Depth Determination

Introduction
Depth determination is a fundamental task for a hydrographer.
- Requires specific knowledge of the medium.
- Underwater acoustics.
- Of the plethora of devices available for depth measurement.
- Of complementary sensors for attitude and heave measurement.
- The proper procedures to achieve and meet the internationally
recommended standards for accuracy.
Introduction
Lead line and sounding pole were the earliest methods used for
directly measuring water depth. Their easy principles of operation
ensured their continued use over many centuries.
Single beam echo sounders, derived from military sonars, were a
major development and have been used in hydrographic surveying
since the mid 1900s.
Introduction
During the last decade, hydrographic surveying has experienced a
conceptual change in depth measurement technology and
methodology.
Multibeam echo sounders (MBES) and airborne laser sounding
systems (ALS) now provide almost total seafloor coverage and depth
measurement.
The high data density and high acquisition rates have led to huge
bathymetric data sets.
Introduction
The state of the art of the depth measurement equipment evaluated by the
S-44 [IHO, 1998] as follows:
• Single beam echo sounders have reached a sub-decimetre accuracy in
shallow water. The market offers a variety of equipment with different
frequencies, pulse rates etc. and it is possible to satisfy most users' and, in
particular, the hydrographers' needs.
• Multibeam echo sounder technology is developing rapidly and offers great
potential for accurate and total seafloor search if used with proper
procedures and provided that the resolution of the system is adequate for
proper detection of navigational hazards.
• Airborne laser sounding is a new technology which can offer substantial
productivity gains for surveys in shallow, clear water. Airborne laser
systems are capable of measuring depths to 50 m or more.
Transducers
Transducers are one of the echo sounders’ components;
The transducer characteristics which dictate some of the operating
features of an echo sounder.
For this reason, it is particularly important to study:
• operating principles
• Characteristics
• related issues such as:
• beam width
• Directivity
• beam steering
• installation and coverage.
Transducers
• The transducers are the devices used for transmission and reception
of the acoustic pulses.
• They operate by converting electrical energy into mechanical energy
• Transducers convert electrical pulses from a signal generator to
longitudinal vibrations which propagate into the water column as a
pressure wave. [Seippel, 1983]
• During the reception, reciprocally, the pressure waves are converted
into electrical signals by converting electrical energy into mechanical
energy.
Classification with Regard to Operation
• Magnetostrictive
• Piezoelectric
• Electrostrictive
Classification with Regard to Operation
Magnetostrictive
• These transducers have an axis of iron with a coil of nickel.
• The current or pulse through the axis generates a magnetic field in
the coil which produces a contraction and consequently a reduction
of its diameter.
• When the electric current along the axis stops the coil returns to its
original size.
• The application of an A.C. (alternating current) signal generates
contractions and expansions according to the characteristics of the
applied signal.
Classification with Regard to Operation
Piezoelectric
• These transducers are made from two plates with a layer of quartz
crystals between.
• The application of an electric potential across the plates produces a
variation in the thickness of the quartz layer (piezoelectric effect).
• Alteration of the electric potential causes vibration of the quartz and
consequently vibration of the entire unit.
Classification with Regard to Operation
Electrostrictive
• These transducers are based on the same principle of the
piezoelectric transducers.
• Electrostrictive transducers are used almost exclusively these days.
• These transducers are lighter, reversible and can be arranged in
arrays.
• These arrays with a set of small elements, when properly arranged,
allow, according to the product theorem similar characteristics to a
single piece transducer.
Classification with Regards to Beam Width
Single Beam
• Requires only a transducer, for both transmission and reception, but a
transducer array may be used particularly when stabilization is
required.
• Knowledge of roll and pitch angles are needed for beam stabilization.
• Beam width is a function of the transducer dimensions and acoustic
wave length.
Classification with Regards to Beam Width
Single Beam
• The transducer selected for SBES may have a narrow beam when high
directivity is required.
• A wide beam is used when directivity is not the main concern.
Classification with Regards to Beam Width
Multibeam
• Usually have separated transducer arrays for transmission and
reception where the first is oriented longitudinally and the second is
oriented transversally to the vessel’s bow.
• The most common is to have only one transmitted beam with a fan
shape, narrow along track and broad across track.
Classification with Regards to Installation
Installation of the transducers on board the survey vessel can be
undertaken in several ways:
• Keel mounted
• Towed
• Portable
 Classification with Regards to Installation
Keel mounted
Installation on the keel can be optionally chosen from:
• Flush mounted – the transducer is mounted with the face in the hull plane. This option is used
either in single beam or multibeam transducers. The advantage is that it does not require a
special structure for the installation; the disadvantage may be the vessel noise.
