BUENDIA-ETRON

STREAMS AND FLOODS

 BUENDIA-ETRON

WHY STUDY STREAMS?

WHY DO Streams are the most important agents of
erosion and transportation of sediments on

WE NEED
Earth’s surface at this time in Earth’s history.
They are responsible for generating much of
the topography on that land surfaces that we
TO STUDY see around us. But streams are not always
peaceful and soothing. During large storms

STREAMS?
and rapid snowmelts, they can become
raging torrents capable of moving cars and
houses, and destroying roads and bridges.
When they spill over their banks, they can
flood huge areas, devastating populations
and infrastructure.
The Hydrological Cycle
RESERVOIR
reservoir is a space that stores water. It can be a space we can easily visualize, such
as a lake or a space that is more difficult to visualize, such as the atmosphere or the
groundwater in a region. The largest reservoir is the ocean, accounting for 97% of the total
volume of water on Earth Ocean water is salty, but the remaining 3% of water on Earth is fresh
water. Two-thirds of our fresh water is stored in the ground and one-third is stored in ice. The
remaining fresh water (about 0.03% of the total) is stored in lakes, streams, vegetation, and the
atmosphere.
 Although the water in the atmosphere is only a small proportion of the total water on Earth,
the volume is still very large. At any given time, there is the equivalent of approximately 13,000 km3 of
water in the air in the form of water vapor and water droplets in clouds. Water is evaporated from the
oceans, vegetation, and lakes at a rate of 1,580 km3 per day, and each day nearly the same volume
falls back as rain and snow over the oceans and land. Most of the precipitation that falls onto land
returns to the ocean in the form of stream flow (117 km3/day) and groundwater flow (6 km3/day).
DRAINAGE AND BASINS
DRAINAGE AND BASINS
A stream is a body of flowing surface water of any size, ranging
from a tiny trickle to a mighty river. The area from which the water flows to
form a stream is known as its drainage basin or watershed. All of the
precipitation (rain or snow) that falls within a drainage basin eventually
flows into its stream, unless some of this water is able to cross into an
adjacent drainage basin via groundwater flow.
GRADIENT
An important characteristic of streams is their gradient, the rate of change in elevation
with distance along the stream. A steep gradient has a rapid change in elevation with horizontal
distance, and a shallow gradient has a slow change in elevation with horizontal distance. As
shown in the picture on the right side, the upper and middle parts of the creek have
steep gradients averaging about 200 m/km but ranging from 100 to 350 m/km, and the lower
part, within the valley of the Similkameen River, is relatively flat at <5 m/km.
BASE LEVEL
Base level is the elevation where a stream will no longer erode deeper into
the bedrock or sediments it flows through, because the elevation of the stream does
not drop below this level, and further erosion can only occur if there is an elevation
drop to propel the water deeper due to the force of gravity. The ocean is the ultimate
base level, but lakes and other rivers act as base levels for many smaller streams.
DRAINAGE BASIN DIVIDE
This map illustrates the concept of a drainage basin divide. The boundary
between two drainage basins is the ridge of land between them. A drop of rain
falling on the boundary between the Capilano and Seymour drainage basins, for
example, could flow into either basin. Rain falling on the Capilano basin side
cannot flow into the Seymour drainage basin, because of the drainage basin
divide.
TYPES OF DRAINAGE PATTERN
The pattern of tributaries within a drainage basin depends largely upon the type of
underlying rock, and on structures within that rock such as folds, fractures, and faults. The
pattern formed by the streams, rivers, and lakes in a certain drainage basin is known as the
drainage pattern.
Drainage patterns or nets are categorized based on their shape and texture. Their shape or
pattern evolves as a result of the local terrain and underlying geology. Drainage
channels form where surface runoff is increased and soil materials have the least resistance
to erosion.
DENDRITIC PATTERNS
Dendritic patterns, which are by far the most common, develop in areas
