Vocational Higher Secondary

Education (VHSE)

SECOND YEAR

REFRIGERATION &
AIRCONDITIONING (RAC)
Reference Book

Government of Kerala
Department of Education

State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT),

KERALA
2016
Reference Book

Participants
1. Hashim PP
Vocational Teacher in R&AC, MMVHSS, Parappil, Kozhikode
2. Premraj AR
Principal, NSV VHSS, Valacode, Punalur, Kollam
3. Jyothish Chandran MR
Principal, Victory VHSS, Nemom, Trivandrum
4. Ajayakumar GK
Vocational Teacher in R&AC,VHSS Arkanoor, Kollam
5. Sainudheen A
Vocational Instructor in R&AC, GVHSS Chettiyankinar,
Malappuram
6. Subair K
Vocational Instructor in R&AC, MMVHSS, Parappil, Calicut

Experts
1. Mohankumar
Managing Director, HEVACO Cooling Systems Pvt. Ltd,
Trivandrum
2. Saji K.Kuzhiyelil
Vocational Teacher in R&AC, St. Ignesius VHSS, Kanjiramattom

Academic Co-ordinator
Dr. Rekha R. Nair
Research Officer, SCERT

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 REFRIGERATION & AIRCONDITIONING (RAC)

Dear Learners,
This book is intended to serve as a ready reference for learners of vocational
higher secondary schools. It offers suggested guidelines for the transaction
of the concepts highlighted in the course content. It is expected that the
learners achieve significant learning outcomes at the end of the course as
envisaged in the curriculum if it is followed properly.
In the context of the Right- based approach, quality education has to be
ensured for all learners. The learner community of Vocational Higher
Secondary Education in Kerala should be empowered by providing them
with the best education that strengthens their competences to become
innovative entrepreneurs who contribute to the knowledge society. The
change of course names, modular approach adopted for the organisation of
course content, work-based pedagogy and the outcome focused assessment
approach paved the way for achieving the vision of Vocational Higher
Secondary Education in Kerala. The revised curriculum helps to equip the
learners with multiple skills matching technological advancements and to
produce skilled workforce for meeting the demands of the emerging
industries and service sectors with national and global orientation. The
revised curriculum attempts to enhance knowledge, skills and attitudes by
giving higher priority and space for the learners to make discussions in
small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The SCERT appreciates the hard work and sincere co-operation of the
contributors of this book that includes subject experts, industrialists and
the teachers of Vocational Higher Secondary Schools. The development of
this reference book has been a joint venture of the State Council of Educational
Research and Training (SCERT) and the Directorate of Vocational Higher
Secondary Education.
The SCERT welcomes constructive criticism and creative suggestions for
the improvement of the book.
With regards,
Dr. P. A. Fathima

Director, SCERT, Kerala

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Sl. No. Particulars Page no.

Part - A
1 About the course 5
2 Major Skills 6
3 Syllabus 7-8
Part - B
MODULE - 3
3.1 Engineering graphics 9 - 17
3.2 Psychrometry 18 - 31
3.3 Basic electricity and electric motor 32 - 46
3.4 Air conditioning equipments 47 - 59
3.5 Window air conditioner 60 - 67
3.6 Split air conditioner 68 - 78
(Wall, floor, ceiling mounted & tower /slim-line)
3.7 Split air conditioner (Duct,multi /duel split) 79 - 84

MODULE - 4
4.1 Inverter split air conditioner 85 - 90
4.2 Heat load calculations 91 - 96
4.3 Special air conditioning applications 97 - 109
4.4 Refrigeration & Air conditioning controls 110 - 119
4.5 Transmission and distribution of air 120 - 142
4.6 Project work 142

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PART - A

REFRIGERATION & AIRCONDITIONING (RAC)

ABOUT THE COURSE
The Vocational Higher Secondary course was envisaged as part of the National
Policy on Education (NPE)-1986 with the noble idea of securing a job along with
education. The relevance of vocational education is highly essential in this age of
unemployment. Vocational Educational system, which ensures a job along with higher
education, stands aloof from other systems of education. The twentieth century
witnessed tremendous progress in commercial refrigeration and air conditioning
particularly after DuPont introduced Freon refrigerants. The new century has emerged
with the introduction of new alternatives. The vocational course in refrigeration and
air conditioning intends to acquire refrigeration skills and update the knowledge of
the present world.
Learning about refrigeration should be activity-based, process-oriented, learner-
centered, environmental based and life-oriented. Refrigeration contributes to increase
the raising of living standards of the people of all lands. The advances made in the
field of refrigeration in recent years are the result of a team approach in which
techniques, persons, engineers, scientists and others pool their skills and knowledge.
The foundation on which new substances and materials are built is provided by
science. This knowledge is applied to the refrigeration field by those who design,
manufacture, install and maintain refrigeration equipment. It is then made useful
through subsequent planned research, development and practical application.
The application of the refrigeration principle is limitless. The most common use, and
that readily recognized, is the preservation of food. Almost all products in the home,
on the farm, in the business, in industry or in the laboratories are in some way
protected by refrigeration. Thus refrigeration has become an essential technology of
modern living.

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MODULE-3
MAJOR SKILLS
TROUBLE SHOOTING AND MAINTENANCE OF AIR CONDITIONING
EQUIPMENTS
SUB SKILLS
 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS
 INSTALLATION OF WINDOW AC
 INSTALLATION OF SPLIT AC
 TROUBLE SHOOTING OF WINDOW AC
 SERVICING OF WINDOW AC
 TROUBLE SHOOTING OF SPLIT AC
 SERVICING OF SPLIT AC
 INSTALLATION OF DUCTABLE SPLIT AC
 TROUBLE SHOOTING OF DUCTABLE SPLIT AC
 SERVICING OF DUCTABLE SPLIT AC
MODULE - 4
MAJOR SKILLS
SERVICING OF AUTOMOBILE AC & CALCULATING CAPACITY
REQUIREMENT
SUB SKILLS
 FIND CAPACITY OF EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
 MAINTENANCE OF AUTOMOBILE AC
 SERVICING AND REPLACEMENT OF AIR CONDITIONING CON-
TROLS
 FABRICATION OF DUCT

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SYLLABUS
MODULE 3: SPLIT AND DUCTABLE AIR CONDITIONERS
Unit No.: 3.1 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS
Orthographic Projection - Orthographic views of simple objects - Pictorial Drawing
- Isometric projection-Principle, isometric scale, isometric view. Auxiliary views –
Principle – need - primary auxiliary views. Sectional views of objects. Free hands
sketching of straight lines, rectangles, squares, circles - Sectional views of simple
engineering components and devices. Development of surfaces - concept –
applications - development of cylinder and pyramid.
Computer Aided Drafting
Introduction to CAD-compare conventional drawing and CAD –Starting to use
CAD software –Application of CAD in engineering drawing-Opening of CAD-
Setting of units and limits-Saving of drawing-Draw Commands (lines, circle, arc,
ellipse, hatch, modify, erase, etc.).Dimensionig and text commands-Practice (different
methods of drawing lines ) Drafting of 2D figures creating a new drawing.
Unit No.: 3.2 PSYCHROMETRY
Air conditioning- comfort and industrial. Factors of comfort air conditioning.
Psychometric properties of air. DBT, WBT and DPT, Vapour pressure, Specific
and relative humidity, enthalpy. Psychometric charts- Sensible heating and cooling,
Cooling by pass factor, Humidification and dehumidification processes. Classification-
summer, winter, year round. Simple problems using psychometric chart.
Unit No.: 3.3 BASIC ELECTRICITY & ELECTRIC MOTORS
Basics of electricity. Single phase and three phase induction motor- working principle.
Three phase motors- squirrel cage, slip ring. Single phase motors- split phase induction
motors, capacitor start induction motors, capacitor start and capacitor run motors,
permanent capacitor motor.
Unit No.: 3.4 AIRCONDITIONING EQUIPMENTS
Brief explanation about window, split, package, central, chilling plant & VRF air
conditioning systems. Areas of application.
Unit No.: 3.5 WINDOW AC
Types-common, portable and precision-applications,working,care and maintenance-
merits and demerits.

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Unit No.: 3.6 SPLIT AC (Wall, Floor, Ceiling Mounted & Tower/Slim line)
Construction and working principle, types, trouble shooting-description of electrical
components- study about the wiring circuit-Split AC (Tower/Slim line): Construction,
working principle, types, trouble shooting. Description of electrical components used
in split AC. Study about the wiring circuit.
Unit No.: 3.7 SPLIT AC (Duct, Multi/Dual Split)
Study of the ductable split AC, its construction and working principle.
MODULE 4: APPLICATION OF AIR CONDITIONING
& CONTROLS
Unit No.: 4.1 INVERTER SPLIT AC
Construction and working principle-comparison between an AC with star rating
(energy efficiency ratio) and inverter AC, Inverter AC-Normal compressor + variable
speed compressor. Special features-motor, insulation, piping.
Unit No.: 4.2 HEAT LOAD CALCULATION
Importance of cooling load calculation. Different components contributing the total
cooling load-heat load due to structural wall, infiltration, ventilation, occupants and
power equipment of a building. Simple problems.
Unit No.: 4.3 SPECIAL AIRCONDITIONING APPLICATIONS
Elementary ideas of automobiles, railways, clean room, hospital and theatre air-
conditioning. Elementary idea of Reefer air-conditioners, HVAC.
Unit No.: 4.4 REFRIGERATION & AIRCONDITIONING
CONTROLS
Study of relays-amperage, voltage, PTC and hot wire relays. DOL Starter. OLP,
thermostat, pressure controls and oil pressure failure controls. Variable speed drives.
Unit No.: 4.5 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF AIR
Duct-classification of duct- supply, return and fresh air ducts, air outlets. Ducting
components-fan, filter, duct openings. Introduction to different duct design methods,
duct arrangement.
Unit No.: 4.6 SIMPLE PROJECT WORKS
One simple working model (skeletons) of refrigerator, water cooler, ice cream churner,
car AC or any other relevant activity
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PART - B
MODULE-3
SPLIT AND DUCTABLE AIR CONDITIONERS
This module is designed to develop both theoretical and practical skills of the learner
in the field of all types of air-conditioning machines used now-a-days. An
understanding of the psychrometric properties of air and their influence in comfort
air-conditioning is imparted. Electrical wiring know-how is necessary for any basic
trouble shooting of any machine. Installation, servicing and trouble shooting of widely
used air-conditioning machines like window airconditioner, various direct and ductable
split air-conditioners, cassette airconditioner will help the learner start his career
directly as a grade “C” mechanic.
UNIT 3.1: ENGINEERING GRAPHICS
Engineering graphics is the language of Engineers.Drawing fundamentals
and simple drawing up to the projection of points are detailed in Module 1.
In this module Orthographic projection,Isometric view and Computer-Aided
Drafting are included.
Learning outcome:
The learner :
• Understand orthographic projection
• Understand isometric projection
• Draw simple object using CAD
Orthographic projection: Orthographic projection is one method of projection
used in engineering drawing in which the objects are projected on imaginary planes.
This means the object becomes 2D. The difference between Orthographic Projection
and any other drawing method is that, we use several 2D views of the object instead
of a single view. In orthographic projection, the object is placed an infinite distance
from the observer. The image, formed on the picture plane is orthographic projection.
The word 'orthographic' means to draw at right angles.

P- Plan, E- Elevation, Side view (EE)

EE- End Elevation Front view(E)
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Basics of Orthographic Projection: Orthographic Projection helps us see an object

in 2D. To do this we need to look at 90 degrees to the face of an object. The planes
of projection are extended beyond the line of intersection to form four quadrants.
The position of objects in any one of these four quadrants are as follows:
1. First horizontal plane(HP) in front of vertical plane(VP)
2. Second quadrant-Above HP and behind VP
3. Third quadrant-Below HP and behind VP
4. Fourth quadrant; Below HP and in front of VP
Orthographic views: Orthographic views are obtained from orthographic projection.
The front, top and side views are called as orthographic views. In orthographic
projection, the picture planes are called as planes of projection and the perpendicular
lines are called project lines or projectors. When we draw an orthographic view of
the front of an object, it is called ELEVATION. When we draw an orthographic
view of the top of an object, it is called PLAN. When we draw an orthographic
view of one side of an object, it is called an END ELEVATION.
Types of orthographic projections:
Usually there are 4 types of orthographic projections
1) First angle projection
2) Second angle projection
3) Third angle projection
4) Fourth angle projection
In engineering drawing we prefer only the first angle projection.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FIRST ANGLE AND THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION
First angle projection Third angle projection
The object is placed in the first quadrant The object is placed in the third
quadrant
The object lies between the observer The plane of projection lies between
and the plane of projection. the observer and the object
In this method, when the views are drawn In this method, when the views are
in their relative position, the plan comes drawn in their relative position, the
below the elevation. The left side view is plan comes above the elevation.
drawn in the right side of elevation. The left side view is drawn in the left
side of elevation.

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The plane of projection is assumed The plane of projection is

to be non transparent assumed to be transparent
Normally this projection is used in Normally this projection is
India and British countries used in USA

Example 1
Draw the elevation looking from the direction of arrow FV, plan, the right side view
and left side view for the pictorial view as shown in figure.

Isometric projection: The isometric projection of an object is a one plane view

drawn with the object placed with respect to the plane of projection so that all the
three principal axes appear to be inclined to each other at an equal angle of 1200.
Isometric scale is used to measure the foreshortened length of dimensions of any
object to draw the isometric projection. The steps of construction of isometric scale
are given below :

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(i) Draw a horizontal line PQ. (ii) Draw the true lengths on a line PM inclined at 45°
to the horizontal line (say up to 70 mm) (iii) Draw another line PA at 30° to the
horizontal line.
(iv)Draw the vertical projection of all the points of true length from PM to PA. (v)
Complete the scale with the details as shown in the figure. The lengths shown at the
line PA are the isometric lengths to be used to draw the isometric projection.

Isometric drawing:
Exercise: Draw the isometric drawing of a rectangular prism of base 30 mm x 15
mm and the height 50 mm
- Draw the isometric projection of a cube of side 50mm.

• Draw the three isometric axes through point ‘A’.

• Mark AB = 15 mm, AD= 30 mm and AH =50 mm representing the three sides
of prism.
• Draw two vertical lines parallel to the line AH through points B and D.
• Similarly draw two more lines parallel to AB and AD through point H.
• Mark G and E, the intersecting points.
• Draw lines parallel to GH and HE through points G and E intersecting at F.