• Blister – the transducer is mounted in a structure with a small hull shape. This option is used
for both single and multibeam transducers. The advantage is the reduction in hull water flow
effect at the transducers face; the disadvantage is the need for a special structure for the
installation.
• Gondola - the transducer is mounted in a special gondola shaped structure. This option is used
for multibeam transducers, particularly for deep water operation. The advantages are the
reduction of vessel noise and the elimination of hull water flow noise at the transducer face as
it passes in between the hull and the gondola; the disadvantages are the need for a special
structure for the installation and consequently an increase in the vessel’s draught of the order
of a meter.
Classification with Regards to Installation
Towed - A towed fish is used for side scan sonars when it is essential to
have good stability of the transducer, reduction of vessel noise and the
ability to lower the transducer close to the seabed.
Classification with Regards to Installation
Portable
Is commonly used either on single beam and multibeam transducers in
small vessels, specifically aimed at shallow water surveys.
This installation can be achieved either on the side or over the bow of
the vessel.
Classification with Regards to Coverage
Classification with Regards to Coverage
For multibeam echo sounders, the ensonified area is the result of the
intersection of the transmitted and received beam patterns and is
dependent upon beam pointing angle, beam width, depth and mean
slope of the seafloor.
The ensonified area for each beam can be approximated by an ellipse.
Acoustic Systems
Single Beam Echo Sounders
These echo sounders are devices for depth determination by
measuring the time interval between the emission of a sonic or
ultrasonic pulse and the return of its echo from the seabed.
The main purpose of the echo sounder is to produce a consistent and
high resolution vertical seabed profile on echo trace.
Acoustic Systems
Echo sounder parameters
These need to be set correctly in order to obtain high accuracy and a clear record of the
seabed. The most important parameters are:
• Power
• Gain
• Register Intensity
• Pulse Length
• Scale
• Phase Scale
• Draught
• Papers Speed
• Sound Velocity
Acoustic Systems
Echo sounder parameters
Power
The operating range of the echo sounder depends on pulse length,
frequency and transmitted power.
To optimize the use of the echo sounder, the transmitted power should
be kept at the lowest values consummate with adequate detection
Acoustic Systems
Echo sounder parameters
Gain
The gain entails signal amplification.
The amplification of the signal also amplifies the noise and
consequently the data record may be confused.
Acoustic Systems
Echo sounder parameters
Register Intensity
This parameter is used in analogue echo sounders to adjust the
recording intensity.
Acoustic Systems
Echo sounder parameters
Pulse length
The pulse length is usually selected automatically as a function of the
operating range.
The pulse length is responsible for the vertical resolution of the echo
sounder, short pulses are necessary for a better resolution.
Acoustic Systems
Echo sounder parameters
Scale
Corresponds to the depth scale of the echo sounder recording window.
The width of the recording paper is fixed; therefore at small scales one
will have a low vertical resolution.
Acoustic Systems
Echo sounder parameters
Phase Scale
The phase scale is one way to overcome limitations of the recording
resolution imposed by the echo trace scale.
Acoustic Systems
Echo sounder parameters
Draught
This parameter corresponds to the immersion of the transducer; in
order to record the depth with reference to the instantaneous water
level, the draught should be set and verified before survey operations
commence and regularly thereafter.
Acoustic Systems
Echo sounder parameters
Papers Speed
This speed is particularly important and should be selected to ensure
good horizontal resolution from depth measurements.
Acoustic Systems
Echo sounder parameters
Sound Velocity
This is the nominal value of sound velocity that should correspond to
the mean sound velocity in the area of operation.
Operation and data recording
Operation of individual echo sounders should be referred to their
operator’s manual.
It is important to stress the following aspects:
• Prior to the start of the survey it is necessary to calibrate the echo
sounder for the actual sound velocity
• A general scale, adequate for the expected depths, should be selected
• The frequency channel should be chosen according to their range
capability
• When using an analogue echo sounder, it is essential to set the gain
and the recording intensity to produce a legible trace.
Airborne Laser Systems
Laser systems offer both an alternative and a complement to surveys
with acoustic systems in shallow waters.
A laser system is composed of a laser scanning system, global
positioning system (GPS) and an inertial measurement unit (IMU)
Airborne Laser Systems