where the rock (or unconsolidated material) beneath the stream does not have
structures that control the stream flow patterns such as folds and joints; the
materials can be eroded by the stream equally easily in all directions. Most areas
of British Columbia have dendritic patterns, as do most areas of the prairies and
the Canadian Shield.
TRELLIS DRAINAGE
Trellis drainage patterns typically develop where sedimentary
rocks have been folded or tilted, and then eroded to varying degrees
depending on their resistance to erosion. The Rocky Mountains of BC and
AB have some fine examples of trellis drainage.
RECTANGULAR PATTERNS
Rectangular patterns develop in areas that have very little
topography and a system of bedding planes, fractures, or faults that form a
rectangular network.
DERANGED PATTERNS
A deranged drainage system is one that exists in drainage
basins where the rivers and lakes do not follow a consistent pattern.
It occurs in regions where there has been a significant geological
disturbance.
RADIAL PATTERN
In a Radial Drainage Pattern, the streams spread outwards from a central high
point. This is one of the crucial topics in geography. A drainage system in which subsequent
streams radiate or diverge outward from a high center location, similar to the spokes of a
wheel, is called a Radial Drainage Pattern. On the slopes of a young, unbreeched dome
structure or a volcanic cone, it thrives. A summit's tributaries follow the slope downwards
and drain in all directions. The rivers that originate from the Amarkantak Mountain give an
excellent example of a radial drainage pattern.
 The process of a stream eroding downward into bedrock is
called downcutting. Over geological time, and during tectonic
quiescence, a stream will erode its drainage basin into a smooth
profile. Graded streams are steepest in their headwaters and their
gradient gradually decreases toward their mouths. Ungraded
streams are still in the process of rapidly eroding and downcutting
their drainage basin, they have steep sections at various points, and
typically have rapids and waterfalls at numerous locations along
their lengths
 A graded stream can become ungraded if there is renewed tectonic uplift, or if there is a change in
the base level. Base level changes can occur due to tectonic uplift or some other reason such as construction
of a dam downstream. As stated earlier, the base level of Cawston Creek is defined by the level of the
Similkameen River, but this can change, and has done so in the past. The picture above shows the valley of
the Similkameen River in the Keremeos area. The river channel is just beyond the row of trees. The green
field in the distance is underlain by material eroded from the hills behind and deposited by a small creek
(not Cawston Creek) adjacent to the Similkameen River when its level was higher than it is now. Some time
in the past several centuries, the Similkameen River eroded down through these deposits (forming the steep
bank on the other side of the river), and the base level of the small creek was lowered by about 10 m. Over
the next few centuries, this creek will erode through the sediments and eventually become graded again.
 Sediments accumulate within the channel and flood plain of a
stream, and then, if the base level changes, or if there is less
sediment supplied to the stream to deposit, the stream may cut down
through these existing sediments to form terraces.
STREAM EROSION AND
DEPOSITION
 STREAM VELOCITY DEPENDS ON THE SHAPE
AND SIZE OF THE CHANNEL
Flowing water is a very important
mechanism for both erosion and deposition.
Water flow in a stream is primarily related to the
stream’s gradient, but it is also controlled by the
geometry of the stream channel. Water flow
velocity decreases due to friction along the
stream bed. The stream is thus slowest at the
bottom and edges and fastest near the surface
and in the middle of the stream (where there is
the least amount of friction). The velocity just
below the surface of the water is typically a little
higher than right at the surface because of
friction between the water and the air. On a
curved section of a stream, flow is fastest on the
outside of the curve and slowest on the inside of
the curve.
 STREAM VELOCITY DEPENDS ON THE SHAPE
AND SIZE OF THE CHANNEL

