in the Hima- layas), on extensive plateau surfaces (c.g. Deccan plateau), on peneplain surfaces (e.g. the Peninsular peneplains of India, mostly in the basins of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery, the Domodar etc.), in the alluviated plains (e.g. Great Plains of North India), in the desert plains(e.g, Rajasthan desert), in the glaciated lowland regions (e.g. North European plains and northern lowlands of North America) etc. The evolution of dendritic pattern is guided by the lithological characteristics mainly the perme- ability of underlying rocks, the amount and regime of rainfall and resultant surface runoff and the time factor. First of all the master or trunk consequent stream develops on gently sloping topographic sur- face. The master consequent gradually but slowly lengthens its longitudinal course through headward erosion. Major tributary streams of the master stream eo\ Ahad PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY develop oneither side of the trunk stream (fig. 17,8), | ‘These tributaries also lengthen their longitudinal courses through headward erosion and branches of tributaries are developed in due course of time (fig, 178 (2). In the beginning the dendritic pattern ig ‘open’ because the streams are few in number and are widely spaced (fig, 17.8 (1) but with the passage of | time a dense mesh of multitudes of tributaries of various hierarchical orders is developed and thus the ial open network becomes a ‘closed pattern’ as the streams are very closely spaced. At a much later date, i.e. in the penultimate stage of drainage devel- opment, the dendritic pattern becomes ‘simplifiea? due to ‘surface abstraction’ because many of the tributaries are integrated due to active river capture, Fig. 17.8: Stages of the development of dendritic drain- age pattern, Slope and permeability of rocks very effec- tively control the number and extension of streams of dendritic drainage pattern. The drainage network of dendritic pattern becomes most extensive if the land surface is characterized by flat surface, level to gentle slopes and impermeable rocks. In such envi- ronmental conditions the pattern extends both in length and width but if the region is characterized by higher slope angles, the pattern extends more in length than in width. The extensive plateau surfaces of the Panna plateau, Bhander plateau and Rewa plateau (M.P.) composed of sandstones capping and the peneplained surface of the central Ranchi pla- teau composed of granite-gneisses have favoured extensive dendritic drainage pattern while elon: gated dendritic pattern has developed along the | | |- pRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND PATTERNS pile and lower Segments ofthe escarpmentsasso- Fated with these plateaux. 4, Rectangular Drainage Pattern Rectangular pattern sliows some degree of resemblance {0 trellised drainage pattern as tribu- streams in both the patterns join their master streams almost at right angle but the confluence angle in the trellised pattern is guided by the strikes and dip angle of the rock beds while itis determined by the lines of weaknesses (c.g. faults and fractures and joints) of the rocks in the rectangular pattern, ‘The second line of difference between these two drainage patterns is related to the spacing of streams jee. the rectangular pattern is characterized by widely spaced trbutaries while trellised pattern has a dense mesh of closely spaced tributaries, Rectangular pattern is generally developed inthe regions where the rock joints form rectangu- lar pattern. The rocks are weathered and eroded along the interfaces of joints, fractures and faults and thus surface runoff collects in such long and narrow clefts (resulting from the weathering and erosion of joints) and forms numerous small rills. ‘These rills are further extended in length and width and become channels, With the march of time a network of streams is developed wherein streams follow the lines of weakness (joints and fractures), ‘The tributaries join their master streams almost at right angles and thus a rectangular drainage pattern is formed (fig. 17.9). Fig. 17.9: An example of rectangular drainage patter, 267 Ahad 4. Radial Drainage Pattern ___ Radial drainage pattern, also known as cen- trifugal pattern, is formed by the streams which diverge from a central higher point in all directions. Itis obvious that dome structures, volcanic cones, batholiths and laccoliths, residual hills, small table- lands, mesas and buttes, and isolated uplands favour the development of ideal radial pattern (ig. 17.10). The streams emerge at the central point of the aforesaid reliefs and drain down the slopes in all directions. Since the streams