STRUCTURAL DESIGN III

F ELIX V. G ARDE , J R .

August 15, 2019

F ELIX V. G ARDE , J R . STRUCTURAL DESIGN III August 15, 2019 1 / 22

Structural Design
Structural design may be defined as a mixture of art and science,
combining the experienced engineer’s intuitive feeling for the behavior
of a structure with a sound knowledge of the principles of statics,
dynamics, mechanics of materials, and structural analysis, to produce
a safe, economical structure that will serve its intended purpose.
Principles of Design
Minimum criteria in a design of structure:
• minimum cost
• minimum weight
• minimum construction time
• minimum labor
• minimum cost of manufacture of owner’s product
• maximum efficiency of operation to owner

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Structural Design

Principles of Design
Design Procedure:
1 F UNCTIONAL D ESIGN. Ensures that intended results are achieved,
such as
• adequate working areas and clearances
• proper ventilation and/or air conditioning
• adequate transportation facilities
• adequate lighting
• aesthetics
2 S TRUCTURAL F RAMEWORK D ESIGN. Involves selection of the
arrangement and sizes of structural elements so that loads are
safely carried and serviceability requirements are satisfied.

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Structural Design

Iterative Design Procedure:

1. Planning
2. Preliminary structural configuration
3. Establishment of loads
4. Preliminary member selection
5. Analysis
6. Evaluation
7. Redesign
8. Final decision

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 P LANNING P HASE

P RELIMINARY S TRUCTURAL C ONFIGURATION

E STIMATION OF L OADS

S TRUCTURAL A NALYSIS

S TRENGTH AND
NO
S ERVICEABILITY R EVISED S TRUCTURAL D ESIGN

R EQUIREMENTS

YES

C ONSTRUCTION P HASE

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Types of Structural Steel Members

Hot-rolled Shapes
1. Wide-flange shape
2. American standard beam
3. American standard channel
4. Angle
5. Structural tee
6. Pipe
7. Structural tubing
8. Bars
9. Plates

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Design Philosophies

Fundamental requirement of structural design is,

Required Strength ≤ Available Strength

L IMIT S TATES
The term limit state is used to describe a condition at which a structure
or part of a structure ceases to perform its intended purpose.
Two categories of limit states:
1. Strength limit states define load-carrying capacity, including
yielding, fracture, buckling, fatigue, and gross rigid body motion.
2. Serviceablity limit states define performance, including deflection,
cracking, slipping, vibration, and deterioration.

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Design Philosophies
A LLOWABLE S TRENGTH D ESIGN , ASD
A member is selected that has cross-section properties (area and
moment of inertia) that are large enough to prevent the maximum load
from exceeding an allowable, or permissible value.
A LLOWABLE S TRESS D ESIGN
Also known as Elastic Design or Working Stress Design. The
allowable stress will be in the elastic range of the material. Working
stress are those resulting from the working loads or applied loads, also
known as service loads.
Design Criterion:
required strength ≤ allowable strength
or
X Rn
Qi ≤
Ω
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Design Philosophies

L IMIT S TATES D ESIGN

A probability-based and more rational design method which includes:
• Ultimate strength design
• Strength design
• Plastic design
• Load factor design
• Limit design
• Load and resistance factor design
The design is based on a consideration of failure conditions rather than
working load conditions.

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Design Philosophies

L OAD AND R ESISTANCE FACTOR D ESIGN , LRFD

Load factors are applied to the service loads, and a member is
selected that will have enough strength to resist the factored loads. In
addition, the theoretical strength of the member is reduced by the
application of a resistance factor.
Design Criterion:

factored strength ≥ factored load

or
X
Resistance factor × Resistance ≥ (Load factors × Load)
X
φRn ≥ γ i Qi

F ELIX V. G ARDE , J R . STRUCTURAL DESIGN III August 15, 2019 10 / 22

Allowable Strength Design, ASD
B ASIC L OAD C OMBINATIONS
D+F
D+H +F +L+T
D + H + F + (Lr or R)
D + H + F + 0.75[L + T + (Lr or R)]
 
E
D + H + F + W or
1.4
where:
D = dead load
E = earthquake load
F = load due to fluids
H = load due to lateral pressure of soil and water in soil
L = live load, except roof live load, including any permitted live load reduction
Lr = roof live load, including any permitted live load reduction
R = rain load on the undeflected roof
T = self-straining and effects due to temperature change
W = wind load