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• Draw lines parallel to AB & AD through points D and B respectively intersecting

at C.
• Join CB & CD with dash lines.
• Join F and C also with dash lines.
• Rub off the construction lines and complete the prism.
T.E Questions
1. Draw a bisecting line for the given straight line AB of length 120 mm.
2. Draw a bisection line for the given straight line PQ of length 60 mm
3. Divide the given straight lineAB of length 120 mm into seven equal parts.
4. Divide the given straight line PQ of length 70 mm into five equal parts.
5. Draw an arc of 40 mm radius touching the two given straight lines [AB =
80mm, AC = 70 mm] at right angles to each other.
6. Draw an equilateral triangleABC for the given side. side AB=40 mm.
7. Draw an isosceles triangle ABC for the given data. AB = 70mm, AC =
BC=55mm.
8. Draw a square for the given length of one side [side AB =60 mm].
Auxiliary view: If a surface of an object is inclined to any of the planes of projection,
the view of the surface of that plane will not show its true shape and size. To overcome
this difficulty, a view of the inclined surface is projected on to an imaginary plane
parallel to this inclined surface. This imaginary plane is called Auxiliary plane and the
view obtained on it is called Auxiliary view.
Sectional views: Interior details of an object cannot be shown on principal exterior
views. In such cases an imaginary cutting (sectioning) plane may be used to cut
through the object, so that the portion in front of the plane can be imagined to be
removed so as to expose the inner details.
The sectional view shows and elaborates the internal construction of a machine, so
that the drawing shows the components and parts of the machine. The view can be
a section of either top view, front view or side view. Actually the sectional view is an
“anatomy” of a machine. Designers use this view to analyse the constructional details
and to modify the design of a machine. They are the projected views (either Auxiliary
or Orthographic) which show a cross section of the source object along the specified
cut plane. There are different types of sectional views such as:

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(1) Full Sectional view

(2) Half Sectional view
(3) Partial/ Broken Sectional view
(4) Revolved Sectional view
(5) Offset sectional view
(6) Removed sectional view.

Development of surfaces: The knowledge of the development of surface is used

in engineering applications such as sheet metal works, automobile body building,
packing industry etc. The surface of an object which is opened out and laid on a flat
plane is called the development of surface of that object.
Develpoment of cylinder: Cylinder is wrapped around a paper. When the paper
is opened, it is rectangle in size. Length = circumference of cylinder, Breadth =
Height of cylinder
Generally, parallel line method is used for the development of cubes, prisms,
etc.

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Development of hexagonal pyramid: Pyramid is developed as follows; Draw an

arc of radius OA – o 'a'. Divide the arc into 6 equal sectors, so that each sector is
equal to distance x.
Practical
1. Draw orthographic views
2. Draw isometric views
3. Draw sectional views
4. CAD practicals in computer lab
ASSESSMENT
Draw the orthographic view of parts of a dismantled compressor.
Draw schematic diagram of summer AC system using CAD.
TE Questions:
1. Draw the front view and top view of the object given below.

Computer-Aided Drafting (CAD)

The last two decades brought about enormous changes in the physical appearance
of the drafting industry. The tools, drafters and engineers have moved from manual
(pencil and paper methods) to computer aided drafting techniques. These changes
were brought about largely with the advent of computers.
The advantage of computer based drafting is its ability to automate the design
process. Drawings done using a computer based drafting tool can easily be done in
half the time compared to the manual drawing methods using pencil and paper.
What makes a computerized design tool so effective is its ability to make revisions
very quickly.

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Components of a CAD System

Any computerized system, consists of four main components:
• Hardware - Hardware consists of equipment, or the parts of the computer
that could be seen. Hardware is used to input the data into the computer system.
Once inside the computer, the data is processed by the hardware into
information. Output equipment is then used either to place the information on
storage devices or to present the information in human readable form, such as
on a display screen or printed onto paper.
• Software - Software programs are specific sequences of instructions needed
to run computers. Without specific instructions provided by software, a
computer-based system could not function. Software not only processes the
information needed by users, but also provides the instructions needed just to
get the computer running.
• Data - Data must be collected and changed into a form on which the computer
can operate. Although collection methods vary widely, the most common data
input methods are using a keyboard or mouse.
• People - People form an essential part of information system. They put together
and coordinate all activities within the system.

CAD Software
Drafting is an art of communication. It has the ability to convey information to someone
through the use of graphic media. Computer Aided Drafting (CAD) is simply the
application of manual drafting technologies to a computer, the ability to draw a line,
arc, or other object on a computer screen then get that information onto a piece of
paper, so that it might be used by someone.
Advantages of using CAD
Some of the advantages of CAD over manual drafting are:

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• Drawing to scale. In almost all instances, the CAD operator will produce a
drawing that is drawn to actual size. There is no need of remembering which
scale is which and no need for the continual mind set of , “I am drawing at 3/8”
= 1’.”
• Drawing set up. Being able to have a set of drawings which have already
been set up with proper borders, title boxes, schedules, and any other pertinent
information can save hours of layout and lettering time.
• Drawing efficiency. CAD programs often have built in tools which give the
operator the capabilities of saving a great deal of time. For instance, if the
operator is working on a drawing which has sixty detailed sprinkler heads
distributed across a ceiling, it becomes very time consuming to draw every
head one at a time. With a CAD package the operator can draw the head once
and then “copy, array, mirror, or offset” as needed. This same drawing “block”
could also be “inserted” into other drawings, so that it need never be drawn
again.
• Drawing modifications. As it has been said, it is very rare that any drawing is
completely correct the first time it is drawn. Modifying drawings is an integral
part of any CAD package. (To be able to remake a drawing , change a line or
two, and have it plotted in 10 to fifteen minutes, rather than manually re-dawn
an entire drawing, or “smudge” up a drawing with erasures, as it has become
more important since the need for fast and accurate results has increased.)
The CAD Interface
Virtually all modern CAD applications use a Graphic User Interface (GUI) to
communicate with software users. A graphic user interface makes use of pictures,
icons, pull-down or pop-up menus that allow the user to select from a predefined
list of command choices. The combination of icons and menus gives users a complete
picture of the items that can be used and the functions that can be performed. A
graphic user interface normally makes use of a mouse. The mouse allows the user
to point at and choose the items or commands that he or she would like to use. A
user interface that combines icons, menus, and a mouse is easy to learn and natural
to use.

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UNIT 3.2
PSYCHROMETRY

Psychrometry is the study of atmospheric air and water vapour present in

it.Atmospheric air is a mixture of a number of gases such as Nitrogen, Oxygen
Hydrogen, Carbon dioxide etc.Knowledge of psychrometry is essential to
understand the workingof air conditioning system.

Learning outcome
The learner :
Understand the idea of air conditioning
Learn factors of air conditioning and various psychrometric properties of air
Explore psychrometric chart, classification and do simple problems
Psychrometry is the branch of science which deals with study of dry air and water
vapour. The atmospheric air we breathe consists of a number of gases, water vapour
and pollutant particles. The concentration of water vapour and pollutants decreases
with altitude.

ATMOSPHERIC AIR

GASES N2,O2,H2,Ar,....
+ Mois ture + Pollutants

Air conditioning means maintaining temperature,humidity,purity and circulation of

air in accordance with human comfort or industrial needs. So psychrometry is very
important in the field of airconditioning.
Dry Air: Dry air means a mixture of gases such as N2,O2,Ar,H2……….or air without
water vapour is called dry air. The percentage composition of air is given below.
GAS FORMULA %
Nitrogen N2 78.084
Oxygen O2 20.947
Argon Ar 00.934
Carbon dioxide CO 2 00.033

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N2+O2+Ar+CO2 =99.98% The rest is other gases.

Moist Air: Moist air is a number of gases and water vapour.The amount of water
vapour depends on pressure and temperature of atmosphere.The amount of water
vapour in the air is an important factor affecting human comfort.
Dry bulb temperature(DBT): Temperature measured with an ordinary thermometer
is called Dry bulb temperature.
Wet bulb temperature (WBT): The temperature recorded by a thermometer when
its bulb is covered with a wet cloth is called Wet Bulb temperature. Wet bulb
temperature is always less than Dry bulb temperature. When relative humidity is
100%, wet bulb temperature and dry bulb temperature are equal.
Specific humidity: The mass of water vapour present in 1 Kg of air is called specific
humidity. It is expressed in gms/Kg of air.It is also called humidity ratio.
Absolute humidity: The mass of water vapour present in 1m3 of air is called absolute
humidity and expressed in gm/m3of air.
Relative humidity (RH): It is the ratio of mass of water vapour present in humid
air to the mass of water vapour that the air can hold at the same temperature. It is
expressed in percentage.The moisture carrying capacity of air increases with increase
in air temperature.
Dew point temperature (DPT): The temperature at which water vapour starts to
condense is called DPT. When the temperature of air decreases, relative humidity
increases and reach 100%.This air is called saturated air. At saturation point, water
vapour begins to condense. So dew point is the saturation temperature for water in
air.
Eg. When you buy cool drinks from a shop, you can see dewdrops outside the can.
This is because when temperature of the air surrounding the can decreases, it gets
saturated and water in the air condenses.
Specific volume: It is the number of cubic meters of moist air per kilogram of dry
air. It is expressed as m3 /kg of dry air. In air conditioning process, the amount of dry
air is always constant and the amount of water vapour may increase or decrease.
Enthalpy: Enthalpy of air is the total heat energy of dry air and water vapour.When
air is heated enthalpy increases and when air is cooled enthalpy decreases. Its unit is
kilo joule per kg.
Meaning of Air conditioning: Air conditioning refers to the treatment of air
simultaneously controlling its temperature, moisture content, cleanliness, odour and

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circulation, as required by the occupants, process or products in the space. The

subject of refrigeration and air conditioning has evolved out of the human need for
food and comfort.
There are two basic types of air conditioning systems as far as their functions are
concerned.
(a) Comfort air conditioning system : The purpose of this system is to create
atmospheric conditions conducive for human health, comfort, and efficiency. Air
conditioning systems at homes, offices, stores, restaurants, theaters, hospitals, schools,
and churches are of this type.
(b) Industrial air conditioning system : The purpose of this system is to control
atmospheric conditions primarily for the proper conduct of research and
manufacturing operations.
The essential feature of comfort air conditioning system is to provide a comfortable
environment for the occupants.
Factors Affecting Comfort Air Conditioning:
1. Temperature of air: In air conditioning, the control of temperature means
maintenance of any desired temperature within an enclosed space, even though
the temperature of the outside air is above or below the desired room
temperature. This is accomplished either, by addition or removal of heat from
the enclosed space as and when required. It may be noted that a human being
feels comfortable when the air is at 21- 24 °C with 56% relative humidity.
2. Humidity of air: The control of humidity of air means decreasing or increasing
the moisture content of air during summer or winter respectively in order to
produce comfortable healthy conditions. The control of humidity is not only
necessary for the human comfort but also increases the efficiency of the workers.
In general, for summer air conditioning, the relative humidity should not be less
than 60%, whereas for winter air conditioning it should not be less than 40%.
3. Purity of air: It is an important factor for the comfort of human body. It has
been noticed that people do not feel comfortable on breathing contaminated
air, even if it is within the acceptable temperature and humidity range. It is thus
obvious that proper filtration, cleaning, and purification of air is essential to
keep it free from dust and other impurities.

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4. Motion of air: The motion or circulation of air should be controlled, in order

to maintain constant temperature throughout the conditioned space. Hence,
there should be equi-distribution of air throughout the space to be air conditioned.
The comfort air conditioning system is subdivided into three groups
1. Summer air conditioning system
2. Winter air conditioning system
3. Year round air conditioning system
Psychrometric chart: It is the graphical representation of various psychrometric
properties of moist air. These charts are very useful in cooling load calculations.
Psychrometric chart is constructed by taking dry bulb temperature in X-axis and
specific humidity in Y-axis. In psychrometric chart, the vertical lines are dry bulb
temperature lines and horizontal lines are specific humidity lines. The curved lines
are relative humidity lines. The left outer line is saturation curve ie. relative humidity
is 100 percent. If you know any two psychrometric properties the rest you can find
using a psychrometric chart.

Psychrometric Processes: In the design and analysis of air conditioning plants,

the fundamental requirement is to identify various processes being performed on air.
All these processes can be plotted easily on a psychrometric chart. This is very
useful for quick visualization and also for identifying the changes that are taking
place in the important properties such as temperature, humidity ratio, enthalpy etc.
The various psychrometric processes involved in air conditioning that vary the
psychrometric properties of air according to the requirement are as follows.

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1. Sensible Cooling 2. Sensible Heating

3. Humidification 4. De-humidification
Sensible Cooling: The cooling of air without any change in its specific humidity is
known as sensible cooling. Cooling of the air is one of the most common
psychrometric processes in the air conditioning system. The basic function of the
airconditioners is to cool the air absorbed from the room or the atmosphere, which
is at higher temperature. The sensible cooling of air is the process in which only the
sensible heat of the air is removed so as to reduce its temperature, and there is no
change in the moisture content (kg/kg of dry air) of the air. During sensible cooling
process the dry bulb (DB) temperature and wet bulb (WB) temperature of the air
reduces, while the latent heat of the air, and the dew point (DP) temperature of the
air remains constant. There is overall reduction in the enthalpy of the air.

During Sensible Cooling Process

Psychrometric properties of air Change
DBT Decreases
WBT Constant
DPT Constant
Specific humidity Constant
Relative humidity Increases
Partial pressure of water vapour Constant
Enthalpy of moist air Decreases

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Sensible Heating of Air: The heating of air without change in its specific humidity,
is known as sensible heating. Sensible heating process is opposite to sensible cooling
process. In sensible heating process, the temperature of air is increased without
changing its moisture content. During this process, the sensible heat, DB and WB
temperature of the air increases while latent heat of air, and the DP point temperature
of the air remains constant. Sensible heating of the air is important when the air
conditioner is used as the heat pump to heat the air. In the heat pump, the air is
heated by passing it over the condenser coil or the heating coil that carry high
temperature refrigerant. In some cases, the heating of air is also done in different
industrial and comfort air-conditioning applications, where large air conditioning
systems are used. Like sensible cooling, the sensible heating process is also
represented by a straight horizontal line on the psychrometric chart. The line starts
from the initial DB temperature of air and ends at the final temperature extending
towards the right (see the figure). The sensible heating line is also the constant DP
temperature line.