follow the slopes and hence they are basically consequent streams. These streams resemble the spokes of a whee! or the radii of acircle. If we take the entire drainage network of Sri Lanka, it exhibits the best example of radial drainage pattern at macro-level. The local upland situated to the south-west of Ranchi city has given birth to radial drainage pattern wherein the South Koel, the Subarnarekha, the Kanchi and the Karo rivers take their sources and radiate in different directions. Hazaribagh plateau, Parasnath hill, Panchet hill and Dalma lava upland (all in Jharkhand) have % % 500M aN " "(e oom Teh _¢ Dome mountain ae oon soom 3 aie 3 a N ey, £ 8B ag € 2 Fig. 17.10: Example of radial drainage pattern issued radial drainage pattern. Morcha pahar and Lugu hill of Hazaribagh, Mt. Abu (Rajasthan) etc, present ideal examples of radial drainage pattern. At a regional level the Rohtas plateau of S.W. Bihar province presents a good example of radial drainag.i 268 pattern wherein the Karamnasa and the Durgawati rivers and their source tributaries emerge from the south-western corner of the plateau and flow in the western, north-western, northern, and north-eastern directions whereas the tributaries of the Son river flow in the southern direction. 5. Centripetal Drainage Pattern Centripetal or inland drainage pattern (fig. 17.11) is opposite to the radial drainage pattern because it is characterized by the streams which converge at a point which is generally a depression or a basin. This pattern is formed by a series of streams which after emerging from surrounding uplands converge in central low land which may be a depression, or a basin or a crater lake. The Kathmandu valley of Nepal presents an ideal exam- ple of centripetal drainage pattern wherein the tribu- tary streams of the Baghmati converge in the tectonically formed circular basin. The depression formed at the top of Raigarh Dome in the Lower Chambal Basin has given birth to centripetal drain- age pattern. 6, Annular Drainage Pattern ‘Annular pattern, also known as ‘circular pat- tern’ is formed when the tributaries of the master ‘500M Pe. coo vn ae a Depression. 300M Rives toy, 4001 mM xy oo & 400m * River 500M Fig. 17.11: An example of centripetal drainage pattern. hb Ahad Soom PHYSICAL GEOGRAPiy consequent streams are developed in the form of a circle. Such pattern (fig. 17.12) is developed over a mature and dissected dome mountain characterized by a series of alternate bands of hard and soft rock beds. The differential erosion of hard and soft rock beds results in the truncation of the beds which produces ringed belted structure wherein relatively resistant beds project outward whereas the weaker (soft) beds form circular clefts. The master conse. quent streams emerge at the top of the dome and rediate in all directions down the slope like radial drainage pattern whereas tributary streams develop in the clefts formed due to erosion of soft beds, assume arcuate shape and join the master conse- quent streams and thus annular drainage pattern ig formed. At a much later date tributaries of circular subsequentstreams, which join theradial consequents, ; Lats” ot = 26 soom sow 3 5&8 Dome Mountain \ iQ z NN See é River Fig. 17.12: An example of annular drainage pattern. are also developed and thus the drainage pattem becomes a special case of trellised pattern. Annular drainage pattern has developed over denuded domes in the Weald of England. The mature dis- sected Sonapet dome of Uttaranchal presents an ideal example of annular drainage pattern. 7. Barbed Drainage Pattern Barbed drainage pattern, a rare kind of drain- age pattern, is formed when the tributaries.flow ina pRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND PATTERNS site direction to their master streams. The tribu- tris join their master streams in a hook-shaped pend. Such pattern is generally developed due to ser capture (fig. 17.13). Divide Jonny River capture \ Barbed stream Fig. 17.13: Stages of the development of barbed drainage pattern. 8, Pinnate Drainage Pattern Pinnate pattern is developed in a narrow valley flanked by steep ranges. The tributaries originating from the steep sides of parallel ridges join the longtitudinal master consequent ‘occupying the valley at acute angles (fig. 17.14). The drainage network of the upper Son and Narmada rivers denotes the example of pinnate drainage pattern. This pattern resembles the veins of aleaf. Renge 200M iver Range Fig, 17.14: Example of pinnate drainage pattern. 