ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION

SYSTEMS

THE ECHO SOUNDER

 COURSE OUTLINE

- describes the basic principles of marine echo-

sounding equipment

- identifies the main components on a simple block

diagram of an echo-sounder, and states the
function of each

- describes the accepted value of the velocity of

sound in seawater and the limits within which the
true value may lie
- operates a typical echo-sounder and
demonstrates an ability to carry out basic
user maintenance, e.g. clean platen, change
paper, change and adjust stylus

- differentiates between range and phase, and

demonstrates an awareness of the dangers of
using the wrong phase

- describes the physical factors which affect

the velocity sound in seawater
- distinguishes between inaccuracies caused by
instrument and scale error and those caused
by false echoes

- explains the causes of inaccuracies due to

instrument or scale error and states their
likely magnitude and measures that may be
taken to eliminate them
- recognizes the various types of "false" echo
that may be observed, describes their
formation and states the possible action to
remove them from the trace

- describes the potential errors due to trim,

heel and transducer separation
 Introduction

• One of the dangers faced by a ship is

that of running aground. Usually, a
vessel determines its position by means
of GPS, Radar, Decca, Loran or visual
bearings.
• The depth of water is checked from the
echo sounder just as a matter of routine
to see that the depth obtained matches
with that show on the chart.

• However when the position is not

accurately known while approaching
the port, or crossing over a bar, or near
the mouth of a river, or in a poorly
surveyed area, the under-keel clearance
and depth of water needs to be known.
The echo
sounder comes
in handy in such
situation.
 What is an Echo sounder?

• a device for determining the depth of

the seabed or detecting objects in water
by measuring the time taken for
sound echoes to return to the listener.

• An Echo Sounder is a type of SONAR

(Sound Navigation And Ranging) device
• Echo sounding or depth sounding is the
use of sonar for ranging, normally to
determine the depth of water
(bathymetry).
It involves transmitting acoustic waves into
water and recording the time interval
between emission and return of a pulse;
the resulting time of flight, along with
knowledge of the speed of sound in water,
allows determining the distance between
sonar and target.

This information is then typically used for

navigation purposes or in order to obtain
depths for charting purposes.
Let us Watch a short Clip

Principle of the Echo Sounder

 Principle

• It works on the principle of transmitting

sound waves from ship’s bottom and
then measuring the time taken for the
echo to be returned from sea. If the
velocity of sound in water is known the
time will be proportional to the distance
travelled.
• The time taken by the waves to travel to
and from the seabed is measured and
depth can be determined, by the
formula Distance=Velocity x Time/2
You Might Ask the question- Why
sound wave?
• In case of echo sounder, the signal
cannot be electromagnetic, as there is
heavy attenuation in water. It cannot be
light because water is not transparent
and there is no mirror-like reflecting
surface at the seabed. Sound
propagation is by setting up vibrations in
the medium.
• .
• Water is virtually incompressible so if
vibrations of very small magnitude are
set up they can travel great distances
 Let us dig in

• The acoustic pulses of very short

duration are transmitted vertically at the
rate of 5 to 600 pulses per minute
having a beam width of 12 to 25°.
• These pulses strike the seabed and get
reflected back towards the receiving
transducer as echoes. These received
echoes are converted into electrical
signals by the receiving transducer and
after passing through the different
stages of the receiver, the current is
supplied to the stylus which bums out
the coating of the thin layer of
aluminium powder and produces a
black mark on the paper indicating the
depth of the seabed.
 Errors of the Echo Sounder

1. The velocity of propagation in water

The velocity of acoustic wave changes if

temperature, salinity or pressure changes
and since velocity is not correct, the depth
recorded will be inaccurate.
Multipath Echoes: The echo may be
reflected a number of times between the
keel and the seabed, thereby giving
multiple depth marks on the record, in
such case the first echo is the correct
depth.
Pythagoras error: This error is found when
two transducers are used one for
transmission and other for reception.
Thermal and Density layer. The density of
the water varies with temperature and
salinity, which will tend to form different
layers. It is possible for echoes to return
from the surface of these layers and a
faint line appears between zero and actual
depth.
Zero line adjustment error If the zero
adjustment is not correct, the depth
recorded will not be correct.
ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION
SYSTEMS

THE ECHO SOUNDER

 COURSE OUTLINE

- describes the basic principles of marine echo-

sounding equipment

- identifies the main components on a simple

block diagram of an echo-sounder, and states
the function of each

- describes the accepted value of the velocity of

sound in seawater and the limits within which
the true value may lie

- describes the physical factors which affect the

velocity sound in seawater
- operates a typical echo-sounder and
demonstrates an ability to carry out basic user
maintenance, e.g. clean platen, change paper,
change and adjust stylus

- differentiates between range and phase, and

demonstrates an awareness of the dangers of
using the wrong phase
- distinguishes between inaccuracies caused by
instrument and scale error and those caused by
false echoes

- explains the causes of inaccuracies due to

instrument or scale error and states their likely
magnitude and measures that may be taken to
eliminate them
- recognizes the various types of "false" echo
that may be observed, describes their
formation and states the possible action to
remove them from the trace

- describes the potential errors due to trim, heel

and transducer separation
Echo sounder equipment makes use of sound (or
sonic) waves, which differ from radio waves in
several ways.
➢Sound waves vibrate in the direction of travel of
the wave front.
➢Sound wave velocity is comparatively low (in
comparison with radio waves).
➢Sound waves can travel through a material
medium such as a gas, a liquid or a solid, but not
a vacuum.
 PRINCIPLE
Echo sounding is based on the principle that water
is an excellent medium for the transmission of
sound waves and that a sound pulse will bounce
off a reflecting layer, returning to its source as an
echo.