During Sensible Heating Process

Psychrometric properties of air Change
DBT Increases
WBT Constant
DPT Constant
Specific humidity Constant
Relative humidity Decreases
Partial pressure of water vapour Constant
Enthalpy of moist air Increases

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Humidification of air: The addition of moisture to air, without change in its dry bulb
temperature is known as humidification . The equipment used for humidification is
known as humidifier.
Methods of humidification
1. Water is sprayed in highly atomized state in to the room to be air conditioned
2. Injecting steam
3. Evaporating water
4. By air washing

During Humidification Process

Psychrometric properties of air Change
DBT Constant
WBT Increases
DPT Increases
Specific humidity Increases
Relative humidity Increases
Partial pressure of water vapour Increases
Enthalpy of moist air Increases
De-humidification of air: The removal of moisture from air , without change in its dry
bulb temperature is known as de-humidification. The equipment used for de-
humidification is known as dehumidifier.
The methods used for de-humidification are given below
1. By reducing the temperature below DPT
2. By absorption of moisture from air
3. By adsorption of moisture from air

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During Dehumidification Process:

Psychrometric properties of air Change
DBT constant
WBT decreases
DPT decreases
Specific humidity decreases
Relative humidity decreases
Partial pressure of water vapour decreases
Enthalpy of moist air decreases

BY PASS FACTOR (BPF):

The bypass factor for the process is defined as the ratio of the difference between
the mean surface temperature of the coil leaving the air temperature and the difference
between the mean surface and the entering air temperature.

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The bypass factor is expressed as follows

BPF = (tdb3 – tdb2)/(tdb3 – tdb1), where
tdb3  Average surface temperature
tdb1  Temperature of the air passes over heating coil
tdb2  Temperature of the air leaving the coil
The bypass factor is a function of the physical and operating characteristics of cooling
or heating coil. It represents that portion of the air by passed when heating or cooling
takes place. The performance of heating or cooling coil is measured in terms of
BPF. A coil with low BPF has a better performance.
The parameters, which affect the BPF, are listed below.
1. No. of fins provided per unit length.
2. No. of rows in a coil in the direction of flow.
3. The velocity of the flow of the air
Psychrometer: It is also called wet-and-dry-bulb thermometer. It is a type of
hygrometer consisting of two thermometers, one of which has a dry bulb and the
other a bulb that is kept moist and ventilated. The sling psychrometer is rotated in
the air for approximately one minute after which the readings from both thermometers
are taken.This process is repeated several times so as to assure that the lowest
possible wet bulb is recorded.

Summer air conditioning system: It is the most important type of airconditioning,

in which the air is cooled and dehumidified.The schematic arrangement of a typical
summer air conditioning system shown in the figure. The outside air flows through
the damper, and mixes up with re-circulated air (which is obtained from the

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conditioned space).The mixed air passes through a filter to remove the dirt,dust and
other impurities. The air now passes through a cooling coil. The coil has a temperature
much below the required dry bulb temperature of the air in the conditioned space.
The cooled air passes through a perforated membrane and loses its moisture in the
condensed form which is collected in a sump. After that ,the air is made to pass
through a heating coil which heats up the air slightly .This is done to bring the air to
the designed dry bulb temperature and relative humidity. Now the conditioned air is
supplied to the conditioned space by a fan. From the conditioned space, a part of
the used air is exhausted to the atmosphere by the exhaust fans or ventilators. The
remaining part of the used air (known as re-circulated air) is again conditioned.
The psychrometric process involved in summer air conditioning system is cooling
and dehumidification and psychrometric chart represented by summer air-conditioning
system is as follows.

Winter air conditioning system: It is the most important type of air conditioning ,
in which the air is heated and humidified. The schematic arrangement of a typical
winter air conditioning system is as shown in the figure. The outside air flows through
the damper, and mixes up with re-circulated air (which is obtained from the
conditioned space).The mixed air passes through a filter to remove the dirt, dust and
other impurities. The air now passes through a a pre-heat coil. The outside air flows
through the damper, and mixes up with re-circulated air which is obtained from the
conditioned space. After that ,the air is made to pass through a reheat coil to bring
the air to the designed dry bulb temperature. Now the conditioned air is supplied to
the conditioned space by a fan. From the conditioned space, a part of the used air is
exhausted to the atmosphere by the exhaust fans or ventilators. The remaining part
of the used air (known as re-circulated air) is again conditioned. The psychrometric
process involved in winter air conditioning system is heating and humidification and
the psychrometric chart represented by winter air-conditioning system is as follows.

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Year round air conditioning system: The year-round air conditioning system should
have equipment for both the summer and winter air conditioning .The schematic
arrangement of a modern year round air conditioning system is shown in the figure.
The outside air flows through the damper, and mixes up with re-circulated air (which
is obtained from the conditioned space). The mixed air passes through a filter to
remove the dirt, dust and other impurities. In summer air conditioning, the cooling
coil operates to cool the air to the desired value. The dehumidification is obtained by
operating the cooling coil at a temperature lower than the dew point temperature. In
winter, the cooling coil is made inoperative and the heating coil operates to heat the
air. The spray type humidifier is also made use of in the dry season to humidify the
air.

Practical
1. Study the use of a sling psychrometer.
2. Find out the various properties of air by using a psychrometric chart.

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1. STUDY THE USE OF A SLING PSYCHROMETER AND FIND

OUT VARIOUS PROPERTIES OF AIR BY USING A
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART.
AIM:
To find out DBT and WBT of atmospheric air and air in an air-conditioned room, Also
calculate various properties of air using sling psychrometer and psychrometric chart.
TOOLS AND MATERIALS REQUIRED
Sling psychrometer, psychrometric chart, steel rule, clean cloth and container of
water.
PROCEDURE
1. Inspect both the thermometers of Sling psychrometer.
2. Dip the wick attached to the wet thermometer in water.
3. Whirl the sling psychrometer for 30 seconds.
4. Take the reading of Dry bulb and Wet bulb thermometers.
5. Repeat the steps and take two or more readings.
6. The lowest reading of Wet bulb thermometer is taken as WBT and
corresponding reading on Dry bulb thermometer is taken as DBT.
7. The reading of DBT and WBT of atmospheric air and air in an air-conditioned
room,is taken by conducting experiments in outside air and in the air-conditioned
room.
USING PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
1. Locate measured DBT and WBT lines.
2. Note the intersecting point of DBT and WBT lines.
3. The horizontal line from this point meeting the right Y axis gives specific humidity
value.
4. The horizontal line from this point meeting the left vapour pressure line gives
partial pressure of water vapour value.
5. The relative humidity curve through this point gives the R H value.
6. The horizontal lines of this point meeting the saturation curve point is noted and
the vertical line of this point meeting the DBT axis gives the Dew Point
Temperature.
7. Draw a line parallel to WBT line. The intersecting point meeting the enthalpy
scale line gives enthalpy value.
8. The specific volume line through this point gives the specific volume value.

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OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

ATMOSPHERIC AIR
SL NO DBT WBT

AIRCONDITIONED ROOM
SL NO DBT WBT

2. MEASURING THE VELOCITY OF AIR BY USING A

VELOMETER/MANOMETER
AIM:-
To measure the velocity of air by using a velometer/manometer.
Tools and materials required
Velometer, clean cloth.
Procedure
1. Check the air flow in air conditioner name plate detail ( 1 ton = 400 CFM )
2. Switch on the air conditioner.
3. Select the switch in high cool ( high speed )
4. Wait for 1 minute, till constant speed is attained by the in fan motor.
5. Hold the Digital anemometer in front of the grill.
6. Take the velocity of air directly,
Safety precautions: Take extra care about the sensor unit (highly sensitive).
Assessment
1. Take a piece of ice and put it in a closed steel vessel. Observe for a few
minutes and write your observations and the reasons for the changes.
2. Sit in front of the table fan for five minutes. Then place a basin filled with cold
water in front of the fan and sit for another five minutes. Write your inferences.

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TE Questions:
1. According to purpose, air condition systems are classified in to ....................
and .....................
2. Write short note on comfort and industrial air conditioning systems.
3. Presence of water vapour in the air is called......................
4. Human comfortable temperature is.................
5. What are the factors affecting human comfort?
6. Wet bulb temperature is
(a) Greater than DBT (b) Equal to DBT
(c) Less than DBT (d) Less than or equal to DBT
7. The temperature at which water vapour present in air begins to condense is
called......................
8. The amount of water vapour present in 1 kg of air is called...................
9. The amount of water vapour present in 1 M3 of air is called ......................
10. What is relative humidity ?
11. Fill in the blanks
Psychrometric property Sensible heating Sensible cooling
Enthalpy .............................. ..............................
Specific humidity Constant ..............................
DBT .............................. ..............................
Relative humidity .............................. Increases
DPT .............................. ..............................
12. Suggest air conditioning system for the following places
(a) Kerala (b) Shimla (c) Delhi
13. The temperature of a room is given DBT=34 C &WBT=31 C. Find?
(a) Relative humidity (b) Specific humidity
(c) Enthalpy (d) Dew point temperature
14. The curved lines in psychrometric chart are ......................... lines.
15. For saturated air
(a) DBT is less than WBT (b) DBT is greater than WBT
(c) DBT equals WBT (d) WBT is greater than DBT

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UNIT 3.3
BASIC ELECTRICITY & ELECTRIC MOTORS

The unit deals with basics of electricity.It also explains different types of
electric motors, working principle, constructional details and
applications.This unit also handles different types of wiring practice.
Learning outcome
The learner :
Explain basics of electricity, working principle and type of single phase and three
phase motors
Electricity is a form of energy that can come in positive and negative forms, that
occur naturally (as in lightning), or is produced (as in a generator).It has lot of
applications such as lighting, communication, heating, transportation, etc.Electric
current is the flow of electric charge through a conductor. Flow of electric current is
similar to that of flow of water in a pipe. SI unit of current is Ampere.
Potential difference
We know that water flows from higher level to lower level of its own. Greater the
difference in the level, more will be the flow of water.
Similarly for the flow of electricity from one end of the conductor to other end ,the
difference in electric pressure is necessary. This is called potential difference. Higher
the potential difference, higher the flow of electricity.If there is no potential difference
there will be no current flow. SI unit of potential difference is volt.
A current that changes its magnitude and direction periodically is called an alternating
current (AC current), whereas direct current (DC current) is steady and uni-
directional.
RESISTANCE: The property of a conductor which resists the flow of electric
current is called resistance.
SINGLE PHASE SUPPLY AND THREE PHASE SUPPLY
In electrical engineering, single-phase electric power refers to the distribution of
alternating electric power, using a system in which all the voltages of the supply vary
in unison. Single-phase distribution is used when loads are mostly lighting and heating,
with few large electric motors.

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Voltage produced by single phase supply is not enough to meet all practical loads.
Some loads need three phase power for its operation. A three phase supply can be
generated using three winding. From these winding ,three separate phases are
available having same magnitude and frequency.
Both three-phase and single-phase devices can be powered from a three-phase
supply. A three-phase circuit is a combination of three single-phase circuits. The
current, voltage, and power relations of balanced three-phase AC circuits can be
studied by applying the rules applicable for single-phase circuits.
The sine waves of three-phase voltage are separated by 120 electrical degree because
they are generated by three separate sets of armature coils in an AC generator.
These three sets of coils are mounted 120 electrical degrees apart on the generator’s
armature. The coil ends could all be brought out of the generator to form three
separate single-phase circuits, but they are conventionally interconnected so that
only three or four wires are actually brought out of the generator.
Single-phase AC voltage with zero power factor has both voltage and current sine
waves in phase, so they cross the zero line together twice in each cycle. Similarly, a
plot of three-phase voltage sine waves, also with zero power factors as shown in
figure, has all three voltage and current waves crossing the zero line twice each cycle
together. Each of its three phases, V1, V2, and V3, is separated by 120 electrical
degrees. Power supplied to each of the three phases of a three-phase circuit also
has a sinusoidal waveform, and the total three-phase power supplied to a balanced
three-phase circuit remains constant.
EARTHING: In electric supply systems, an earthing system or grounding system
is circuitry which connects parts of the electric circuit with the ground, thus defining
the electric potential of the conductors relative to the Earth’s conductive surface.
The choice of earthing system can affect the safety and electromagnetic compatibility
of the power supply. In particular, it affects the magnitude and distribution of short
circuit currents through the system, and the effects it creates on equipment and
people in the proximity of the circuit. If a fault within an electrical device connects a
live supply conductor to an exposed conductive surface, anyone touching it while

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electrically connected to the earth will complete a circuit back to the earthed supply
conductor and receive an electric shock.
MEASUREMENT OF CURRENT & VOLTAGE

AMMETER : It is used to measure current in a circuit.

VOLTMETER : It is used to measure voltage in a circuit
MULTIMETER : It is used to measure current, voltage and resistance.
TONG TESTER : It is used to measure current and voltage in a cable without
cutting it.
FARADAYS LAW : In 1831, Michael Faraday, an English physicist gave one of
the most basic laws of electro-magnetism called Faraday’s law of electro-magnetic
induction. This law explains the working principle of most of the electric motors,
generators, electrical transformers and inductors. This law shows the relationship
between electric circuit and magnetic field. Faraday performed an experiment with
a magnet and coil. During this experiment, he found how emf is induced in the coil
when flux linked with it changes.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDUCED EMF AND FLUX
(Faraday’s Experiment):

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In this experiment, Faraday takes a magnet and a coil and connects a galvanometer
across the coil. At start, the magnet is at rest, so there is no deflection in the
galvanometer ie, needle of galvanometer is at the center or zero position. When the
magnet is moved towards the coil, the needle of galvanometer deflects in one
direction. When the magnet is held stationary at that position, the needle of
galvanometer returns back to zero position. Now when the magnet is moved away
from the coil, there is some deflection in the needle but in the opposite direction and
again when the magnet becomes stationary, at that point with respect to coil, the
needle of the galvanometer returns back to the zero position. Similarly, if magnet is
held stationary and the coil is moved away and towards the magnet, the galvanometer
shows deflection in a similar manner. It is also seen that, faster the change in the
magnetic field, the greater will be the induced emf or voltage in the coil.
ELECTRIC MOTORS: In refrigeration and air-condition, the electric motors are
used to drive fans, compressors, and pumps. Electric motors are everywhere, in
your house, almost every mechanical movement that you see around you is caused
by an AC or DC electric motor. A motor uses magnets to create motion. If you
have ever played with magnets you know the law of magnets: opposite poles attract
and like poles repel each other. So if you have two bar magnets with their ends
marked “north” and “south”, then the north end of one magnet will attract the south
end of the other. On the other hand, the north end of one magnet will repel the north
end of the other. Inside an electric motor, these attracting and repelling forces create
rotational motion.
PRINCIPLE & CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION
MOTOR: Like any other electrical motor single phase induction motor also has
two main parts namely rotor and stator.
Stator: As its name indicates, stator is the stationary part of an induction motor. A
single phase ac supply is given to the stator of a single phase induction motor. The
stator of the single phase induction motor has laminated stamping to reduce eddy
current losses on its periphery. The slots are provided on its stamping to carry stator
or main winding. When the stator winding is given a single phase ac supply, the
magnetic field is produced and the motor rotates. The single phase induction has
two stator windings namely, the main winding and the auxiliary winding. These two
windings are placed in space quadrature with respect to each other.
Rotor: The rotor is the rotating part of an induction motor. The rotor is connected
to the mechanical load through the shaft. The rotor in the single phase induction
motor is of squirrel cage type.