9, Herringbone Drainage Pattern Herringbone drainage pattern, also known as. rib pattern (like the rib bones of human beings). is developed in mountainous areas where, broad val- leys are flanked by parallel ridges having steep hillside slopes. The longitudinal consequent streams, as master streams, are developed in the longitudinal parallel valleys while tributaries, as lateral consequents, after originating from the hillslopes of the bordering parallel ridges join the longitudinal consequents almost at right angle. The courses of the tributaries are straightened because of slope factor and little distance between the ridges and the longitudinal consequents occupying the valleys and thus the tributaries are not allowed to adapt sinuous course and join the longitudinal consequents at acute angles (fig. 17.15). The term herringbone has been derived from the pattern of bones of herring fish (mainly spine bones). The upper Jhelum River MT.RANGE — River vad 500M 2008 wiuRANGe —_"Y Fig, 17.15 : An example of herringbone drainage pattern. river in the Vale of Kashmir receives numerous tributaries from both the sides and thus forms her-ringbone drainage pattern. The rivers occyping east- west trenches in the Himalayas form herringbone pattern, The Tamar Kosi, a left bank tributary of the Kosi river, the upper Rapti (atributary of the Ghaghra river), the Rapti (another one), the left bank tribu- tary of the Gandak river etc. have formed such drainage pattern 10. Parallel Drainage Pattern Parallel drainage pattern comprises numer- ous rivers which are parallel to each other and follow the regional slope. This pattern is more frequently developed on uniformly sloping and dip- ping rock beds such as cuestas or newly emerged coastal plains, The western coastal plains of India represent several examples of parallel drainage pat- terns where the streams after taking their sources from the western flanks of the Western Ghats drain in straight courses towards west to empty into the Arabian Sea. Parallel drainage pattern has also de- veloped on the Eastern Coastal Plains of India. It may be pointed out that a subparallel pattern is, threrefore, essentially an ‘initial drainage pattern’ (fig. 17.16). HILL RANGE Fig. 17.16 : Example of parallel drainage pattern. 17.4 RIVER CAPTURE Meaning and Concept _____ The diversion of the part of the course of a river by another river is called stream diversion or stream capture or stream piracy . The river which captures the course of another river is called the capturing or captor stream while the part of the stream Which has been divested of its course and water is called the captured stream, River capture is a natural frocess whichis more activein the youthful stage of valley development because the streams are a PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY | actively engaged in headward erosion and valley length. eningbut river capture also occurs during mature and senile stages of the valley development through the process of lateral erosion and meander intersection ‘The stronger and more powerful streams (in terms of channel gradient, stream velocity and discharge and kinetic energy) capture the upper courses of weak and sluggish streams, Figure 17.17 depicts thesstages of the capture of the Saraswati river by the Yamuna tiver, Fig. 17.17: Stages of the capture of the Saraswati river through the process of headward erosion. There are four major evidences of river cap- {ure viz. (i) elbow of capture, (ii) cols, or wind gaps, i) watr gaps, and (iv) misfit or: ‘underfit streams and valleys.peaueait SYSTEMS AND PAPTERNS he shaw ufeapturedienotes the point (fig. 17 18 (E)) where the course of the captured steam has bees ihverted to the course of the captor stream, Gener iily. the elldow of capture denotes shay turn is the gourre of ariver almont atnightangle The water gap denotes the deep and narrow valley in the form of a gorge formed by the captor stream through headwaed erosion across the tidge (fig 17 18 w gy Wind gap ts the dey portion of the ReBeaded ateeam jut below the clbow of capture (Fig 1718 (wg). The wine gaps alm cated as cot The misht oF smdurfit steven is the lower course of the captured sinaen, Bee cabo seefis Bee ance of the Fact that the former wabley of the captared aream becomes too large ane wie for the beheaded stream because of wbveanteal decrease om the volume of water duc tw Greruon of ite water bo the captor stream. teal conditions Bot River Capture Though the vet capture 1s a natural process, but it dis mod nae place in all circumstances rather it engines cert ions. tn fact, the proce off swat captare depends on channel gradi- dent, diggtth off river valicy, volume uf water, veloc and dinciturpe, behologecal charactenstics and foyiucadl seats, stage off river die gco- tage of cycle of erosion or the pesent. A particular nver of a locabay tuning dieepet valley, more volume of wa- ter, seeyet