Drainage System and Pattern

Drainage System

A drainage system refers to the overall network of streams, rivers, and other
water channels that carry surface water from a region to larger water bodies
like oceans, lakes, or seas. It includes all the watercourses, from the smallest
tributaries to the largest rivers, and is a result of the ongoing interaction
between tectonic forces, geological structures, and surface processes.

Drainage systems can be analyzed in two ways:

● Descriptive Approach:
This involves the study of the form and patterns of the streams in a
region. It is essentially focused on the external characteristics, such as the
arrangement of streams, their shape, and their flow patterns.

● Genetic Approach:
This involves studying the origin and evolution of the streams over time.
It considers the tectonics, lithology (rock types), and geological
structures (faults, folds, joints) that influence the development of the
drainage system.

Drainage Pattern

A drainage pattern refers to the geometric arrangement of rivers and streams

within a drainage basin. It results from a combination of factors, including:

● Geological structures: Faults, folds, and joints.

● Rock types: Permeability and resistance to erosion.
● Climatic conditions: Rainfall distribution and intensity.
● Topography: The slope of the land surface.
● Denudational history: The extent to which the land has been eroded over
time.
Factors Controlling Drainage Systems

The development of any drainage system is controlled primarily by two key

factors:

1. Nature of Initial Surface and Slope

The initial topography and slope of the surface where the drainage system
forms greatly influence the direction and flow of water. A steep slope may lead
to the rapid formation of consequent streams, which follow the natural slope,
while a more gradual slope might encourage the development of subsequent
streams.

2. Geological Structures

Geological structures such as folds, faults, fractures, joints, and the dip and
strike of rock beds play a fundamental role in guiding the evolution of drainage
systems. These structures often direct the flow of water, causing streams to
adjust to the resistance of different rock types and geological features.

Types of Drainage Systems

Drainage systems are classified based on their relationship with the geological
structures and their adjustment to the landscape. They can be broadly divided
into two categories:

1. Sequent Streams

Sequent streams are those that follow the regional slope and are well adjusted
to the underlying geological structures. These streams typically evolve in
response to the landscape's natural surface conditions and structural
configuration.

● Consequent Streams
● Subsequent Streams
 ● Obsequent Streams
● Resequent Streams

2. Insequent Streams

Insequent streams do not follow the regional slope or adjust to the geological
structure. Instead, they tend to cut through the landscape more irregularly and
are less predictable in their course.

● Antecedent Streams
● Superimposed Streams

Sequent Drainage Systems

1. Consequent Streams

Consequent streams are the

first streams to originate in a
particular region. These
streams follow the initial
slope of the land surface and
are in harmony with the
regional slope, also known as
dip streams. They often
develop in regions of folded
structures, such as anticlines and synclines.

● Synclinal Consequent Streams: In regions where the crustal rocks have

been folded due to lateral compressive forces, consequent streams form
in the synclinal troughs. These streams, known as synclinal consequent
streams, become the master consequent streams in trellis drainage
patterns.
 ● Master Consequent: The longest stream in a system of consequent
streams is called the master consequent. For example, streams draining
coastal plains of India are classic examples of consequent streams. These
are typically seen in domes and volcanic cones.

● Types of Consequent Streams:

1. Longitudinal Consequent: These streams follow the axis of
synclines or depressions in folded structures.
2. Lateral Consequent: These streams follow the sides of anticlines
and join the master consequent at nearly right angles.

2. Subsequent Streams

Subsequent streams form after the master consequent streams and adjust their
courses in response to structural weaknesses such as softer strata, faults, and
joints. These streams are highly influenced by the geological structure of the
region.

● Evolution: As gullies form on the sides of the primary consequent

streams, they develop along zones of weaker strata, eventually joining
the master consequent at right angles. Subsequent streams may develop
along the flanks of anticlines or ridges, exploring and exploiting the
weaker geological structures.
● Examples: In the Dehra Dun Valley, the Asan River (a tributary of the
Yamuna) and the Song River (a tributary of the Ganga) are examples of
subsequent streams, while the Yamuna and Ganga are the master
consequent streams.

3. Obsequent Streams

Obsequent streams flow in the opposite direction to the master consequent

streams, often following the slopes of anticlines or other geological structures.
 ● These streams are also considered consequent streams because they
follow the regional slope, even though they move against the primary
drainage system. For example, streams originating from the northern
slopes of the Mahabharat Range in the Lesser Himalaya flow northward,
joining east-west flowing subsequent streams like the Sun Kosi in Nepal.