Another important factor influencing

stream-water velocity is the discharge, or
volume of water passing a point in a unit of
time (e.g., m3/second). Water levels rise
during a flood and due to the higher
discharge of water the stream flow velocity
increases. The higher discharge also
increases the cross-sectional area of the
stream, so it fills up the channel. In a flood
it may overflow the banks. Another factor
that affects stream-water velocity is the size
of sediments on the stream bed. Large
particles tend to slow the flow more than
small ones.
 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT DEPENDS ON STREAM
VELOCITY AND TURBULENCE
If you drop a piece of gravel into a glass of water, it will sink
quickly to the bottom. If you drop a grain of sand into the same glass, it
will sink more slowly. A grain of silt will take longer yet to get to the
bottom, and a particle of fine clay will take a long time settle out. The
rate of settling is determined by the balance between gravity and friction.
One of the key principles of sedimentary geology is that the
ability of a moving medium (air or water) to move sedimentary particles
and keep them moving is dependent on the velocity of flow. The faster
the medium flows, the larger the particles it can move. As you probably
know from intuition and from experience, streams that flow rapidly tend
to be turbulent (flow paths are chaotic and the water surface appears
rough) and the water may be muddy. In contrast, streams that flow more
slowly tend to have laminar flow (straight-line flow and a smooth water
surface) and clearer water. Turbulent flow is more effective than laminar
flow at keeping sediments suspended within the water.
 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT DEPENDS ON
STREAM VELOCITY AND TURBULENCE
Particles within a stream are transported in
different ways depending on their size. Large particles
which rest on the stream bed are known as the
bedload. The bedload may only be transported when
the flow rate is rapid and under flood conditions. They
are transported by saltation (bouncing along, and
colliding with other particles) and by traction__ (being
pushed along by the force of the flow).
Smaller particles may rest on the bottom
occasionally, where they can be transported by saltation
and traction, but they can also be held in suspension in
the flowing water (the suspended load), especially at
higher flow velocities.
Stream water also has a dissolved load, which
represents (on average) about 15% of the mass of
material transported, and includes ions such as calcium
(Ca+2) and chloride (Cl-) in solution. The solubility of these
ions is not affected by flow velocity.
NATURAL LEVEES FORM BECAUSE OF
CHANGES IN STREAM VELOCITY
A stream typically reaches its greatest velocity
when it is close to flooding over its banks. This is
known as the bank-full stage. When the flooding
stream overtops its banks and occupies the wide area
of its flood plain, the water has a much larger area to
flow through and the velocity drops dramatically. As
water flows from the channel out across the flood plain,
it slows down and starts to deposit its sediment load.
This forms an elevated bank known as a levee along
the edges of the channel. The coarsest and thickest
sediments are deposited near the channel banks, with
particle size and thickness decreasing as you move
further into the flood plain. People also build levees as
flood control measures; the idea for this engineered
solution to floods came from the naturally-build levees
that form during floods.
STREAM TYPES
Stream channels can be straight or curved, deep or shallow, cleared or
filled with coarse sediments. The cycle of erosion has some influence on the nature
of a stream, but there are several other factors that are important. Streams go
through stages in its lifespan beginning with the initial phase known as a “young” stream
and followed by a “mature” or “old stream.”
EPHEMERAL STREAMS
Ephemeral streams flow for a short time only, usually after the snow melts
or there is a massive rainstorm; in other words, any time there is an increase in the
amount of watershed on the earth. These are small streams with channels that are
usually dry during the year. . Ephemeral streams are very shallow and have a
lot less flow than intermittent streams, and they are actually dry throughout most of
the year. In recent years, areas that have experienced less-than-normal rainfall can
exhibit ephemeral characteristics because they can form these types of streams.
BRAIDED STREAMS
Braided streams can develop anywhere where there is more
sediment than a stream is able to transport. One such environment is in
volcanic regions, where explosive eruptions produce large amounts of
unconsolidated material that gets washed into streams.
MEANDERING STREAMS
A meandering stream consists of large loops that flow across a wide flat floodplain and is
surrounded by valley walls. If the mountains are too close to the sea, you usually don’t find these
types of streams. They are always found in relatively flat areas – including floodplains – as well
as places where the sediment is made mostly of muds, fine sands, and silts. Meandering streams
grow laterally through erosion – outside the bend – and through the deposit of sediment inside of
the bend. If the loops get too big and develop friction, meaning they consume too much energy,
the stream will find a shortcut that is less taxing, resulting in a part of the old channel being
abandoned. In this case, an oxbow lake will form.
 DELTA SYSTEMS
Deltas result when streams enter a standing body of water, usually an ocean. If the body of
water is able to move the sediment as fast as it arrives, deltas will not form. Deltas are like alluvial
fans in one aspect because there are distributary channels which spread out from a single channel. In
fact, any time a stream reaches a standing body of water, even if it isn’t an ocean, a delta will form.
The delta will eventually fill the lake entirely with sediment, even though they have a life expectancy
when they are man-made reservoirs. Deltas usually form the shape of a triangle, which is another
reason for their name, and the river usually subdivides into other small rivers before flowing into the
sea; an example of this is the Mississippi Delta.
INTERMITTENT STREAMS
Intermittent streams are those streams that usually flow during the wet season –
usually winter through spring – but which are typically dry during the hot summer months. They
flow for part or most of the year, but they do not always carry water during the dry season.
Also called seasonal streams, they are supplemented by the runoff from rainfall or
other types of precipitation, and they only flow during certain times of the year, usually as a
result of groundwater which provides enough water for the flow of the stream to be
maintained.
PERENNIAL STREAMS
Perennial streams have water flowing through them all year long, and the source of
the water can be either surface water, groundwater, or both. This doesn’t mean that there is
water in every inch of its bed, but at least part of the stream will have some water in it.
These are permanent streams, and they rely on normal amounts of rainfall for their existence.
Also, the aquatic bed is located below the water table for most of the year with a perennial
stream, and they are very well-defined channels as well.
STRAIGHT CHANNEL STREAM
Sometimes, streams are not perfectly straight, but have no major twists and turn about them,
and these are called straight channel streams. These types of streams are confined to a single channel,
and their banks and valley walls are essentially the same things.
Straight streams do not have to have gorges or canyons that are thousands of feet deep, but
they all have valley walls that go inward steeply right to the edge of the water, meaning there is no actual
floodplain.
Straight streams are also purely erosional, and the resulting sediment moves quickly
downstream because of the energy of the flowing water. They also usually have very large boulders in
their beds.
 BUENDIA-ETRON