chamel gradient and hence higher ve- foeity and fanetic energy and Mowing over less Fesisrane anc! wafer rocks than the other river of that fopon esorts to mare powerful headwart erosion than the lanter, aad ches may aurp the water and Upper reaches of the weaker fiver. It may be, thus, inferred that riuct captare occurs under the follow- ing conditions —<¢ i) steep chante! gradient, (2) rela- vely nartow valley so that water may not spread in the otherwise wide ane flat valleys, (3) higher vol: ume of water so that velocity and discharge may be ‘wificiently ngh, (4) soft rocks so that the river may feort to rapid rate of headwatd crosiva, (3) deeper ‘alley than the valleys of other neighbouring rivers, (6) low sediment load so that the river may rewrt to active erosion ete. Types ot River Capture: Its apparent from the above discussion that the process of river capture is effected by erosion of Ahad different sorts viz. headward erosion (valley length ening), vertical erosion (valley deepening or down- ward cutting), lateral erosion (valley widening), and intersection of meanders lateral erosion), Headward and lateral erosion is the most powerful gcomorphological process of aver capture, It may. also be pointed out that headward erosion 1s more effective in terme of river capture during juvenile stage (youthful stage) of aves development white lateral erosion becomes mote operative during ma: tute stage The capture of the courte of a particular fiver by the other river through the intersection of meanders occurs mostly during late maturity and senile stage (old stage), Thus, the forme of raver capture may be grouped in} broad categories vie. (1) captute through headward erosion, (2) capture through lattal erosion, and (3) capture through the intersection of meanders, m (1) Rover capture through headward erosion Montof the river captures occur due to headwartd etosion. In the initial stage of their development mat of the streams and their tributaries are engaged in active headward efosion resulting into continuous creeping of shifting of water divides and lengthening of thei valley thalwegs. The nature and intensity of headward crosion of any stream largely depends on, the potential energy (height of the divide) and the steepness of the side slope of the water divide Gen- erally, the side slopes of the divide are unequal. The streams originating from the aseeper slopes of the divide having relatively sotter rocks and more pre- cipitation and relatively short channel lengths de- grade their valleys through the process of valley deepening more powerfully and resort to headward efosion at more accelerated rate than those streams which onginate from the other side of the divide having less steep slope relatively resistant rocks and low precipitation Consequently. the erosive power of the fortes becomes much more than the latter. The powerful stream pushes the water divide hackward towards the sade of gentle slope through activeheatwartl ction, Prolonged headward erotion by more pow- erful stream flowing on the steeper hillside of the divide results in the coalescence of the sources of both the streams on opposite sides of the divides. Since the valley floor of the stream of the steeper side of the divide is lower than the valley floor of the stre a> asensncammmammmmmmmamiaaiiiiasibl272 the gentler side of the divide and hence the former captures the headwater of the latter. ’ ‘The process of river capture may be explained with the help of an example. Consequent streams originate on the slopes of any uplifted landmass. ‘The most active and the longest consequent is called the master consequent. ‘A’ is the master consequent (fig. 17.18-1) while "B’ is the other consequent stream shown in figure 17.18. ‘A’ streams flowing “through steeper slope and channel gradient than B stream and thus the former has deepened its valley much more than the latter, with the result the valley floor of A stream is lower than the valley floor of B stream. It is, thus, apparent that A stream is more active than B stream. A few subsequent or lateral consequent streams emerge from the ridge (fig. 17.181) and join the longitudinal consequent A and B streams at almost rightangles, Forexample, Cand Dare the tributaries of streams A and B respectively. ‘These two tributaries take their sources on both the slopes of the same ridge. The valley of C would be also deeper than the valley of D stream because the valley of the master stream of C(A) is deeper than the valley of the receiving stream of D(B). Thus, the headward erosion by C stream would be more active and vigorous than the headward erosion by D stream. The water divide is gradually Pushed back (towards the source of the