4. Resequent Streams

Resequent streams are tributaries that flow in the same direction as the master
consequent streams but originate much later in the geomorphic history of the
region.

● Formation: Resequent streams often develop during a second cycle of

erosion in regions with folded geological structures. As erosion
progresses, previously formed anticlinal valleys and synclinal ridges are
replaced by new valleys in the synclines, and resequent streams develop.

Insequent Drainage Systems

Insequent streams do not follow the regional slope or geological structures and
are considered independent of these controls. Antecedent and superimposed
streams are the two most prominent examples of insequent drainage systems.

1. Antecedent Streams

Antecedent streams originate

before the uplift of a landmass.
These streams maintain their
original courses by eroding their
valleys at the same rate as the uplift
occurs, cutting through rising
mountains and creating deep
gorges.
 ● Formation: Antecedent streams predate the uplift of the land across
which they flow. As the land rises, these streams deepen their valleys at a
rate that matches the uplift, allowing them to maintain their previous
courses.
● Examples: Major Himalayan rivers such as the Indus, Sutlej, Ganga,
Ghagra, Kosi, and Brahmaputra are antecedent streams. These rivers
were present before the uplift of the Himalayas during the Tertiary period
and maintained their southward courses by eroding deep valleys.

The Arun River is considered an excellent example of an antecedent river.

Flowing west to east in its upper reaches, it suddenly turns southward to cut
across the Himalayas, carving deep gorges.

2. Superimposed Streams

Superimposed streams develop their courses on an upper geological

formation and later cut down to expose a completely different underlying
structure. These streams retain their pre-existing courses and valley forms,
even though the lower structure may be quite different from the upper one.

● Formation: A superimposed stream initially forms on horizontally bedded

sedimentary rocks. Over time, the stream erodes downward to expose a
lower geological structure, such as an anticline, dome, or batholith. The
stream continues to erode along its established course, even though the
underlying geological structure may not conform to its original path.
● Examples: Many rivers in the Deccan Trap region of India are
superimposed, having developed their courses on solidified lava surfaces
and later eroded into the underlying formations. The Son River, which
cuts across the Khainjua ridges in the Rewa Plateau, is a prime example
of a superimposed stream.

Drainage Patterns
A drainage pattern refers to the geometric shape or spatial arrangement of
streams in a region. Drainage patterns develop based on the slope, lithology,
structure, climate, and denudational history of the area.

1. Trellised Drainage Pattern

● Characteristics: The trellised pattern forms where the main stream flows
in a linear direction, with tributaries joining it at right angles. This pattern
is typical in areas with folded terrain, where alternating ridges and
valleys are common.
● Formation: The trellised pattern develops in regions of simple folds
where anticlinal ridges and synclinal valleys are present. The master
stream flows through the synclinal valleys, while tributaries (called lateral
consequent streams) flow down the sides of the anticlines and join the
master stream at right angles.
● Examples: Trellised patterns can be found in the Valleys of the
Appalachian Mountains and regions with cuesta topography.

2. Dendritic Drainage Pattern

● Characteristics: The dendritic pattern is the most common drainage

pattern, resembling the branches of a tree. The tributaries join the main
stream at various angles and form a network that looks like tree roots or
veins.
● Formation: This pattern forms in regions where the rock is homogeneous
and structurally simple, allowing water to flow without any significant
structural control. It typically develops on flat or rolling terrain where
there is minimal variation in rock resistance.
● Examples: Dendritic drainage patterns can be seen in regions like the
Deccan Plateau in India and Peneplains worldwide.

3. Rectangular Drainage Pattern

 ● Characteristics: A rectangular drainage pattern develops when
tributaries join the main river at right angles, forming a network
resembling rectangles or grids. This pattern is controlled by faults,
fractures, or joints in the rock.
● Formation: Rectangular patterns develop in regions with jointed or
faulted rocks. Water flows along the weaknesses in the rock, creating a
network of streams with sharp bends and right-angle confluences.
● Examples: Rectangular drainage patterns can be found in regions with
heavily fractured or faulted rock, such as the Scottish Highlands.