FLOODS
FLOODING
FLOODING
The hydrologic cycle, commonly known as the water cycle, moves water from one of the Earth's systems to
another. The freshwater in streams is a component of this water cycle. Flooding and overflow into streams are
also potential effects of excessive precipitation. Disasters involving flooding are currently the most frequent and
costly ones.

When a stream rises to a height where it may spill over its banks and spread throughout its flood plain, a
flood occurs. Or, to put it simply, a flood occurs when water overflows or soaks typically dry terrain.
FACTORS GOVERNING FLOODING
Input exceeds output will cause a flood
• Too much water entering a stream system
Factors:
• Excessive rainfall
• Snowmelt off in mountains
• Severe storms
• Hazardous blockage of stream channel
➢ Trees
➢ Rock avalanches
FLOOD CHARACTERISTICS
FLOOD CHARACTERISTICS
• Depth and elevation: Critical during design considerations, as it is often the primary factor in evaluating
the potential for flood damage.
• Velocity: The speed at which the floodwaters are flowing. Flowing water often causes erosion and scour,
as well as debris impacts and hydrodynamic forces.
• Frequency: Probability that a flood of a specific size will be equaled or exceeded in any given year.
• Rates of rise and fall: If an area is subject to flash flooding (high rate of rise), certain retrofitting
methods may not be feasible, especially if they require human intervention.
Types of Flooding
Urban Flooding
Urban flooding isn't merely "flooding that occurs in an urban area"; it also doesn't refer to situations when a river
overflows its banks or a hurricane sends a storm surge into a coastal community. Rather, it is brought on by
excessive runoff in urbanized regions where there is nowhere for the water to go. Urban flooding can be
associated with a big catastrophe, although it typically occurs under more common conditions, manifesting as
waterlogged basements and sewer backups. Even light rains can overwhelm many neighborhoods' old or
inadequate infrastructure, especially in metropolitan areas where poverty, neglect, and/or socioeconomic
isolation are prevalent.
FLASH FLOODS
Flash floods start within 6 hours, and frequently within 3 hours, of heavy rainfall (or other source). There
are many different things that might create flash floods, but thunderstorms' unusually high rainfall is the main
culprit. It might be brought by by mudslides, levee breaks, or both (Debris Flow). Intensity of the precipitation,
location and distribution of the precipitation, terrain and land use, vegetation kinds and growth/density, soil
type, and soil water content all affect where and how quickly flash floods may occur. Urban areas are also
susceptible to flooding in brief periods of time, and occasionally rainfall over an urban region will result in
flooding that is more severe and occurs faster than in the suburbs or the countryside.
Estuarine Flooding
Estuarine flooding, also known as coastal flooding, occurs when a powerful storm or tsunami pushes the water
inland. Estuarine floods can occur when coastal and slow-rise flooding collide in an estuary or when floodwater is
propelled into the estuary by a coastal flood.
Riverine Floods
Overflowing rivers and streams are the most typical. Riverine floods are the name for these floods. Riverine
flooding occurs when streams and rivers have more water flowing through them than can be contained in their
natural or man-made courses, overflowing the banks and flooding nearby low-lying, dry land.
Effects of Floods
 Positive Effects of Floods