stream D) because of more active headward erosion by C stream. A time comes when the C stream cuts across the ridge and extends its course through deep and narrow valley (gorge) and captures the course of D stream (fig. 17.18 11). Now the water of the upper Course of the longitudinal consequent B stream also flows into the master consequent A stream via the integrated D and C tributary streams. Now the water of BEDC in the form of one channel drains into A stream. This example illustrates the capture of two Baciims at two stages. First, D stream, a tributary of Bstream, was captured by C stream, a tributary of A stream through active headward erosion, Secondly, the headwaters of B stream (from ihe source to E point, the elbow of capture) were through deeply entrenched narrow valley known as Boree (ig. 17.18 ID), This narrow passage through ES : Ahad PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. the ridge is called water gap (WG in Fig. 17.18), E portion of the former B consequent stream hag become captured stream which turns at right angle forming an elbow of capture (E in fig. 17.18 Il). HB portion of the former B consequent has now become a beheaded stream, the upper part of which is calle wind gap (wg. in fig. 17.18 II) because of dry bed of the river due to capture of the upper portion of the river. The H-B portion of the former B consequent qualpe9 aqua huarpesg daaig Misfit Stream Fig. 17.18 : Mlustration ofriver capture through headward erosion. WG = water Gap, wg = wind gap.wocessaswonmns ANAC gream has now become misfit or underfit river be- ause now the existing H-B stream is unable to adjust itself in its former valley because of marked eduction in the volume of water due to diversion pits headwaters to A streami via D-C streams as a result of river capture. There are two evidences which enable the investigators to identify the captured streams in the field viz. (i) elbow of capture and (i) wind gap just tothe downstream side of the elbow. The erosional work of the beheaded stream becomes almost nil because of marked reduction in the volume of water, Some times, the valley of the beheaded stream becomes almost dry. On the other hand, the captor streams (fig. 17.18, C and A) resort to more vertical erosion resulting into accelerated rate of valley deepening because of marked increase in the volume of water due to additional supply of water of D-stream and headwaters of B stream (B-E portion) because of river capture. It may be pointed out that C and D tributary streams were formerly flowing in opposite directions (fig. 17.18 1) but now the waters of D stream flow in the direction of C stream, Thus, such streams of reversed flow direction are called inverted streams. Examples : A group of geologists and geomorphologisis believe that the present drainage system of the Himalayas is the outcome of progres- sive river piracy during various stages of drainage development, The Arun Kosi, a head tributary of the Kosi river, has captured the Phung Cho, a southern tributary of the Tsangpo (the upper part of the Brahmaputra river is called Tsangpo) river. Two head-tributaries of the Gangae.g. the Bhagirathi and the Vishnuganga have captured the source tributar- ies of the Sutlej river. The water divide between the tributaries of Song river ( a tributary of the Ganga river) and Asan river (a tributary of the Yamuna tiver) is only a few metres wide near Dehra Dun. It isexpected that the Song river may capture the Asan ‘iver and thus the upper course of the Yamuna may be diverted to the Ganga via the Asan and the Song. Tivers, (2) River capture through lateral erosion _ Lateral erosion and consequent valley widen- ‘ng becomes more active and significant during Mature stage of river development than vertical tosion and valley deepening. The water divides Ween parallel streams developed on sedimentary Aled Tocks of the coastal plains are gradually narrowed down due to lateral erosion and valley widening. The streams having more volume and discharge of water and relatively steeper channel gradient than the other streams resort to more lateral erosion due to which smaller parallel wibutaries are consumed by the larger parallel streams. This process of river capture is called stream abstraction or natural selection, 23 ‘3. River capture through the intersection of meanders The streams adopt highly sinuous and mean- dering courses during their late mature and old stages of development because of the development of level to gentle slopes (0°-5°) over major part of the area concerned. The meanders of two closely spaced streams are gradually sharpened due to con- tinuous lateral erosion and ultimately they intersect each other and thus relatively