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The construction of the rotor of the single phase induction motor is similar to that of
the squirrel cage three phase induction motor. The rotor is cylindrical in shape and
has slots all over its periphery. The slots are not made parallel to each other but a bit
skewed as the skewing prevents magnetic locking of stator and rotor teeth and
makes the working of induction motor smoother and quieter. The squirrel cage rotor
consists of aluminium, brass or copper bars. These aluminium or copper bars are
called rotor conductors and are placed in the slots at the periphery of the rotor. The
rotor conductors are permanently shorted by the copper or aluminium rings called
the end rings. In order to provide mechanical strength, these rotor conductor are
braced to the end ring and form a complete closed circuit resembling like a cage and
hence its name “squirrel cage induction motor”. As the bars are permanently shorted
by end rings, the rotor electrical resistance is very small and it is not possible to add
external resistance as the bars are permanently shorted. The absence of slip ring and
brushes make the construction of single phase induction motor very simple and
robust.
Working Principle of Single Phase Induction Motor: When single phase AC supply
is given to the stator winding of the single phase induction motor, the alternating
current starts flowing through the stator or main winding. This alternating current
produces an alternating flux called main flux. The main flux also links with the rotor
conductors and hence cut the rotor conductors. According to the Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction, emf gets induced in the rotor. As the rotor circuit is once
closed, the current starts flowing in the rotor. This current is called the rotor current.
This rotor current produces its own flux called rotor flux. Since the flux produced is
due to the induction principle, the motor working on this principle got its name as
induction motor. Now there are two fluxes, one is main flux and the other is rotor
flux. These two fluxes produce the desired torque which is required by the motor to
rotate.

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The Induction Motors are classified in to two groups

1. Single Phase Induction Motor
a. Split Phase induction Motor
b. Capacitor start & run Induction Motor
c. Permanent split Capacitor Motor
2. Three Phase Induction Motor
a. Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
b. Slip Ring Induction Motor
SPLIT PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR:

Split phase induction motors have two windings, starting and main windings. The
starting winding is made of thinner wire and fewer number of turns than the main
winding. At the time of starting, due to phase difference, high starting torque is
produced and the motor starts to rotate. When motor reaches 70 to 80 % of its
speed the centrifugal switch disconnects the starting winding from the circuit.
Application: Refrigerator
CAPACITOR START INDUCTION MOTOR

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Capacitor start induction run motors are similar in construction to split phase motors.
The major difference is the use of a capacitor connected in series to the starting
windings to maximize starting torque. The purpose of the capacitor is to make the
current enter the winding lead by approximately 90°. The capacitor is mounted
either on the top or at the side of the motor. A normally closed centrifugal switch is
located between the capacitor and the start winding. This switch opens when the
motor reaches about 75 percent of its operating speed.
Capacitors in induction run motors enable them to handle heavier start loads by
strengthening the magnetic field of the start windings. These loads might include
refrigerators, compressors, elevators, and augers. The size of the capacitors used in
these types of applications ranges from 1/6 hpto 10 hp . High starting torque designs
also require high starting currents and high breakdown torques.
Capacitor start induction run motors typically deliver 250 to 350 percent of full load
torque at the start. Motors of this design are used in compressors and other types of
industrial, commercial and farm equipment. Application: Deep freezer
CAPACITOR START CAPACITOR RUN INDUCTION MOTOR

The working principle and construction of capacitor start induction motors and
capacitor start capacitor run induction motors are almost the same. We already
know that the single phase induction motor is not self starting because the magnetic
field produced is not of the rotating type. In order to produce rotating magnetic field
there must be some phase difference. Here we use capacitor for this purpose. A
small value capacitor is connected permanently with running winding and high value
capacitor is connected with starting winding .When motor picks up its rated speed,
starting capacitor is disconnected from the circuit with the help of a starting switch
and running capacitor remains in the circuit.

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Application : These motors have high starting torque hence they are used in
conveyors, grinder, air conditioners etc. They are available up to 6 KW.
PERMANENT SPLIT CAPACITOR MOTOR

The permanent-split capacitor motor has a greatly increased popularity for its use in
the air conditioning field over the past years. This type of split-phase motor does not
disconnect the start windings from the circuit when it is running. This eliminates the
need for a centrifugal switch or starting relay to disconnect the start windings from
the circuit when the motor reaches about 75% of its full speed. This motor has good
starting torque and good running torque. Because the capacitor remains in the circuit
during operation, it helps correct power factor of the motor. The stator winding of
the permanent-split capacitor (PSC) motor is different from the stator windings of
the resistance-start induction-run or capacitor-start induction-run motors. The PSC
motor stator winding still contains a run and start winding, but the start winding
generally has the same size wire and just as many turns as the run winding. The run
winding is placed lower in the core material, which helps increase the inductance.
Application: Fan, Pump etc.
THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR: An electric motor is an electro-
mechanical device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. In case
of the three phase AC operation, most widely used motor is the three phase induction
motor, as this type of motor does not require any starting device or we can say they
are self-starting induction motors.
This motor consists of two major parts:
Stator: The stator of the three phase induction motor is made up of a number of
slots to construct a three phase winding circuit which is connected to a three phase
AC source. The three phase windings are arranged in such a manner in the slots that
they produce a rotating magnetic field after AC is given to them.

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Rotor: The rotor of the three phase induction motorconsists of a cylindrical laminated
core with parallel slots that can carry conductors. Conductors are heavy copper or
aluminum bars, which fit in to each slot and are short circuited by the end rings. The
slots are not exactly made parallel to the axis of the shaft but are slotted a little
skewed because this arrangement reduces magnetic humming noise and can avoid
stalling of the motor.
WORKING PRINCIPLE: The stator of a motor consists of an overlapping winding
offset by an electrical angle of 120°. When the primary winding or the stator is
connected to a three phase AC source, it establishes a rotating magnetic field which
rotates at synchronous speed. The difference between the stator (synchronous speed)
and rotor speeds is called slip. The rotation of the magnetic field in an induction
motor has an advantage that no electrical connections an needed to be made to the
rotor.
Thus the three phase induction motor is:
• self-starting.
• less armature reaction and brush sparking because of the absence of com-
mutators and brushes that may cause sparks.
• robust in construction.
• economical.
• easier to maintain.
SQUIRREL CAGE MOTOR: In this motor, squirrel cage rotor is used. The
rotor is assembled from circular silicon steel stamping. Rotor conductor bars are
placed inside the rotor slots with their ends projecting out, so that the end rings are
welded to them shorting all these conductor bars. The stator has a three phase
winding, either star connected or delta connected .Squirrel cage motors are used,
where low starting torque is required.
SLIP RING INDUCTION MOTOR:
The construction of a stator is the same for both the squirrel cage and slip ring
induction motor. The main difference in a slip ring induction motor is of the rotor
construction and usage. Some changes in stator may be encountered when a slip
ring motor is used in a cascaded system, as the supply for the slave motor is controlled
by the supply from the rotor of the other slip ring motor with external resistance
mounted on its rotor. The slip ring induction motor usually has a “Phase-Wound”
rotor. This type of rotor is provided with a 3-phase, double-layer distributed winding
consisting of coils used in alternators.

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The rotor core is made up of steel laminations which have slots to accommodate
formed 3-single phase windings. These windings are placed 120 degrees electrically
apart. The rotor is wound for as many poles as the number in the stator and is
always 3-phase, even though the stator is wound for 2-phase. These three windings
are “starred” internally and the other end of these three windings are brought out
and connected to three insulated slip-rings mounted on the rotor shaft itself. The
three terminal ends touch these three slip rings with the help of carbon brushes
which are held against the rings with the help of a spring assembly. These three
carbon brushes are further connected externally to a 3-phase start connected rheostat.
The slip ring and the external rheostat make it possible to add external resistance to
the rotor circuit, enabling them to have a higher resistance during the start and thus a
higher starting torque.
When running under normal conditions, the slip rings are automatically short-circuited
by means of a metal collar, which is pushed along the shaft, thus making the three
rings touch each other. Also, the brushes are automatically lifted from the slip-rings
to avoid frictional losses, wear and tear. Under normal running conditions, the wound
rotor acts in the same way as the squirrel cage rotor.
In the case of a squirrel cage induction motor, the rotor resistance is very low, so
that the current in the rotor is high, which makes its starting torque poor. But adding
external resistance, as in the case of a slip ring induction motor, makes the rotor
resistance high an starting, thus the rotor current is low and the starting torque is
maximum. Also the slip necessary to generate maximum torque is directly proportional
to the rotor resistance. In slip ring motors, the rotor resistance is increased by adding
external resistance, so the slip is increased. Since the rotor resistance is high, the slip

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is more, thus it’s possible to achieve “pull-out” torque even at low speeds. As the
motor reaches its base speed (full rated speed), after the removal of external resistance
and under normal running conditions, it behaves in the same way as a squirrel cage
induction motor. Thus these motors are best suited for very high inertia loads, which
require a pull-out torque at almost zero speed and acceleration to full speed with
minimum current drawn at a very short time period.
Advantages of slip ring induction motors:
• The main advantage of a slip ring induction motor is that its speed can be
controlled easily.
• “Pull-out torque” can be achieved even from zero RPM.
• It has a high starting torque when compared to squirrel cage induction motor.
Approximately 200 - 250% of its full-load torque.
• A squirrel cage induction motor takes 600% to 700% of the full load current,
but a slip ring induction motor takes a very low starting current approximately
250% to 350% of the full load current.
HERMETIC MOTORS: It is a motor used in hermetically sealed compressors
used in refrigerators, water coolers, split airconditioner etc. A relay is used to
disconnect the starting winding or starting capacitor of hermetic motor.
Special features:
1. These motors have special cooling provisions.
2. The windings of these motors are insulated with such insulations that are
unaffected by oil, gas or moisture.
3. The alignment of stator, rotor and compressor is very accurate.
4. The electrical terminals of the hermetic motors are leak-proof.
Types & Application of Hermetic Motors:
Hermetic motor type Application Type of Compressor
Split phase single phase Refrigerator, water Reciprocating, rotary,
induction motor cooler scroll
Capacitor start induction Motor Deep freezer Reciprocating,
rotary, scroll
Capacitor start and Run Window AC Reciprocating, rotary,
Induction motor scroll

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Practical
1. STUDY THE CHECKING OF EARTHING.
AIM:- To study the checking of earthing of electrical circuits.
Tools and Materials required : Neon Tester, Multimeter, wire pieces.
Purpose of Earthing:
• Safety for human life/building/equipments
• Over voltage protection
• Voltage stabilization
• Prevent damages by electricity
• Prevent noise in the communication cable
PROCEDURE
• Set the multimeter knob to 750V AC and connect the red probe to phase and
black probe to neutral. Keep the switch in the off position, and the reading
shows zero.
• Turn on the switch and measure the voltage across Phase and Neutral. It reads
235V.
• Measure by inserting the black test probe into earth and red test probe into
phase. Let the reading be “234”V.
• Next, measure by inserting the red probe into earth and black probe into neutral.
Let the reading be “001”V.
• If the difference is zero, it means the earthing is perfect. As per the standard
norms, the difference between earthing and neutral should not be more than 3
V (Up to 3V is an acceptable value).
2. Identifying Single phase and Three phase electrical circuits.
3. Identifying the neutral, phase, and earth lines of an electrical circuit.
4. Measure the voltage and current in a circuit.
5. Calculate power bill of a given set of values.

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WIRING PRACTICE
1. Wiring of no frost double-door refrigerator
AIM:- To study the wiring of no frost double-door refrigerator.
Tools, Instruments & Materials Required :
Screw driver, Multimeter, Ammeter, Combination plier, Neon tester, Terminal clips,
Insulation tape….

Thermostat
Defrost
Defrost timer Thermostat

Plate heater
Door switch
Defrost heater
L

N Evaporator Thermal
Interior fan motor overload
E light protector
Compressor
Thermo fuse motor

PTC starter

Procedure:-
1. Connect the phase line to the defrost timer terminal 3 through the thermostat.
2. Connect timer terminal 4 to the compressor terminal C through OLP
3. Connect the timer terminal 2 to the defrost heater through the defrost thermostat.
4. Connect the timer terminal 1 to the neutral through the plate heater.
5. Connect the evaporator fan to the timer terminal 4.
6. Connect the door switch and interior light between the phase and neutral lines
as shown in the diagram.
7. Connect the neutral line to the compressor terminal R .
8. Connect the starting terminal of compressor to the neutral line through PTC
relay and starting capacitor.

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9. Link the neutral line between the terminals S and R through a running capacitor.
10. Check the circuit and finish the wiring.
2. STUDY THE WORKING OF SINGLE PHASE PREVENTERS.
In the three phase induction motors, if there is any fault in the single phase, the motor
will draw more current from the other two phases and will supply less amount of
load power, and so the efficiency of the system decreases. It is not economical to
operate the load in this condition. So a system is designed called single phase preventer
which will disconnect the load if there is fault in any of the phases.
In this system, we measure all the three phase voltages and the output is then given
to the micro controller. The controller enables it as to observe whether the load
should be connected or not. If not, it will give the display of faulty phase on the LCD
so that the maintenance person could easily resolve the problem. To measure the
current, we can use 230v/6-0-6 current transformer. This transformer gives the
output in the form of voltage depending upon the load.
3. Wiring of one lamp controlled by one switch.
4. Wiring of two lamps controlled by one switch.
5. Wiring of two lamps controlled by two switches.
6. Parallel wiring.
7. Series wiring.
8. Staircase wiring
9. Godown wiring
10. Hospital wiring
11. Cinema hall wiring.
12. Tunnel wiring.
13. Identification of the terminals of a compressor
14. Direct starting of a compressor.
15. Testing of a capacitor.
16. Wiring of a single door refrigerator.
17. Wiring of a water cooler.
18. wiring of a deep freezer.

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ASSESSMENT
Visit the nearest flour mill, and observe the motors and power supply being
used. Compare it with the motor of your household appliances. Prepare a
comparison chart.

TE Questions
1. Unit of current is
a) Volt b) Watt c) Ampere d) Tesla
2. Motor is a device producing ................. motion.
3. The rotating component of a motor is................. and the stationery element of
a motor is ...................
4. Motors are not ...............started.
5. What are the two types of a three-phase motors?
6. What is the function of a capacitor in a motor?
7. Draw the name plate of a motor.
8. Which type of motor is used in refrigerators?
9. Which type of motor is used in central AC plants?
10. The single instrument that is used to measure voltage, current and resistance is
called........................