The time interval between the initiation of a

sound pulse and echo returned from the bottom
can be used to determine the depth of the
bottom.
The distance is measured by multiplying half the
time from the signal's outgoing pulse to its return
by the speed of sound in the water which is more
or less 1.5 km/s.(the speed of sound in water may
slightly change by the factors of pressure,
temperature and salinity).
The formula is:
D = 1/2*t*v
where:
• D = distance
• t = time in seconds
• v = velocity in m/s
An echo-sounding system consists of a transmitter,
a receiver that picks up the reflected echo,
electronic timing and amplification equipment,
and an indicator or graphic recorder.
• Water is an excellent sound transmitting medium
as the velocity of sound in the water is known
accurately and it does not vary more than about
3%, if temperature and salinity change.
• The speed of sound increases as water
temperature, salinity and water pressure
increases, and all of the above vary with depth.
The speed of sound varies from about 1432
metres/sec. in fresh water, to about 1535
metres/sec. in salt water of high salinity.

• For depth sounding equipment design purpose a

sound speed value of 1500 metres/sec. are
assumed.
For normal applications on merchant vessels, the
indication of the depth value based on the average
speed of sound (1500 m/sec.) causes a minor error
when changing from Salt Water (SW) to Fresh
Water (FW).

Assuming there is a small correction adjustment

for SW, the true depth in FW is found to be about
3% more than the indicated depth. As can be seen,
this deviation is very small and thus insignificant
for practical considerations.
 COMPONENTS
Basically an echo
sounder has following
components:

• Transducer – used to
generate the sound
vibrations and also
receive the reflected
sound vibration.
 Pulse generator

• To produce electrical oscillations for the

transmitting transducer.
• Amplifier – to amplify the weak electrical
oscillations that has been generated by the
receiving transducer on reception of the
reflected sound vibration.

• Recorder – used for measuring and indicating

depth.
 THE FULL CYCLE FOR ONE
SOUNDING
✓ The recording stylus starts each cycle as it
moves pass the zero.

✓ It triggers an electronic generator, which

produces a known number of electrical
oscillations, which are applied to the
transmitting transducer (Tr/Tx).
✓ The Tr/Tx creates the sound pulse, which is
injected into the sea, travels to the bottom, is
reflected and returns as an echo to the
receiving transducer, where it is converted back
into an electrical pulse.

✓ This is amplified and applied to the stylus,

which has moved across the recording paper, to
indicate the depth against a suitable scale.
The stylus moves across the paper at a constant
speed which is decided by the designer after he
has decided the following:

➢Maximum depth to be displayed,

➢Width of the paper and the salt water velocity to
be used.
➢The pulse length to be used for transmission,
which is governed by a number of factors.
 PULSE LENGTH TO BE USED
The minimum theoretical depth that can be
measured is equal to half a pulse length. Since
sound travels at approx. 1500 ms-1, a pulse length
of 1 millisec (ms) will mean that the theoretical
minimum depth, which could be measured, would
be 1.5 metres. In practice it would not be this
value.
 PULSE LENGTH TO BE USED
The difference between the theoretical and the
practical values is because the transducer being a
resonant device does not stop oscillating
immediately as the electrical pulse ceases. It
shows a tendency to "ring" when energised and this
is usual for the time taken for 10 to 12 cycles.
Sounders, which have to cover very shallow and
very deep sounding on different ranges, will
usually be designed so that the pulse length can
be changed as the range is changed.

PULSE LENGTH

Shallow 0.3 milli sec Up to 200

or 400
metres

Deep l to 5 milli 2000

sec
metres or
more
 PULSE LENGTH TO BE USED
If depths less than 1.5 m are to be measured then
a shorter pulse length is required. One sounder has
a pulse length of 0.3 m, which gives a theoretical
minimum sounding of 0.225 m and a practical
minimum of 0.45 m.
 PULSE LENGTH TO BE USED
If a very deep measurement is to be made then
more energy is required. This could possibly be
achieved by increasing the amplitude of the pulse,
but this is usually limited by the output of the
active element in the transmitter and therefore it
is injected directly into the water
Characteristics of
sound in sea water
Before considering the problems of transmitting
and receiving acoustic energy in seawater, the
effects of the environment must be understood.