more powerful stream captures the waters of the other stream. The Belan river, a tributary of the Tons river (which is itself a tributary of the Ganga river), has captured the lower course of its tributary, the Seoti river near Deoghat {about 80 km south of Allahabad city) through meander intersection and now has pushed its course through the course of the Seoti while its older course, now an example of a palaeochannel, has become quite narrow due to sedimentation and an- thropogenic processes (cultivation). Duetothisunique process of river capture the confluence of the Belan- Seoti rivers has been pushed about 6 km upstream. The older (palaeo) valley of the Belan now has become misfit valley. Numerous cases of river capture have oc- curred in the Himalayan region, In fact, the present drainage system of the Himalayas is, to greater extent, the result of progressive stream piracy. The headward erosion has been the most active process of river capture in the Himalayas and the Western Ghats, The water divide between the headwaters of the Savitri river (draining into the Arbian Sea) and the Krishna river draining into to the Bay of Ben- gal) at the margin of the Mahabaleshwar plateau (Maharashtra) is very narrow. The Krishna river may capture the headwaters of the Savitri in near future, The process of river capture through lateral erosion and interesection of meanders is more active in the coastal plains and the Great Northern Plains (India),In m Ahad 47.5 TWIN-RIVER DRAINAGE SYSTEM (SUBTERRANEAN TWIN-RIVER SYSTEM) ‘Two rivers flowing at different levels in the same region i.e. on the ground surface and below the ‘ground surface but following the same direction and gradient may be called twin-river system. Such river system is an example of geological unusual in- stance. Such twin-river system formed by the Ama- zon river and subterranean river just below the ‘Amazon, named the Hamza river, has been recently discovered in the year 2011 in Brazil. E YValiya Mannathal Hamza, the Indian born sci entist of National Observatory of Rio (Rio de Ja- neiro), Brazil, discovered the largest underground river below the Amazon riverin Brazil in 2011. This subterranean riverhas been namedafter V.M. Hamza as Hamza river. Thus, such river systems called twin- river system. The following are the characteristic features of the Hamza and the Amazon twin-river system : > Thesubterranean Hamza river flows for atotal distance of 6000 km ata depth of, about 4 km from the bed of the Amazon river and follows the same flow diree- tion of the Amazon. > The Hamzariverruns all the way from the foothills region of the Andes Mountain to the Atlantic Ocean in a west-east direction. Itdrains into the Atlantic Ocean as does the ‘Amazon river but at different levels. > Itmay be mentioned that except for flow direction the Amazon and the Hamza rivers greatly vary in terms of their width, flow velocity etc. as follows : © The width of the Amazon ranges from 1 km (1000m) to 100 km at different locations but the width of the Hamza river varies from 200 km to 400 km. It means the Hamza is much wider than the Amazon. @ The average speed of water in the : surface river Amazon is 5 m/s whereas tis less than one millimeter per second in the subterrean Hamza river. Thus, the Hamza is exceed- ingly sluggish in flow velocity. Aves PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY > Theprimary source of water ofthe Hamza river is infiltration of surface water through permeable sedimentary rocks, Infact, there are west-east trending faults which act'as conduits for water to sink to greater ‘depth and form subterranean stream (Hamza). > The general gradient of ground surface is from west to east i.e. from the foot hills of the Andes in the west to the ‘Atlantic coast in the east. This surface gradient is also maintained in subsur- face region and hence both surface stream ‘Amazon and subsurface stream Hamza follow the same gradient i.e. from west to east. > Inother words, west to east topographic gradient directs the water of the Amazon and the Hamza river just below the Ama- zon to adopt Atlantic-bound flow path. 17.6 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS ‘Annular drainage pattern : The drainage pattem formed by the tributaries of master conse- quent stream in circular pattern over a ma- ture and dissected dome mountain charac- terized by a series of alternate bands of hard and soft rock beds is called annular pattern, Antecedent streams : are those streams which originate prior to the upliftment of land surface of an upland or mountain but main- tain their original course of flow even after the landmass is uplifted, by cutting through the uplifted landmass. Barbed drainage