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UNIT 3.4
AIRCONDITIONING EQUIPMENTS

The unit deals with the classification and general approach to various air-
conditioning equipments.
Learning outcome:
The learner :
Understand working and constructional details of different airconditioning equipments.
The following are the important air conditioning machines used now a days :
1. Window air conditioner
2. Split air conditioner
3. Package air conditioner
4. Central air conditioning plant – DX system
5. Central air conditioning plant – water chilling system
6. VAV systems
7. V R F systems
WINDOW AIR CONDITIONER: A window air conditioner unit encloses/
accomodates a complete air conditioner in a small space. The units are made small
enough to fit into a standard window frame.

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This type of AC is designed to fit into the window sills. A single unit of Window Air
Conditioner houses all the necessary components, namely the compressor, condenser,
expansion valve or coil, evaporator and cooling coil enclosed in a single box. Since
the window AC is a single unit, it takes less effort to install as well as maintain.
Advantages
• Single unit air conditioner
• Less effort needed for installation
• Costs less compared to other varieties
SPLIT AC: This is a kit of 2 units, one internal and the other, external. The indoor
unit installed inside the room intakes warm air and throws in cold air. The outdoor
unit on the other hand, is installed out of the house. It contains the compressor,
coneanser and is linked to the internal unit via pipes and electric cables.

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Advantages
• Internal unit takes up less space for installation
• Usually more silent than window ACs
• Affect the home decor minimally.
• Can be installed in rooms with no windows
PACKAGE AC: The window and split air conditioners are usually used for small
air conditioning capacities up to 5 tons. The central air conditioning systems are
used where the cooling loads extend beyond 20 tons. Packaged air conditioners are
used for cooling capacities in between these two extremes. The packaged air
conditioners are available in the fixed rated capacities of 3, 5, 7, 10 and 15 tons.
These units are commonly used in places like restaurants, telephone exchanges,
homes, small halls, etc.
As the name implies, in the packaged air conditioners, all the important components
of the air conditioners are enclosed in a single casing like the window AC. Thus the
compressor, cooling coil, air handling unit and the air filter are all housed in a single
casing and assembled at the factory location. Depending on the type of the cooling
system used the packaged air conditioners are divided into two types: one with
water cooled condenser and the other with air-cooled condensers. Both these
systems are described below :

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Packaged Air Conditioners with Water-Cooled Condenser

In these packaged air conditions, the condenser is cooled by water. The condenser
is of shell and tube type, with refrigerant flowing along the tube side and the cooling
water flowing along the shell side. The water has to be supplied continuously in
these systems to maintain the functioning of the air-conditioning system.
The shell and tube type condenser is compact in shape and is enclosed in a single
casing along with the compressor, expansion valve, and the air handling unit including
the cooling coil or the evaporator. This whole packaged air-conditioning unit externally
looks like a box with the control panel located externally.
In the packaged units with water-cooled condenser, the compressor is located at
the bottom along with the condenser (refer the figure below). Above these components
the evaporator or the cooling coil is located. The air handling unit comprising the
centrifugal blower and the air filter is
located above the cooling coil. The
centrifugal blower has the capacity to
handle large volume of air required for
cooling a number of rooms. From the
top of the package air conditioners, a
duct comes out that extends to various
rooms that are to be cooled.
Packaged Air Conditioners with Air-Cooled Condensers
In this packaged air conditioner, the condenser of the refrigeration system is cooled
by the atmospheric air. There is an outdoor unit that comprises of important
components like compressor, condenser and in some cases, the expansion valve
(refer the figure below). The outdoor unit can be kept on the terrace or any other
open place, where the free flow of the atmospheric air is available. The fan located
inside this unit sucks the outside air and blows it over the condenser coil cooling it in
the process. The condenser coil is made up of several turns of the copper tubing and
is finned externally. The packaged ACs with the air-cooled condensers are more
commonly used than that with water cooled condensers since air is freely available
and it is difficult to maintain continuous flow of water.
The cooling unit comprising of the expansion valve, evaporator, air handling blower
and the filter is located on the floor or hanged on to the ceiling. The ducts coming
out from the cooling unit are connected to various rooms that are to be cooled.

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Central Airconditioning Systems

There are two types of central air conditioning system: Direct Expansion (DX) type
and Chilled Water type. This article describes the DX central air conditioning system.
DIRECT EXPANSION (DX) TYPE OF CENTRAL AIR
CONDITIONING PLANT
In DX system, the air used for cooling the room or space is directly passed over the
cooling coil of the refrigeration plant. In the case of chilled water system, refrigeration
system is used first to chill the water, which is then used to chill the air for cooling
rooms or spaces.
In the direct expansion or DX type central airconditioning plant, the air used for
cooling space is directly chilled by the refrigerant in the cooling coil of the air handling
unit. Since the air is cooled directly by the refrigerant, the cooling efficiency of the
DX plant is higher. However, it is not always feasible to carry the refrigerant piping
to large distances hence, direct expansion or the DX type central air conditioning
system is usually used for cooling small buildings or rooms a single floor.
There are three main compartments of the DX type of central conditioning system
(please refer the fig below):

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The plant room comprises of two important parts of the refrigeration system the
compressor and the condenser. The compressor can either be of semi-hermetically
sealed type or of open type. The semi-hermetically sealed compressor is cooled by
air, which is blown by the fan, while the open type compressor is water-cooled. The
open compressor can be driven directly by motor shaft by the coupling or by belt
via pulley arrangement.
The condenser is of shell and tube type and is cooled by the water. The refrigerant
flows along the tube side of the condenser and water along the shell side, which
enables faster cooling of the refrigerant. The water used for cooling the compressor
and the condenser is cooled in the cooling tower kept at the top of the plant room,
though it can be kept at other convenient locations also.
The Air Handling Unit Room:
The refrigerant leaving the condenser in the plant room enters the thermostatic
expansion valve and then the air handling unit, which is kept in a separate room. The
air handling unit is a large box type of unit that comprises of an evaporator or the
cooling coil, air filter and the large blower. After leaving the thermostatic expansion
valve, the refrigerant enters the cooling coil where it cools the air that enters the
room to be air conditioned. The evaporator in the air handling unit of the DX central
air conditioning system is of coil type, covered with fins to increase the heat transfer
efficiency of the refrigerant in to the air.
There are two types of ducts connected to the air handling unit: for absorbing the hot
return air from the rooms and for sending the chilled air to the rooms to be air
conditioned. The blower of the air handling unit helps absorb the hot return air that
has absorbed the heat from the room via the ducts. This air is then passed through
the filters and over the cooling coil. The blower then passes the chilled air through
the ducts to the rooms that are to be air conditioned.
The DX expansion system runs more efficiently at higher loads. Even in case of
breakdown of the plants, the other plants can be used for cooling purpose. The DX
type of central air conditioner plant is less popular than the chilled water type of
central airconditioning plants.
Air Conditioned Room:
This is the space that is to be actually cooled. It can be a residential room, room of
the hotel, part of the office or any other suitable application. The ducts from the air

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handling room are passed to all the rooms that are to be cooled. The ducts are
connected to the grills or diffusers that supply the chilled air to the room. The air
absorbs the heat and gets heated and is passed through another set of grills and into
the return air duct that ends up at the air handling unit room. This air is then re-
circulated by the air handling unit.
Though the efficiency of the DX plants is higher, the air handling unit and refrigerant
piping cannot be kept at a very long distance since there will be a huge drop of
pressure of the refrigerant along the way and there will also be cooling losses. Further,
for long piping, large amount of refrigerant is needed which makes the system very
expensive and prone to maintenance problems like the leakage of the refrigerant
and soon.
Due to these reasons, DX type central air conditioning systems are used for small air
conditioning systems of about 5 to 15 tons in small buildings or the number of rooms
on a single floor. If there are large air conditioning loads, then multiple direct expansion
systems can be installed. In such cases, it there is lesser heat load, one of the plants
can be shut down and the other can be run at full load. The DX expansion system
runs more efficiently at higher loads. Even in case of a breakdown of the plant, the
other plants can be used for cooling purpose. The DX type central air conditioning
plant is less popular than the chilled water type central airconditioning plant.
CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING PLANT – CHILLED WATER
PLANT
The chilled water type central air conditioning plant is installed in places like large
buildings, shopping mall, airport, hotel, etc, having several floors to be air conditioned.
While in the direct expansion type central air conditioning plant, the refrigerant is
directly used to cool the room air; in the chilled water plant the refrigerant first chills
the water, which in turn chills the room air.
In chilled water plants, the ordinary water or brine solution is chilled to a very low
temperature of about 6 to 8 degree Celsius by the refrigeration plant. This chilled
water is pumped to various floors of the building and its different parts. In each of
these parts, an air handling unit is installed, comprising of a cooling coil, blower and
the ducts. The chilled water flows through the cooling coil. The blower absorbs the
return air from the air conditioned rooms that are to be cooled via ducts. This air
passes over the cooling coil and gets cooled and in turn passes on to the air conditioned
space.

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VARIOUS PARTS OF THE CHILLED WATER AIR

CONDITIONING PLANT
All the important parts of the chilled water ac plant are shown in the above figure
and described in detail below:
Central Air Conditioning Plant Room:
The plant room has all the important components of the chilled water air conditioning
plant. These include the compressor, condenser, thermostatic expansion valve and
the evaporator or the chiller. The compressor is of open type and can be driven by
the motor directly or by the belt via pulley arrangement connected to the motor. It is
cooled by water just like automotive engine.

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The condenser and the evaporator are of shell and tube type. The condenser is
cooled by water, with water flowing along the shell side and refrigerant along the
tube side. The thermostatic expansion valve is operated automatically by the solenoid
valve.
The evaporator is also called chiller, because it chills water. If the water flows along
the shell side and refrigerant on the tube side, it is called dry expansion type chiller.
If the water flows along tube side and the refrigerant along the shell side, it is called
flooded chiller. The water chilled in the chiller is pumped to various parts of the
building that are to be air conditioned. It enters the air handling unit, cools the air in
cooling coil, absorbs the heat and returns back to the plant room to get chilled again.
The amount of water passing into the chiller is controlled by the flow switch.
In the central air conditioning plant room, all the components (the compressor,
condenser, thermostatic expansion valve, and the chiller) are assembled in a structural
steel framework making a complete compact refrigeration plant known as the chiller
package. The piping required to connect these parts is also enclosed in this unit
making a highly compact central air conditioning plant.
The air handling units are installed in various parts of the building that are to be air
conditioned in places called air handling unit rooms. The air handling unitscomprise
of cooling coil, air filter, blower and the supply and return air ducts. The chilled
water flows through the cooling coil. The blower absorbs the return hot air from the
air conditioned space and blows it over the cooling coil thus cooling the air. This
cool air passes over the air filter and is passed by the supplyair ducts into the space
which is to be air conditioned. The air handling unit and the ducts passing through it
are insulated to reduce the loss of cooling effect.
Air Handling Unit Rooms:
The air handling units are installed in various parts of the building that are to be air
conditioned, in places called air handling unit rooms. The air handling units comprise
of cooling coil, air filter, blower and the supply and return air ducts. The chilled
water flows through the cooling coil. The blower absorbs the return hot air from the
air conditioned space and blows it over the cooling coil thus cooling the air. This
cooled air passes over the air filter and is passed by the supply air ducts into the
space which is to be air conditioned. The air handling unit and the ducts passing
through it are insulated to reduce the loss of cooling effect.

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Air Conditioned Rooms:

These are rooms or spaces that are to be air-conditioned. These can be residential
or hotel rooms, halls, shops, offices, complete theatre, various parts of the airport
etc. At the top of these rooms the supply and the return air ducts are laid. The supply
air ducts supply the cool air to the room via one set of the diffusers, while the return
air duct absorbs the hot return air from the room by another set of the diffusers. The
hot return air enters the air handling unit, gets cooled and again enters the room via
supply duct to produce an air conditioning effect.
Cooling Tower:
The cooling tower is used to cool the water that absorbs heat from the compressor
and the condenser. When water flows through these components some water gets
evaporated, to make up this loss, water is also added to the cooling tower. The
cooling tower is of evaporative type. Here, the water is cooled by atmospheric air
and is re-circulated through the compressor and the condenser.
VARIABLE AIR VOLUME SYSTEMS

Variable Air Volume (VAV) is a type of heating, ventilating, and/or air-conditioning

(HVAC) system. Unlike constant air volume (CAV) systems, which supply a constant
airflow at a variable temperature, VAV systems vary the airflow at a constant
temperature. The advantages of VAV systems over constant-volume systems include
more precise temperature control, reduced compressor wear, lower energy
consumption by system fans, less fan noise, and additional passive dehumidification.

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The simplest VAV system incorporates one supply duct that, when in cooling mode,
distributes supply air at a constant temperature of approximately 55 °F (13 °C).
Because the supply air temperature is constant, the air flow rate must vary to meet
the rising and falling heat gains or losses within the thermal zone served.
Even a simple VAV system has several advantages over a CAV system. One has
more precise temperature control. To meet a space cooling load, a CAV unit operates
the fan and compressor at full capacity until the temperature drops to a specific limit,
and then the compressor turns off. This on/off cycling causes the temperature to
fluctuate above and below the temperature set-point. In a single-zone VAV unit, the
fan speed varies depending on the actual space temperature and the temperature
set-point, while the compressor modulates the refrigerant flow, to maintain a constant
supply air temperature. The result is more precise space temperature control.
Another advantage is energy savings and reduced wear. VAV fan control, especially
with modern electronic variable-speed drives, reduces the energy consumed by
fans, which can be a substantial part of the total cooling energy requirements of a
building. Modulating control of the compressor also reduces wear and delivers further
energy savings.
A final advantage is increased dehumidification. Because VAV air flow is reduced
under part-load conditions, air is exposed to cooling coils for a longer time. More
moisture condenses on the coils, dehumidifying the air. Thus, although a constant-
volume and a single-zone VAV unit maintain the same room temperature, the VAV
unit provides more passive dehumidification and more comfortable space conditions.
VARIABLE REFRIGERANT FLOW SYSTEM

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Fault Cause Remedy

Excess frost Any of these component Check for the continuity as per the
formation in the may be defective: specification of various
freezer Bimetal, Thermal fuse, components, if not replace it.
compartment Defrost heater
Condensation on Air leakage Check for the air leakage, if any in
the inner cabinet of case of air leakage,kindly clear it
refrigerator for proper insulation
No proper cooling There may be gas Trace the joint leakage, repair it and
leakage in the system refill with new refrigerant as per
the process
Compressor tripping Condenser fan motor Check for the condenser fan motor,
after some time not working if defective, replace it
Refrigerator unit Too low voltage' Check the voltage by voltmeter. It
humming and stops' should be less or more than 10% of
the standard voltage. If not, use a
stabilizer
Refrigerator unit Relay defective Start the refrigerating unit directly
humming and it without relay, if it runs properly
stops replace the relay
Refrigerator Disassemble the thermostat from the
Thermostat
running unit and check it using ice cube method,
continuously if thermostat is faulty, replace it.
Variable refrigerant flow (VRF) is an HVAC technology invented
in Japan by Daikin company in 1982. Like ductless minisplits, VRFs use refrigerant as
the cooling and heating medium. This refrigerant is conditioned by a single outdoor
condensing unit, and is circulated within the building to multiple fan-coil units (FCUs).
VRFs are typically installed with an Air conditioner inverter which adds a DC
inverter to the compressor in order to support variable motor speed and thus
variable refrigerant flow is rather much more than simply on/off operation. By
operating at varying speeds, VRF units work only at the needed rate allowing
substantial energy savings at partial-load conditions. Heat recovery VRF technology
allows individual indoor units to heat or cool as required, while the compressor load
benefits from the internal heat recovery. Energy savings of up to 55% are predicted
over comparable unitary equipment. This also results in the greater control of the
building’s interior temperature by the building’s occupants.
VRFs come in two system formats, two pipe and three pipe systems. In a heat