Sonar systems rely on the accurate measurement

of reflected frequency or, in the case of depth
sounders, a precise measurement of time and both
these parameters are affected by the often
unpredictable ocean environment.
These effects can be summarized as follows:
➢Attenuation - A variable factor related to the
transmitted power, the frequency of
transmission, salinity of the seawater and the
reflective consistency of the ocean floor.
➢Salinity of seawater - A variable factor affecting
both the velocity of the acoustic wave and its
attenuation.
➢Velocity of sound in salt water - This is another
variable parameter. Acoustic wave velocity is
precisely 1505 ms–1 at 15°C and atmospheric
pressure, but most echo-sounding equipment is
calibrated at 1500 ms–1.
➢Reflective surface of the seabed - The amplitude
of the reflected energy varies with the
consistency of the ocean floor.

➢Noise - Either inherent noise or that produced by

one’s own transmission causes the signal-to-noise
ratio to degrade, and thus weak echo signals may
be lost in noise.
 Two additional factors should be considered:

➢Frequency of transmission - This will vary with

the system, i.e. depth sounding or Doppler speed
log.

➢Angle of incidence of the propagated beam - The

closer the angle to vertical the greater will be
the energy reflected by the seabed.
 The Transducer
The sound pulses are created by transducers,
which convert electrical energy on transmission,
and reverse the process when the echo is
received.

The sound energy is always transmitted as a beam

in a particular direction (directional beam)
 Siting of the transducer
Satisfactory operation of an echo sounder depends
on the transmission and reception of the largest
possible signal for a given amount of power.

The siting of the transducer is important in this

respect to reduce attenuation on transmission and
reception as far as possible.
The ideal position is one in which there is "solid"
water free from aeration beneath the transducer,
and where the effects of surface, engine and
propeller noise are at a minimum.

There are few positions which are suitable in

every respect and a position found to be
satisfactory in one design of ship will not
necessary give equally good results in another.
• The principal source of aeration is the bow
waves created by the ship. This wave rises some
way up the stem, curls over, and then is forced
down beneath the ship, taking a quantity of air
with it.

• In oil tankers the after position is invariably

chosen, usually under the fore part of the engine
room. Classification Society Lloyd Register does
not permit oscillators to be fitted underneath
cargo space on vessels classed for carrying
petroleum in bulk.
A position in the forepeak may appear to be the
best, but in bad weather and light ship it would be
unlikely to give good results and may also be
difficult to fit there.
In laden ship of normal design a position about a
quarter of the length from the stem will often be
found to give satisfactory results.
Ships often making long passages in ballast e.g.
tankers, often find an after position about three
quarters of the length from the stem gives better
results.
If two are fitted, one is fitted at one quarter and
one at three quarter length abaft the stem.
Care must be taken to make sure a receiving
transducer is a sufficient distance from the
propeller, and tests should be carried out to
ensure this.

They need to be sufficiently separated to prevent

interaction between them, but the separation
should be as small as possible to ensure accurate
sounding in shallow water.

Positions either side of the keel is often

satisfactory.
Other factors, which should be borne in
mind, are:

• fit in a horizontal position, sometimes slightly

projecting but faired off to avoid aeration.

• Avoid sites near bow thruster units, water intake

pipes and underwater log units.

• Internal access to the transducer should be

possible for maintenance and if possible the
transducer should be in a dry place.
ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION
SYSTEMS

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

 Course Outline

- describe the basic principles of the Global

Positioning System (GPS)
- describe the system configuration
- state the frequencies that are used
- describe the C/A & P codes
- describe how the basic line measurement is
obtained
- describe the Dilution of Precision (DOP)
- describe the various DOPs that are used

- describe the various errors of GPS

- describe the reasons for selective availability

and the effect it has on the accuracy of a fix

- describe differential GPS

- describe the accuracy obtainable with GPS

and how the accuracy can be downgraded
- explain WGS 84

- explain why a fix obtained from the GPS

receiver cannot be plotted direct

- explain datum shifts

- describe the advantages and limitations of

GPS
 Let’s play a game
• There are Several questions to be
researched, answered and prizes to be
won for the first correct answer for each
question.
Question 1- 50 jmd

• Describe the basic principles of the Global

Positioning System (GPS) and its
configuration.
 Must Include

• Principle
• Segments
Question 2 - 50 jmd

Explain what is meant by GPS vulnerability.

 Question 3- 50 jmd

List and explain five (5) errors of the GPS.

 Question 4- 50 jmd

State the advantages and limitations of GPS

 Question 5- 50 jmd

Describe the various DOPs that are used by the

GPS
 Question 6 - 50 jmd

- Explain WGS84 and explain why a fix

obtained from the GPS receiver cannot be
plotted direct on the chart.
 Question 7- 50 jmd

Describe the accuracy obtainable with GPS and

how the accuracy can be downgraded
 Question 8- 50 jmd

Describe the reasons for selective availability

and the effect it has on the accuracy of a fix
 Question 9- 50jmd

Describe the C/A & P codes

 Question 10- 50 jmd

Describe the differential GPS