pattern : refers to a rare pattern wherein the tributary streams flow in oppo- site direction to their master streams. Such drainage pattern generally develops due to river capture. Beheaded stream : represents such stream, the upper segment of which is captured by other stream, Captor stream : The stream, which captures the headwaters of other stream, is called captor stream. Centrepetal drainage pattern : The drainage pattem formed by the convergence of streams in @HY nza iter ks, ults kto ean ace oot the ace ur. nza est hic Zon na- th, ard rn. ich and in- fter gh ern po- yeh 10 the her the tor q | | o cacerros wonmes ANAC depression or basin is called centrepetal pat- tem. consequent streams : The streams following the regional slopeare caljed consequent streams. ‘These are also called ‘dip streams’, . pendritie drainage pattern : represents such pat- ternwherein the network of tributary streams of different orders and magnitude of the trunk or master stream resembles the branches and roots and rootlets of a tree. Such pattern develops over homogeneous lithologies, horizontal or very gently diping sirata, flatand rolling extensive topographic surface having extremely low relief. Drainage pattern: means spatial arrangementand geometrical shape of drainage system in the areas of different rock types, geological structure, climatic conditions and denudational history Drainagesystem :refers to the origin and develop- ment of streams through time. Elbow of capture : denotes the point where the course of the captured stream has been diverted to the course of the captor stream. Herringbone drainage pattern : also known as rib pattern, develops in broad valleys flanked by parallel ranges. The tributary streams ‘coming out of the ridges join the master longitudinal consequent siream at almost right angle. This pattern resembles the pat- tern of bones of herring fish (mainly spine bones) or rib bones of human bodies. Insequent streams : are those streams which flow either across the regional slope (anti-dip streams) or across the geological structure, examples : antecedent and superimposed steams. Inverted streams : The streams of reversed flow direction caused by river capture are called inverted streams. Misfit valley : The lower course or segment of the captured stream is called misfit valley or underfit valley because the former valley of the captured stream becomes too large and wide for the beheaded stream due to sub- stantial decrease in the volume of water because of diversion of its water to the captor stream. Obsequent streams : The streams flowing in op- posite direction to the master consequent stream are called obsequent streams. Abed Parallel drainage pattern : comprises numerous rivers which are parallel to each other and follow the regional slope. This pattern is more frequently developed on uniformly sloping and dippingrock bedssuchascuestas or newly emerged coastal plains. Pinnate drainage pattern : refers to such drainage pattern developed in narrow valleys flanked by steep hill ranges where tributary streams originating from the steep sides of parallel ridges (ranges) join the longitudinal conse- quent stream occupying the valley at acute angles. Radial drainage pattern : also known as centrifu- gal pattern, is formed by the streams which diverge from a central higher point of a dome mountain in all directions. Resequent streams : The tributary streams flow- ing in the direction of the master conse- quent stream are called resequents. Sequent streams : The streams, which follow the regional slope and are well adjusted to the geological structure are called sequent streams. ‘Subsequent streams: The streams originated after the master consequent stream and follow- ing the axis of the anticlines or ridges and the strikes of rock beds are called subse- quent streams. According to another view the tributaries originated on the flanks of nticlines and joining the master longitudi- nal synelinal consequent stream are called lateral consequent or subsequent streams. ‘Trellised drainage pattern : The drainage pattern developed over simple folded mountains having a network of numerous longitudinal and lateral or transverse consequent streams i called trellised pattern, iver system : Two rivers flowing at two different levels in the same region i.e. one on the ground surface and the other below the ground surface but following the same direction and gradient are called twin-river system. Water gap: denotes the deep and narrow valley in the form of a gorge formed by the captor stream through headward erosion across the ridge. Wind gap : is the dry portion of the beheaded stream just below the elbow of capture. Wind gap is also called col. 215