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pump 2 pipe system, all the zones must either be in cooling or in heating. Heat
Recovery (HR) systems have the ability to simultaneously heat certain zones while
cooling others; this is usually done through a three pipe design, with the exception of
Mitsubishi which is able to do this with a 2 pipe system using a BC controller to the
individual indoor evaporator zones. In this case, the heat extracted from the zones
requiring cooling is put to use in the zones requiring heating. This is made possible
because the heating unit functions as a condenser, providing the sub-cooled liquid
back into the line that is being used for cooling. While the heat recovery system has
a greater initial cost, it allows for better zoned thermal control of building and overall
greater efficiencies.
PRACTICAL
1. Leak testing of refrigeration system.
2. Evacuation.
3. Gas charging in a refrigeration system.
4. Trouble shooting of refrigerators.
ASSESSMENT
Collect different catalogues from air conditioner distributers and prepare a
comparison chart showing application,capacity,power consumption and cost.
TE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following AC is easy to install?
a) Split AC b) Window AC c) Package AC d) central AC
2. Which type of A/c is suitable for a mini conference hall
a) Split AC b) Window AC c) Package AC d) central AC
3. Air conditioning system suitable for cinema hall is .........................
4. AHU means......................
5. For purifying air, ........................ is used in AC systems.
6. Central AC plants are classified in to DX system and ........................ system.
7. For a 10x10 ft room what is the approximate capacity requirement of an air
conditioner?
8. For a multi speciality hospital which AC system is suitable?
9. A cinema hall is to be air-conditioned using DX system.Draw the lay-out marking
different components.Show the refrigerant and air flow directions.
10. A computer lab with 15mx8mx3m dimensions of a school is to be air-
conditioned.Suggest a suitable air-conditioning system. Justify your answer.
A refrigerator is charged with excess refrigerant. How will you identify this from the
working of the system?
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UNIT 3.5
WINDOW AIRCONDITIONER

The unit deals with constructional details, working and trouble shooting of
window airconditioners.
Learning outcome:
The learner :
Understand working and trouble shooting of window airconditioner
Window AC Units
A window air conditioner unit encloses a complete air conditioner in a small space.
The units are made small enough to fit into a standard window frame. A single unit
of Window Air Conditioner houses all the necessary components, namely the
compressor, condenser, expansion valve or coil, evaporator and cooling coil enclosed
in a single box. If you take the cover off of an unplugged window unit, you’ll find that
it contains:
• A compressor
• An expansion valve
• A hot coil (at the outside)
• A chilled coil (inside)
• Two fans
• A control unit

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This unit has a double shaft fan motor with fans mounted on either side of the motor.
One at the evaporator side and the other at the condenser side. The evaporator side
is located facing the room for cooling the space and the condenser side outdoor for
heat rejection. There is an insulated partition separating the two sides within the
same casing.
Front Panel
The front panel is the one that is seen by the user from inside the room where it is
installed and has a user interface control be it electronically or mechanically. The
older unit is usually of mechanical control type with rotary knobs to control the
temperature and fan speed of the air conditioner.
The newer units come with electronic control system where the functions are
controlled using remote control and touch panel with digital display.
The front panel has adjustable horizontal and vertical(some models) louvers where
the direction of air flow are adjustable to suit the comfort of the users.
The fresh intake of air called VENT (ventilation) is provided at the panel in case
user would like to have a certain amount of fresh air from the outside.
Components
• Cooling coil with an air filter mounted on it. The cooling coil is where the heat
exchange happens between the refrigerant in the system and the air in the room.
• Fan blower is a centrifugal evaporator blower to discharge the cool air to the
room.
• Capillary tube is used as an expansion device. It can be noisy during operation
if installed too near the evaporator.
• Operation panel is used to control the temperature and speed of the blower
fan. A thermostat is used to sense the return air temperature and another one to
monitor the temperature of the coil. Type of control can be mechanical or of
electronic type.
• Filter drier is used to remove the moisture from the refrigerant.
• Drain plan is used to contain the water that condensate an the cooling coil and
is discharged outdoors by gravity.
• Compressor - used to compress the refrigerant.
• Condenser Coil - used to reject heat from the refrigerant to the outside air.
• Propeller Fan - used in air-cooled condenser to help move the air molecules
over the surface of the condensing coil.

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• Fan Motor is located here. It has a double shaft where the indoor blower and
outdoor propeller fan are connected together.
Operation
The evaporator blower fan will suck the air from the room to be conditioned through
the air filter and the cooling coil. Air that has been conditioned is then discharged to
deliver the cool and de-humidified air back to the room. This air mixes with the
room air to bring down the temperature and humidity level of the room.
The introduction of fresh air from outside the room is done through the damper
which is then mixed with the return air from the room before passing it over the air
filter and the cooling coil. The air filter which is mounted in front of the evaporator
acts as a filter to keep the cooling coil clean to obtain good heat-transfer from the
coil. Hence, regular washing and cleaning of the air filter is a good practice to ensure
efficient operation of the air conditioner.
During the operation, a thermostat is mounted on the return air of the unit. This
temperature is used to control the on/off of the compressor. Once the room
temperature is achieved, the compressor cuts off.
Usually, it has to be off for at least 3 minutes before turning on again to prevent it
from being damaged. For mechanical control type, there is usually a caution to turn
on the unit after the unit has been turned off for at least 3 minutes. For electronic
control, there is usually a timer to automatically control the cut-in and cut-out of the
compressor.

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Advantages
• More popular, thus easier to find and economical.
• Often has relatively low noise output and high efficiency.
• Water drains from the unit to the exterior with no intervention.
• Even small units can adequately cool 100-300 square feet. Larger units can
cool rooms up to 650 square feet.
• If carefully placed, can cool more than one room.
• Can be placed either in windows or wall holes.
• Single unit air conditioner.
• Less effort needed for installation.
• Costs less compared to other varieties.
Disadvantages
• The window where you install the air conditioner is blocked as long as the unit
is there.
• Water dripping outside can end up where you do not want it to (pedestrians on
a city street? creating rust on a metal roof?
• More of a hassle to remove and move to another room/location.
• Not all windows support air conditioners.
• Installation can get tricky if you do not have exterior support. It is not unheard
of for window units to fall out of windows at inopportune times, even during
installation.
• The panels that come with these units can let in a lot of hot air, making the air
conditioner less efficient.
• Even the best installation can still leave your home or apartment at a security
risk.
• Quite frankly, the appearance of many window units in a living area is not seen
as the ultimate in decorating or class.

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Name of Component Type Functions

Mechanical parts Reciprocating, scroll, To increase the pressure and temperature
Compressor rotary hermetic type of refrigerant and driving force
Air cooled- fin & tube Condense the vapour refrigerant to
Condenser
type liquid form
Evaporator Fin & tube type - fan To produce cooling effect
(cooling coil) forced type
Expansion valve Capillary tube Reduce pressure of refrigent
Fan blower Evaporator Axial flow type To draw air from the room
Condenser fan Centrifugal fan To force air on the condenser
Capacitor start & To run the compressor at a huge
Electrical parts
capacitor run single starting load
Compressor motor
phase induction motor
Double shaft motor Permanent capacitor To run evaporator blower and
induction motor condenser fan
To disconnect starting capacitor from
Relay Potential type connection after taking its rated speed
Selector switch On,Off, Low / High For on/off, speed regulation of the fan
speed switch
Thermostat switch High temperature switch Temperature control inside the room
Starting capacitor -80-
Starting & running 10 mfd For producing large starting current
capacitor Running capacitor -30-
36mfd
Fresh air damper For getting fresh air in room
Exhaust damper To exhaust inside air
Air filter To remove dust & and impurities
Through away type
from the air

Electrical & Mechanical Parts of a Window Air Conditioner

CARE OF WINDOW AIR CONDITIONER
1. Clean the air filter monthly
2. Check for insect/animal nests
3. Clean the condenser coils once per season
4. Clean the water pan

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5. Inspect cooling coils for frost or ice buildup

6. Check the remote control
INSTALLATION OF WINDOW AIR CONDITIONER
Remove the unit from the cabinet and check the shipping damages. Run the unit and
check the operation. Construct the wooden frame. Fix the wooden frame to the
window or in the wall. Place the case in the frame with a slope for condensate
drainage and drill the holes and fix the case to the frame using screws. Fix the
support brackets to the cabinet and adjust the support brackets. Place a rubber
gasket or sponge rubber or insulating material like thermocole between the case and
frame to prevent hot air leakage. Place the AC unit in the cabinet and fill the space
between the unit and cabinet with sponge rubber or thermocole. Fix the front grill on
the unit. Check the line voltage. Start the unit and run for a few minutes and check
the current drawn. Check the grill temperature and room temperature after a few
hours of operation.
PRACTICAL

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GAS CHARGING OF WINDOW AIR CONDITIONER

Testing of window Airconditioner

1. Identify the components of window airconditioner.
2. Test the selector switch of a window Airconditioner
3. Test the fan and blower motor of a window Airconditioner
4. Cleaning/replacing of air filter of a window Airconditioner.
5. Cleaning/servicing of evaporator of a window Airconditioner.
6. Cleaning and servicing of condenser of a window Airconditioner
7. Wiring of window airconditioner.
8. Fault finding of electrical components in window airconditioner.
9. Installation of window airconditioner.
10. Trouble shooting of a pre installed window airconditioner.
To install and inspect window air conditioner.
1. Unpack the window air conditioner carefully.
2. Use finished wooden frames to fix outer cover.
3. Fix wooden frames at required place, tighten the screws.
4. Fix the outer cover at wooden frame, Fix the screws.
5. Fix the outer cover on the rear side

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6. Check the slanting with spirit level

7. Fix the window AC inside the frame
8. Fix MCB with suitable amperage.
9. Fix front panel to the window air-conditioner. Tighten the supporting screws.
10. Fix the main chord in the MCB.
11. Check the line voltage, and start the Airconditioner.
12. Start the fan motor.(Low)
13. Start the compressor; adjust the thermostat to the required level.
14. Check the air flow at the front grill
15. Check the temperature at the front grill
16. Record the temperature and voltage.
ASSESSMENT
Take a hand kerchief and hang it at different positions of a working window
airconditioner and observe what happens. Write your findings.

TE QUESTIONS
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a window AC?
2. The condenser used in window AC is ..........................
3. What is the degree of inclination required for the installation of a window AC?
4. The airconditioner is working properly, but not geting adequate cooling. What
are the possible reasons and how will you rectify them?
5. What is the power consumption of 1 TR air-conditioner for 24 hours
6. An office cabin is air-conditioned with window type air-conditioner.The system
is working properly,but not achieving comfort condition.Suggest possible
reasons.

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UNIT 3.6
SPLIT AC (WALL, FLOOR ,
CEILING MOUNTED & TOWER/SLIM LINE)

Split airconditioner is widely using now-a-days so employability in this field

is limitless. This unit details different types of split air-conditioner and their
working, installation and trouble shooting.
Learning outcome
The learner :
• Understand, explain and classify different types of split air conditioning machines
• Explain working principle, types and trouble shooting of wall, floor, ceiling
mounted & tower/slim type split airconditioner.
The split air conditioner comprises of two parts: the outdoor unit and the indoor
unit. The outdoor unit, fitted outside the room, houses components like the
compressor, condenser and the expansion valve. The indoor unit comprises the
evaporator or cooling coil and the cooling fan. For this unit, you don’t have to make
any slot in the wall of the room. Further, present day split units have aesthetic appeal
and do not take up as much space as the window unit. A split air conditioner can be
used to cool one or two rooms.
PARTS OF SPLIT AIR-CONDITIONER: Wall Mounted Indoor Unit : It is the
indoor unit that produces the cooling effect inside the room. The indoor unit of the
split air conditioner is a box type housing in all the important parts of the air conditioner
are enclosed. The most common type of the indoor unit is the wall mounted type
though other types like ceiling mounted and floor mounted are also used.
These days the companies give utmost importance to the looks and aesthetics of the
indoor unit. In the last couple of years, the purpose of the indoor unit has changed
from being a mere cooling effect producing devise to a beautiful
looking cooling devise adding to the overall aesthetics of the room. This is one of
the major reasons that the popularity of the split units has increased tremendously in
the last few years. Let us see the various parts enclosed inside the indoor unit of the
split air conditioner
1) Evaporator Coil or the Cooling Coil:
The cooling coil is a copper coil made of a number of turns of the copper tubing with

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one or more rows depending on the capacity of the air conditioning system. The
cooling coil is covered with aluminum fins, so that the maximum amount of heat can
be transferred from the coil to the air inside the room.
The refrigerant from the tubing at a very low temperature and very low pressure
enters the cooling coil. The blower draws the hot room air or the atmospheric air
and in doing so the air passes over the cooling coil which leads to the cooling of the
air. This air is then blown to the room where the cooling effect has to be produced.
The air, after producing the cooling effect is again sucked by the blower and the
process of cooling the room continues.
After absorbing the heat from the room air, the temperature of the refrigerant inside
the cooling coil becomes high and it flows back through the return copper tubing to
the compressor inside the outdoor unit. The refrigerant tubing supplying
the refrigerant from the outdoor unit to the indoor unit and that supplying
the refrigerant from indoor unit to the outdoor unit are both covered with
insulation tape.
2) Air Filter:
The air filter is very important part of the indoor unit. It removes all the dirt particles
from the room air and helps supply clean air to the room. The air filter in the wall
mounted type of the indoor unit is placed just before the cooling coil. When
the blower sucks the hot room air, it is first passed through the air filter and then
though the cooling coil. Thus the clean air at low temperature is supplied into the
room by the blower.
One of the most popular type of split air conditioners is the wall mounted type of
split AC. In these ACs the indoor unit is mounted on the wall inside the room or the
office.
3) Cooling Fan or Blower:
Inside the indoor unit there is also a long blower that sucks the room air or the
atmospheric air. It is an induced type of blower and while it sucks the room air it is
passed over the cooling coil and the filter due to which the temperature of the air
reduces and all the dirt from it is removed. The blower sucks the hot and unclean air
from the room and supplies cool and clean air back. The shaft of the blower rotates
inside the bushes and it is connected to a small multiple speed motor, thus the speed
of the blower can be changed. When the fan speed is changed with the remote it is
the speed of the blower that changes.