4. Radial (Centrifugal) Drainage Pattern

● Characteristics: The radial drainage pattern occurs when streams flow

outward from a central elevated point, like the spokes of a wheel. This
pattern is also known as centrifugal drainage.
● Formation: Radial patterns typically develop on domes, volcanic cones,
or isolated hills, where water flows outward in all directions from the
central high point.
● Examples: The volcanic cones of Mt. Vesuvius and the domes of Sri
Lanka are classic examples of radial drainage patterns.

5. Centripetal Drainage Pattern

● Characteristics: The centripetal drainage pattern is the opposite of radial

drainage. In this pattern, streams flow inward toward a central
depression, forming a basin.
● Formation: Centripetal patterns develop in areas with a central low point,
such as a tectonic basin or a depression formed by geological processes.
● Examples: The Great Basin in the western United States and the
Kathmandu Valley in Nepal are examples of centripetal drainage
patterns.

6. Annular Drainage Pattern

 ● Characteristics: The annular drainage pattern forms around a central
dome or basin, where tributaries follow concentric paths, forming circular
or ring-like patterns.
● Formation: This pattern typically develops on domes or basins with
alternating layers of resistant and non-resistant rock. Erosion of the softer
layers forms valleys, while harder layers form ridges.
● Examples: The Weald Dome in England and the Sonapet Dome in Bihar,
India, exhibit annular drainage patterns.

7. Barbed Drainage Pattern

● Characteristics: In a barbed drainage pattern, tributaries join the main

stream at sharp angles that seem to oppose the overall flow direction.
This results in hook-like confluences.
● Formation: Barbed drainage patterns typically result from river capture,
where a stream diverts the flow of a neighboring river, causing the
tributaries to flow in the opposite direction to the master stream.
● Examples: Barbed patterns can be observed in rivers affected by river
capture processes, such as in parts of the Himalayas.

8. Pinnate Drainage Pattern

● Characteristics: A pinnate pattern resembles the veins of a leaf, with

tributaries joining the main stream at acute angles. This pattern develops
in regions with narrow valleys flanked by steep slopes.
● Formation: Pinnate patterns are found in areas with steep-sided valleys,
where water flows down from the surrounding ridges and converges in
the valley floor.
● Examples: The upper reaches of the Son and Narmada rivers in India
exhibit pinnate drainage patterns.

9. Herringbone Pattern
 ● Characteristics: The herringbone pattern is characterized by tributaries
that join the main stream at right angles, forming a pattern similar to the
bones of a herring fish.
● Formation: This pattern develops in mountainous areas with parallel
ridges and valleys, where tributaries flow down the sides of the ridges
and meet the main stream in the valleys.
● Examples: The upper Jhelum River in the Kashmir Valley is an example
of a herringbone drainage pattern.

10. Parallel Drainage Pattern

● Characteristics: The parallel drainage pattern consists of numerous

streams flowing parallel to each other, usually following the regional
slope.
● Examples: The Western Coastal Plains of India and the Eastern Coastal
Plains exhibit parallel drainage patterns.
River Capture (Stream Piracy)

River capture, also known as stream piracy, is the process by which one river
diverts the flow of another, capturing its headwaters and changing the course
of the river. This phenomenon can result from a variety of processes, including
headward erosion, lateral erosion, and the intersection of meanders.

Conditions for River Capture

River capture occurs under specific conditions:

1. Steep channel gradient:

Streams with steeper
gradients have higher
erosive power, allowing
them to extend their
valleys through headward
erosion.
2. Higher volume of water:
A river with a greater
volume of water and
higher discharge will be
more effective at eroding
its valley and capturing
nearby streams.
3. Softer rock: Rivers flowing over softer, less resistant rock are more likely
to erode rapidly and capture the flow of neighboring streams.
4. Deep valleys: Rivers that have carved deep valleys through vertical
erosion are more likely to capture neighboring rivers with shallower
valleys.

Types of River Capture

 1. Headward Erosion Capture: This occurs when one river erodes its valley
upstream, eventually capturing the headwaters of a neighboring stream.
This is the most common form of river capture.

2. Lateral Erosion Capture: As rivers widen their valleys through lateral

erosion, they may capture smaller, parallel streams.

3. Meander Intersection Capture: In later stages of river development, rivers

may develop highly sinuous, meandering courses. When the meanders of
two closely spaced streams intersect, the stronger stream may capture
the other.

Examples of River Capture

1. The Arun River in Nepal is an example of a river that has captured the
Phung Cho tributary of the Tsangpo River.
2. In the Himalayan region, the Bhagirathi and Vishnuganga Rivers have
captured tributaries of the Sutlej River.