Flood-affected sites are frequently covered in silt and mud

after the water subsides. These flooding can affect people
positively:
• restoring wetlands
• Restoring Minerals to the Soil
• Keeping the Land Mass Elevated and Preventing Erosion
• Refill and refuel the groundwater supply.
• The sea gains nutrients from flooding.
• Removes Buildup of Debris
• feeds deltas with sediment.
• Migrations and breeding cycles may be triggered by floods.
• Flooding may increase fish populations.

Famously rich river valleys like the Fertile Crescent in the

Middle East, the Nile River valley in Egypt, and the
Mississippi River valley in the American Midwest have
long sustained agriculture. Millions of tons of nutrient-rich
soil have been left behind by yearly flooding.
 Negative Effects of Floods

Floods are also quite devastating.

• It is possible to pick up and move structures.
• Soil eroding floods.
• causing the structure to crumble and fall.
• Hazardous substances including sharp objects, pesticides,
gasoline, and untreated sewage can contaminate the water
and the environment.
• Mold that might be deadly can swiftly take over wet
structures.
• Flood water transmits illness
Victims of floods may go for weeks without access to clean
water for drinking or personal hygiene. Typhoid, malaria,
hepatitis A, and cholera epidemics are just a few of the fatal
illnesses that may result from this. The Yellow River basin in
China has experienced some of the worst floods the world has
ever witnessed. One of the worst natural disasters ever
documented, the Yellow River flood of 1931 claimed the lives of
almost a million people and left many more homeless.
Flood Hazard Reduction
Strategies
Restrictive Zoning
similar to strategies applicable to reducing damage from seismic and other
geologic hazards
Retention Pond
trap some of the surface water runoff
Diversion Channel
comes into play as stream stage rises, and redirects some of the water flow into
other safe places
Channelization
various modifications of the stream channel itself to increase the velocity of
water flow, the volume of the channel, or both
Levees
raised banks along a stream channel Flood Control Dams and
Reservoirs
Predicting Floods
Hydrologists now look at historical flood trends to help predict where and when future floods may occur. Climate, terrain,
and weather are all dynamic. The soil and groundwater in a region might reveal flood patterns. Hydrologists and pedologists,
or soil scientists, collaborate to ascertain how much water the ground in a given area can hold. Hydrologists can determine
how much additional water the land can absorb based on the kind of soil and the amount of groundwater.
Finding out how much runoff a region receives might also reveal hints about potential floods. When there is more water
present than the soil can hold, runoff occurs. Water that is in excess spills and pours onto the land. Floods can be managed
by regulating runoff. Snowfall and snowpack are assessed by hydrologists in collaboration with meteorologists. Snowmelt
raises groundwater levels and leads to runoff. One of the main causes of floods, snowfall, cannot always be expected.
Scientists can now see where a storm is the most severe using Doppler radar, for instance. Floods can be predicted thanks to
modern technologies. Doppler employs motion to recognize weather patterns and generate digital representations of
rainfall. River height, speed, and rainfall amount are all measured by automated gauges placed in the river. This data is used
to create geographic information system (GIS) maps that assist scientists in warning people when a river is about to overflow
its banks and flood neighboring regions.
 BUENDIA-ETRON

END

Buendia, Allysa Catherine, D.

Etron, Jean Rae