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4) Drain Pipe:
Due to the low temperature refrigerant inside the cooling coil, the temperature is
very low, usually much below the dew point temperature of the room air. When the
room air is passed over the cooling coil due the suction force of the blower, the
temperature of the air becomes very low and reaches a level below its dew point
temperature. Due to this the water vapour present in the air gets condensed and
dew or water drops are formed on the surface of the cooling coil. These water
drops fall off the cooling coil and are collected in a small space inside the indoor unit.
To remove the water from this space the drain pipe is connected from this space
extending to the some external place outside the room where water can be disposed.
Thus the drain pipe helps remove dew water collected inside the indoor unit.
To remove the water efficiently the indoor unit has to be tilted by a very small angle
of about 2 to 3 degrees, so that the water can be collected in the space easily and
drained out. If this angle is in the opposite direction, all the water will get drained
inside the room. Also, if the tilt angle is too high, the indoor unit will become
shabby inside the room.
5) Louvers or Fins:
The cool air supplied by the blower is passed into the room through louvers. The
louvers help changing the angle or direction in which the air needs to be supplied into
the room as per the requirements. With louvers one can easily change the direction
in which the maximum amount of the cool air has to be passed.
There are two types of louvers: horizontal and vertical. The horizontal louvers are
connected to a small motor and the position can be set by the remote control. One
can set a fixed position for the horizontal louvers, so that chilled air is passed in a
particular direction only or one can keep it in a rotation mode, so that the fresh air is
supplied throughout the room. The vertical louvers are operated manually and one
can easily change their position as per the requirements. The horizontal louvers control
the flow of air in the upper and lower directions of the room, while vertical louvers
control movement of air in the left and right directions.
Outdoor Unit
As mentioned earlier the outdoor unit is installed outside the room to be
air conditioned in the open space. In the outdoor unit lot of heat is generated inside
the compressor and the condenser, hence there should be sufficient flow of air around
it. The outdoor unit is usually installed at the height above the height of the indoor

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unit inside the room though in many cases the outdoor is also installed at a level
below the indoor unit.
The outdoor unit contains the important parts of the split airconditioner like
compressor, condenser, expansion valve etc. Let us see these parts in detail:
1) Compressor:
The compressor is the most important part of any air conditioner. It compresses
the refrigerant and increases its pressure before sending it to the condenser. The
size of the compressor varies depending on the desired air conditioning load. In
most of the domestic split air conditioners, hermetically sealed type of compressor
is used. In such compressors, the motor used for driving the shaft is located inside
the sealed unit and it is not visible externally. External power has to be supplied to
the compressor, which is utilized for compressing the refrigerant and during this
process, lot of heat is generated in the compressor, which has to be removed by
some means.
2) Condenser:
The condenser used in the outdoor unit of split air conditioners is the coiled copper
tubing with one or more rows depending on the size of the air conditioning unit and
the compressor. Greater the tonnage of the air conditioner and the compressor,
more are the coil turns and rows. The high temperature and high
pressure refrigerant from the compressor comes in the condenser where it has to
give up the heat. The tubing is made up of copper since the rate of conduction of
heat is high. The condenser is also covered with aluminum fins, so that the heat from
the refrigerant can be removed at a more faster rate.

3) Condenser Cooling Fan:

The heat generated within the compressor has to be thrown out, else the compressor
will get too hot in the long run and its motor coils will burn leading to complete
breakdown of the compressor and the whole air conditioner. Further,

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the refrigerant within the condenser coil has to be cooled, so that after expansion its
temperature become low enough to produce the cooling effect.
The condenser cooling fan is an ordinary fan with three or four blades and is driven
by a motor. The cooling fan is located in front of the compressor and
the condenser coil. As the blades of the fan rotate it absorbs the surrounding air from
the open space and blows it over the compressor and the condenser with the
aluminum fins thus cooling them. The hot air is thrown back to the open space and
the circulation of air continues unhindered.
4) Expansion Valve:
The expansion valve is usually a copper capillary tubing with several rounds of coils.
In the split air conditioners of bigger capacities, thermostatic expansion valve is used
which is operated electronically automatically. The high pressure and medium
temperature refrigerant leaves the condenser and enters the expansion valve, where
its temperature and pressure drops suddenly.
Refrigerant Piping or Tubing
The refrigerant piping is made up of copper tubing and it connects the indoor and
the outdoor unit. The refrigerant at a low temperature and low pressure leaves the
expansion valve and enters the copper tubing, which is connected to the evaporator
or the cooling coil at the other end.
The distance between the indoor and the outdoor unit can be short or long depending
on the distance at which the open space is available in the home or office building.
The longer the distance, longer is the refrigerant piping between the two. When
the refrigerant flows from the indoor unit to the outdoor unit in the tubing there is
some loss of the cooling effect on the way, hence the distance between the indoor
and the outdoor unit should be kept as minimum as possible. For the distance up to
15 meters there is not much appreciable loss of the cooling effect, however beyond
that the losses become higher.
The refrigerant inside the tubing is at very low temperature and length of piping
between and outdoor unit and indoor unit is quite long. Further, the tubing is exposed
to the open atmosphere which is at very high temperature. Due to this, if the tubing
is left uncovered, all the cooling effect will be lost to the open atmosphere and by
the time the refrigerant enters the cooling coil its temperature will already be too
high and the purpose of producing the cooling effect will not be served. To avoid
this, the refrigerant tubing connecting the indoor and the outdoor unit is covered

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with the insulation. This prevents the loss of cooling effect to the atmosphere and
low temperature refrigerant will produce the desired cooling effect inside the room.
After producing the cooling effect inside the room in the indoor unit, the refrigerant has
to come back to the outdoor unit for getting compressed and re-circulated. There is
another refrigerant tubing that connects the indoor and the outdoor unit, so that
the refrigerant can travel from cooling coil back to the compressor. This tubing is
also covered with insulation, so that the refrigerant enters the compressor at minimum
possible temperature to increase the refrigeration efficiency of the air conditioner.
Thus there are two tubing connecting the indoor and the outdoor unit and both are
covered with the insulation tape.
The refrigerant tubing is made up of copper since it is a highly ductile and malleable
element. The tubing can easily be manufactured from this material and as it is flexible
enough it can be turned into angles and coiled easily. The copper tubing used
for condenser and evaporator facilitates high rate of heat conduction.
TOWER/SLIM-LINE AIRCONDITIONER
These are also known as floor-standing air conditioners. Like split ACs, a tower
AC set consists of 2 units- one internal and the other external. However, the indoor
unit doesn’t need wall installation. It rather occupies some space on the floor. Tower
air conditioners usually have a high cooling capacity and are suitable for very large
rooms. Floor Standing air conditioners are equipped with technologies to enable
faster cooling and at the same time enhance the interiors of your home with their
elegant look and design. They also save energy and cool your room faster.
Advantages
• Suitable for high capacity cooling
• Ideal for large rooms at home and offices
• Doesn’t need windows or wall installation
• Ideally suited for commercial spaces
Slim-line air conditioner, also known as a tower AC or a floor-
standing AC, is a nifty and slender device employed to dehumidify
a particular zone and remove/provide heat to a particular area.
The cooling is enabled by a refrigeration cycle identical to other air conditioners.
Akin to split air conditioners, Slimline air conditioners boast of two separate units -
the evaporative unit on the exterior and the condensing unit on the interior. Both the

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units are seamlessly connected a tube. While most households predominantly opt
for a Window AC or a Split AC, Slim line Air Conditioners are ideal for industries,
call centres, showrooms, offices, restaurants and other such sprawling and capacious
areas, which do not require extensive cooling. These have gained immense popularity
primarily because they function in the same way as a window unit air conditioner,
without actually sitting in your window.
Get an extra edge with Slimline ACs
Slimline Air conditioners proffer a host of advantages over run-of-the-mill air
conditioners. Some of them are given below:
• Slimline air conditioners do not require a permanent installation that essentially
saves a lot of hassle and ensures fuss-free, quick installation.
• Slimline air conditioners do not require your premise to have any HVAC piping
or plumbing in place. What this effectively means is that these air conditioners
are ready for use right from the word go!
• With Slimline air conditioners, you are ensured a tranquil noiseless operating
function, thanks to the inherent noise-suppression technology that smartly
eliminates all the irksome noise.
• With Slimline air conditioners, you end up thwarting the risk of accidental
leaking and spillage of water.
• Slimline air conditioners come in loads of vibrant hues and look really sleek
and stylish. They are, thus, ideal cooling accessories for the most plush of
interiors.
• Most of the current models of Slimline air conditioners sport a distinctive child
lock switch, which allows the settings to be locked, thus making it absolutely
child-proof and fail-safe.
• Most of the upscale Slimline air conditioner models come with a duplicate
compressor comprising a unique internal overload protection device that protects
the compressor from electrical and thermal overload.
• Slimline air conditioners are highly energy-efficient and, in addition to offering
impressive cost savings, they remain your best bet in alleviating your carbon
footprint.

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Cooling capacity
Cooling capacity is defined as the air conditioner’s ability to keep the requisite area
cool. Slimline air conditioners come in a wide range of cooling capacities, viz., 1.5-
ton, 2-ton, 3-ton, 4-ton etc. A good practice while choosing an appropriate capacity
is to measure the area size in square feet. For an area with a dimension of 12×12
square feet (length x breadth), a single ton air conditioners should ideally fit the bill.
This de-facto standard should help you customise your selection. A majority of the
makers’ websites offer detailed assistance to consumers to arrive at the appropriate
tonnage as per individual requirements.
Energy Efficiency and Power Consumption
A slim line air conditioner’s efficiency is measured using the energy efficiency ratio
(EER). The EER is the ratio of the cooling capacity (in British thermal units per hour)
to the power input (in watts). A higher EER rating ensures lesser power consumption
and higher energy efficiency, and this is a boon for the environment too. In fact,
National Appliance Standards mandatorily require all air conditioners to bear an
energy efficiency ratio (EER) ranging from 8.0-9.8 or greater (depending on the
type and capacity). Energy Star certified air conditioners enjoy even higher EER
ratings.
Noise level
Noise level is another important selection criteria when buying an AC. Almost all
Slimline air conditioners boast of the cutting-edge noise suppression technology that
assures an absolutely noiseless operation.
Practical
1. WIRING OF SPLIT AIR-CONDITIONER
AIM:- To carry out the wiring of a split air conditioner.
Tools, Instruments, Materials Required:- Screw driver, Spanner, Combination pier,
Multimeter, clap meter, Neon tester, cotton waste.
Accessories:- Micro controller, Display unit, Voltage regulator, 12 volt DC supply
transformer, Indoor fan motor, outdoor unit relay, freeze protection sensor, room
temperature sensor, Remote control,etc…

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Procedure
1. Connect the indoor unit and out door unit as shown in the diagram.
2. Connect the phase and neutral lines to the power supply.
3. Check the circuit and finish the wiring.
*Make sure that the phase and neutral lines are connected properly.
2. TROUBLESHOOTING OF SPLIT AC
Aim:- To study the trouble shooting methods of Split AC
*Fault: Remote not working
Remote not working/some button not working in the remote
Check remote
Step 1: Switch on the camera of mobile or infrared tester.
Step 2: Bring the remote in front of the lens.
Step 3: Press the button on the remote.

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If light blinks on the screen of the mobile – remote is OK

*Fault: Machine not working
AC has no display/display not working
• Check socket & stabilizer output.
• Check fuse.
• Check Step down transformer.
• Check wiring connection.
• If all the above are OK, then replace PCB
*Fault: No Cooling, AC not cooled properly/only hot air comes/No cooling
• Check socket, stabilizer output & usage.
• Switch ON the AC. Wait till 3 – 4 minutes & observe the compressor
working.
Observation: Compressor not working
Check supply on the outer terminal (Between Phase – Neutral)
If supply comes
• Check the Capacitor.
• Check Compressor. (If compressor is trips/hot, then wait for 2 hours for
the internal overload to connect winding again)
If no supply comes
• Check the wiring.
• Replace power PCB.
*Fault: Water Leakage, Water is leaking from indoor
• Check installation. (Indoor should not tilt)
• Check ice on the Evaporator. (Check gas & fan speed)
• Check the dust in the drain pan & drain pipe should not get pinched.
• Check drain pipe should not be dipped in water.
• Check the weather condition. (High humidity)

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3. Identify the components of split airconditioner.

4. Test the thermostat of a split airconditioner
5. Test the capacitor of a split airconditioner
6. Test the evaporator fan and motor of a split airconditioner
7. Cleaning/replacing of air filter of a split airconditioner.
8. Cleaning/servicing of evaporator coils of a split air conditioner.
9. Cleaning and servicing of condenser unit(ODU) of a split airconditioner
10. Fault finding of electrical components in split airconditioner.
11. Oil removal from the evaporator
12. U trap making in suction line.
13. Servicing of the swing motor of the split air conditioner
ASSESSMENT
Compare the split AC and Window AC fitted in your lab and find the
differences in installation, design, safety and appearance. Prepare a note.
TE Questions
1. What are the two units of split AC?
2. What are the suitable positions to fit an indoor unit?
3. What should be the maximum distance between the indoor unit and the out
door unit?
4. Write step by step procedure to install a split AC.
5. Split AC motor is dripping after few minutes working .What are the possible
reasons ?
6. Is it possible to fit an outdoor unit above the indoor unit?
7. What are the accessories required to fit split AC?
8. While working, cooling is less what are the possible reasons?
9. What will be the power consumption for 1 tonne split AC for 24 hours?
10. What are the precautions taken while installing a split AC?
11. Compare split and window AC.
12. Name the important components of split AC system.
13. What should be the size of suction and discharge pipe of window?

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UNIT 3.7
SPLIT AC (DUCT, MULTI/DUAL SPLIT)

The unit deals with ductable and multi-split airconditioners, their

construction,working and their installation details.
Learning outcome
Learn the use of multi/dual and duct type split ac
Ductable split air conditioner is designed for problem areas. This is because the
components are installed separately.The sleek indoor cooling unit is installed within
the room to be air conditioned and the condensing unit is located out side.Ideally
suited for offices,conference rooms,apartments,etc, whereever a conventional air
conditioner cannot be fitted or cool efficiently and economically.
Air conditioner maintains the humidity, temperature, pressure, sound, air velocity
and dust control. If we have to maintain more than 2-4 rooms at a time with one air
conditioner then we are using this type of air conditioner. In this system, one duct or
line has to go through all the rooms to helps flow pure & cool air to the rooms and
another duct or line has to bring all corrosive air outside the rooms and flow
outwards. Ductable airconditioners are basically the indoor units of a centralized
air-conditioning system. These are called ductable because they use ducts to connect
to an air handling unit (AHU) which is located on a mechanical room adjacent to the
office area. The refrigerant/chilled water cools and de-humidifies the air in the AHU.
The cool air is then circulated throughout the building through the ductwork.