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Load and Resistance Factor Design, LRFD
B ASIC L OAD C OMBINATIONS
1.4(D + F )
1.2(D + F + T ) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(Lr or R)
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or R) + (f1 L or 0.8W )
1.2D + 1.6W + f1 L + 0.5(Lr or R)
1.2D ± 1.0E + f1 L
S PECIAL S EISMIC L OAD C OMBINATIONS
1.2D + f1 L + 1.0Em
0.9D ± 1.0Em
where:
f1 = 1.0 for floors in places of public assenbly, for live loads
in excess of 4.80 kPa, and for garage live load.
= 0.5 for other live loads
Em = the maximum effect of horizontal and vertical forces.
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Factor of Safety
A LLOWABLE S TRENGTH D ESIGN
Factor of Safety, Ω
• Ω = 1.67 , for ductile failure of tension members
• Ω = 2.0 , for fracture of tension members
• Ω = 1.67to1.92 , for buckling failure of column
L OAD AND R ESISTANCE FACTOR D ESIGN
Resistance Factor, φ
1. Tension Members
• φt = 0.90 for tensile yielding limit state
• φt = 0.75 for tensile rupture limit state
2. Compression Members
• φc = 0.90
3. Beams
• φb = 0.90 for flexure
• φv = 0.90 for shear
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Comparison of LRFD with ASD for Tension Members

The original LRFD Specification values were calibrated to the 1978

ASD Specification at L/D = 3.
From ASD:
Rn
= D + L = D + 3D = 4D
Ω
From LRFD:

φRn = 1.2D + 1.6L = 1.2D + 1.6(3D) = 6D

Equating and solving for Ω:

1.5
Ω=
φ

Therefore, for φ = 0.90, Ω = 1.67

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Comparison of LRFD with ASD for Tension Members

Design of tension members subject to dead, D and live, L loads only.

For ASD, Ω = 1.67
Rn X
= Q=D+L
Ω
Rn = 1.67D + 1.67L

For LRFD, φ = 0.90

φRn = 1.2D + 1.6L

Rn = 1.33D + 1.78L

LRF D 0.8 + 1.07(L/D)

= (0.1)
ASD 1 + (L/D)

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Comparison of LRFD with ASD for Tension Members

Design of tension members subject to dead, D and live, L loads only.

For LRFD, φ = 0.90

From equation 1.4(D + F ), where, F = 0

φRn = 1.4D
Rn = 1.56D

LRF D 1.56D 0.93

= = (0.2)
ASD 1.67D + 1.67L 1 + (L/D)

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Comparison of LRFD with ASD for Tension Members

Comparison of LRFD with ASD for tension members.

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Analysis of the Structures
M ETHODS OF A NALYSIS
1 Linear Static
Classical or Matrix method
2 Linear Dynamic
Response Spectrum analysis
3 Nonlinear Static
Pushover analysis
4 Nonlinear Dynamic
Nonlinear Time history analysis
First-order analysis:
equilibrium equations are based on the original geometry of the
structures. It is sufficient in usual framed structures that are braced
against sidesway.
Second-order analysis:
Common situation for a multistory structures that are not braced
against sidesway.
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Modes of Failure
To design a structure, a clear understanding of the possible ways or modes
by which the structure may fail to perform its function. The designer must
determine the possible modes of failure of the system and establish suitable
failure criteria that accurately predict the failure modes.
Modes of Failure:
1. Failure by excessive deflection
Elastic deflection
Deflection caused by creep
2. Failure by general yielding
General yielding is inelastic deformation of a member, distinguishing it
from localized yielding of a relatively small portion of the member.
3. Failure by fracture
Sudden fracture of brittle materials
Fracture of cracked or flawed members
Progressive fracture (fatigue)
4. Failure by instability
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Structural Systems
The art of structural design is manifested in the selection of the most suitable
structural system for a given structure.
1 Steel-Framed Buildings:
Simple construction

Simple beam-column connections.

Continuous construction or rigid frame structures

Rigid beam-column connections.

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Structural Systems

1 Braced Frames
Concentrically braced frames

Types of bracings and the load path (a) single diagonal bracing, (b) X-bracing, (c) chevron bracing, (d)
single-diagonal, alternate direction bracing, and (e) knee bracing.

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Structural Systems
Eccentrically braced frames

Eccentric bracing system: (a-d) common types of bracing, (e) elevation, and (f) detail

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