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Packaged and Ductable Split Units are designed to be the most intelligent and
compact systems, to cater to the total cooling requirements. Ideally suited for offices,
conference rooms, apartments, hotels, restaurants, shops, basements, high security
areas, bank vaults or wherever a conventional air conditioner cannot be fitted or
cool efficiently and economically. Ductable Split System Air conditioner is designed
for problem areas. This is true because the components are installed separately. The
sleek indoor cooling unit is installed within the room to be air conditioned and the
condensing unit is located outside. The external dimensions are kept to a minimum,
enabling the transportation of the units economical, safe and simple. Flanges are
provided for easy mounting to the ceiling of a room in a horizontal position. Pre
drilled duct flanges are provided for supply air openings to minimize duct the
connection work. These units are available in both air-cooled and water-cooled
options.
Cooling Capacity Range : 1.5TRto22TR
All models are also available in R 407C Refrigerant
MERITS
• Highly efficient units
• Designed to work effectively even in ambient temperatures as high as 50°C
• Compatible with eco-friendly R410A refrigerant
• Robust and reliable
• Aesthetically superior
• Service-friendly design

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Ductwork is a branching network of round or rectangular tubes. It is generally

constructed of sheet metal, fiberglass board, or a flexible plastic and wire composite
material and is located within the walls, floors, and ceilings of the building.
Ductable airconditioners are of two types :- Air-cooled ductable airconditioners
and Floor-mounted packaged airconditioners.
1. Air-cooled ductable air conditioners are generally located above the false
ceiling of the conditioned area and are connected to the ducting. They are
available in 3, 5, 7.5 and 8.3 tonne capacities. Ideally, the indoor units are to

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be placed in the corridors or overhead lofts, where accessibility isn’t a problem

while servicing.
Advantages :-
• Distribute conditioned air over large area,
uniformly through ducts.
• Prove advantageous for highly mechanized
projects such as manufacturing plants, for example
to maintain optimum temperatures.
• Maintain high static pressure in the premises.
2. Floor-mounted packaged air-conditioners are
cupboard-shaped and are typically located
adjacent to the conditioned area as small
enclosures. Their capacity varies from 5 to 16.5 TR.
Advantages:-
• Efficiently handle large tonnages with less units of power.
• Easily serviceable due to accessibility.
• Better performance with longer ducts as powerful fans are installed.
Disadvantages:-
• Demand strong project management skills as it involves complex technology.
• Incur high installation cost, for duct work.
• Require additional equipments such as air handlers for working.
Application:-
They are commonly used in commercial complexes, showrooms, government/private
institutions and also in industrial establishments.
DUAL/ MULTI-SPLIT A C SYSTEMS
If you want to keep a large floor as well as many rooms comfortable, it is
recommended to use multi-split to build a simple system using one outdoor unit.
Choose from a large line-up the air conditioner types that match your rooms. Multi
Split Air Conditioning systems with inverter technology provide a good way to save
space, buying cost and electricity cost in smaller offices. These air conditioners have
multiple indoor units connected to a single outdoor unit as shown in the picture

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below. The temperature control is available at every indoor unit and the outdoor unit
adjusts the compressor load, based on the heat load coming from various units.

Advantages:-
• Installs a complete air conditioning system to multiple zone interior spaces with
no need for ductwork.
• Provides individual control of room temperature settings.
• Enables indoor units of different styles and capacities in one system for
customized solutions unique to each residential setting.
• Multiple indoor units can be connected to one outdoor unit.
• Easy and flexible installation is possible by means of long piping connection
and large height difference installation.
• Abundant indoor unit line-up matched to various customer needs
Compact and low noise outdoor unit design
Practical
1. Study the components of a ducted split unit.
2. Fault finding of components in the outdoor unit.
3. Fault finding of air supply unit.
4. Fault finding and replacing of Three-phase contactors.
5. Trouble shooting of Multi-split AC unit.

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Ductable Air Handling Unit

Large Air Supply Unit (Ductable)

ASSESSMENT
Prepare and submit activity log regarding ductable split airconditioner.

TE Questions
1. What are the differences between a split airconditioner and ductable split air
conditioner?
2. What are the applications of a ductable split air conditioner?
3. What are the ducting materials used for duct fabrication?

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MODULE-4
APPLICATION OF AIR CONDITIONING &
CONTROLS
This module is designed to get a clear idea about applications of airconditioning and
cooling load estimation.Cooling load estimation is important to understand the
capacity requirement of conditioning space. It gives an idea to reduce the heat load
of conditioning space. Auto mobile industry require lot of air conditioning technicians.
So much more importance given to automobile AC. .Railway air conditioning, clean
room AC, hospital AC, Theatre AC,idea of reefer AC and HVAC are
included.Various air conditioning controls,Transmission and distribution of air is
detailing in this module.Simple project work included in this module helps the learner
to go through fabrication and design aspects of Refrigeration and Air conditioning
system.

UNIT 4.1
INVERTER SPLIT AC

Power saving is an important factor in designing. Inverter air conditioners are

more powerful, offer great savings and are better at maintaining temperature.
Learning outcome
The learner :
Explain and compare the working of an inverter AC and other types of AC machines
INVERTER TECHNOLOGY
The inverter technology works like an accelerator in a car. When the compressor
needs more power, it gives more power. When it needs less power, it gives less
power. With this technology, the compressor is always on, but draws less or more
power depending on the temperature of the incoming air and the level set in the
thermostat. The speed and power of the compressor is adjusted appropriately. This
technology was developed in Japan and is being used there successfully for air
conditioners and refrigerators. This technology is currently available only in split air
conditioners.

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Air conditioner compressors are driven by motor, and the motor rotation speed
depends on power supply frequency. An inverter modulates power supply frequency
to control motor rotation speed. Inverters stabilize the temperature by adjusting
compressor operation according to the load to eliminate waste and save energy.
Even adopting an inverter to the fan motors of the indoor and outdoor units provides
more precise control and contributes to energy savings.
What is the benefit of inverter technology?
Every air conditioner is designed for a maximum peak load. So a 1.5 TR airconditioner
is designed for a certain size of room and 1 TR for a different size. But not all rooms
are of same size. A regular air conditioner of 1.5 TR capacity will always run at peak
power requirement when the compressor is running. An air conditioner with inverter
technology will run continuously but will draw only that much power that is required
to keep the temperature stable at the level desired. So it of automatically adjusts its
capacity based on the requirement of the room it is cooling, thus drawing much less
power and consuming lesser units of electricity.
Although air conditioner with inverter technology adjusts its capacity based on the
room requirement, it is very important to install a right sized air conditioner in a
room. Please make sure that you evaluate the room and air conditioner capacity
before you make a purchase. Keep watching for this space as we are in the process
of creating a comparator for electricity savings in various air conditioners.
INVERTER AC-ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
Inverter means the compressor uses DC power instead of AC power which is what
is supplied to your house. It uses an internal power converter (inverter) to do so.
This makes the equipment more complicated, and expensive. Troubleshooting can
be difficult, and parts are expensive.
Since the unit uses DC power, the compressor can be modulated to meet the cooling
demand of the room. AC powered compressors run at one speed and are either
100% on or 100% off. DC compressors can run anywhere from 30% to 100%
.Since you don’t need 100% most of the time, the compressor runs at the speed the
room needs to maintain temperature, and in turn is much more efficient.
Energy Efficiency Ratio & Star Rating
Energy efficiency ratio (EER) is the ratio between the cooling capacity and the
power input of the airconditioners. For example, if a 1 TR (3500 W) AC consumes
1000 watts, then the EER of the airconditioner is 3.5 W/W. ACs with

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high EER consume less power. The Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) of a particular
cooling device is the ratio of output cooling energy toinput electrical energy at a
given operating point. EER is generally calculated using a 95 °F outside temp and an
inside (actually return air) temp of 80 °F and 50% relative humidity. Air conditioner
EER ratings higher than 10 are considered most cost effective. The higher the ratio,
lesser the unit will cost to operate.
Air conditioners that have been tested to have Energy Efficiency Ratios are certified
by the Association of Appliance Manufacturers (AHAM). These units will generally
list their EER ratios in their product features.
1 TR = 12000BTU = 3500 W
EER = TR in Watts/ Power consumed in watts
Meaning of star rating of an Air conditioner
At the time of Initial Purchase of airconditioner, customers want to know the electrical
consumption of an airconditioner.
This star rating is provided for customer awareness
by BEE (Bureau of Energy Efficiency.)
EER stands for Energy Efficiency Ratio.
This sticker is provided by Bureau of Energy
Efficiency (BEE) Department of Energy Saving,
Govt. of India.
EER is calculated by : Cooling Capacity(Watts) /
Power Consumption (Watts)}
Example:
One 1.5 ton AC have 5275 Watts cooling capacity
and 1650Watts power consumption, so EER of unit
is 5275/1650=3.1 EER.
As per the below table, this unit is 4 star rated.

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Star Rating Band Valid from 01 Jan 2008 to 31 December 2009.

EER (W/W)
Star Rating Maximum Minimum
1 Star 2.50 2.69
2 Star 2.70 2.89
3 Star 2.90 3.09
4 Star 3.10 2.29
5 Star 3.30
Difference between Inverter Technology AC and BEE 5 star AC:
1. Inverter technology air conditioners are variable speed/ variable tonnage air
conditioners and thus operationally they are quite different from regular air
conditioners that have single speed compressors and single tonnage.
2. Inverter technology air conditioners adjust their speed/tonnage depending on
heat load of a room, whereas regular air conditioners do not.
3. Every room has a different heat load, even if they are of the same size. The heat
load depends on various factors . To give you an analogy, every human being
is different; even then the waist sizes of most trousers available in the market
are fixed (leaving the ones with elastic). Inverter Technology AC is just like a
trouser with an elastic waist that can adjust to the size. The other benefit is that
even if the waist size increases or decreases, the trouser with elastic will adjust
accordingly. Regular airconditioners are of fixed size.
4. Now as we can see that operationally inverter technology air conditioners are
quite different from regular air conditioners, comparing them on efficiency with
regular air conditioners is not easy. Thus none of the inverter technology
air conditioners have been rated by BEE star rating. Only the regular air
conditioners are rated by BEE star rating.
5. The heat load in a room does not remain constant and it varies from seasons,
based on the number of people, varies between day and night, varies based on
climate profiles of your location. To take the same analogy mentioned above,
the waist size increases or decreases with the amount of food one eats or the
amount of exercise one does. So as a trouser with elastic waist can work well,
an air conditioner with inverter tech can work well.
Special features of inverter technology compressor motor
Using the latest advancements in inverter technology, air conditioners are quieter to
run and more economical to operate than conventional AC units. Let’s learn what

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this inverter technology is all about and the operating principle of this newer air
conditioner.
An air conditioner described as using “inverter technology” or “inverter equipped”
has the ability to continuously control its thermal transfer rate by modifying the
compressor’s speed in response to the demand for cooling. So, the basic operating
principle of an inverter is pretty straight forward as it is comparable to the technology
used in cars, where you need to press the accelerator harder to go faster. The same
rule applies here, too!
What Does It Do?
The fixed speed compressor in a standard air conditioner runs at 100% capacity when
it is started, but an inverter unit starts at a low level and then progressively enhances its
capacity, depending on the requirement to heat up the room or cool it down. Fixed
speed compressors start or stop automatically in order to sustain the desired
temperature, but an inverter unit regulates the capacity of the compressor instead.
How Does It Work?
DC inverter air conditioners make use of a variable frequency drive to regulate the
motor’s speed, thereby controlling the speed of compressor too.
This variable frequency drive includes a rectifier that converts the incoming Alternating
Current (AC) to Direct Current (DC). It then utilizes Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
of the DC in the inverter to generate AC of desired frequency. The alternating current
is used to drive an induction motor or a brushless motor.
Since the frequency of the alternating current and the speed of the induction motor
are directly proportional to each other, the compressors in an inverter window air
conditioner unit operate at various speeds.
The current ambient air temperature is then sampled by using a microcontroller and
then the compressor’s speed is adjusted appropriately.
Insulation
In the modern propulsion applications of tractions drives, voltage source inverter-
fed three phase AC machines are preferred due to their flexibility and high dynamic
torque properties. However, the fast switching of the inverter (high dv/dt rates)
causes increased stress for the motor windings and leads to insulation degradation.
Thus, insulation condition monitoring is getting more and more important to ensure
reliability. The proposed online insulation monitoring method is able to detect incipient
insulation defects by evaluation of the motor current’s transient response on voltage
pulses injected by inverter switching. Experimental results are presented to prove
the method’s performance in the case of application of voltage source inverters with

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very high dv/dt rates for, e.g., inverters equipped by semi-conductors.

Practical
1. Comparison between split ac and inverter split air conditioner
Aim:-To compare non-inverter AC and Inverter AC
Item Non-Inverter Ac Inverter Ac
Time to reach pre-set Relatively long due Short because of
temperature to fixed capacity increased capacity
Fluctuations after reach-Major fluctuations due Minor fluctuations due to load
ing pre-set temperature to start/stop operations adaptable operations
Sudden current flow 5-6 times rated value 1.5 times rated value due to
when the compressor gradual increase at the start
started
Low temperature range Decrease in capacity Decrease in capacity
during heating compensated by increased
rotational speed
Defrosting time Relatively long due to Short due to maximum
capacity fixed capacity operations
Unit composition Relatively simple Extra parts required
2. Servicing of condenser unit
3. Servicing of indoor unit
4. Cleaning of air filter.
5. Testing of thermostat.
6. Servicing of electronic expansion valve of an inverter split air conditioner.
ASSESSMENT
Distribute handouts of 1.5 ton Inverter AC and Split AC with star rating.
Ask to prepare the constructional details and the comparison.
TE Questions
1. What is the working principle of an inverter air conditioner?
2. Arrange the air conditioners on the basis of power consumption (lower to
higher )
a) split air conditioner b)inverter air conditioner c)split air conditioner with 3*
rating
d) split air conditioner with 5* rating
3. Name the type of motor used in an inverter ac.

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UNIT 4.2
HEAT LOAD CALCULATION

The unit details the factors to be considered in heat load calculations and
the criteria in selecting an air-conditioning system.
Learning outcome
The learner :
Explain the importance of cooling load and the components contributing to the heating
load.
HEAT LOAD CALCULATION: Importance of cooling load calculation. Different
components contributing to the total cooling load-heat load due to structural wall,
infiltration, ventilation, occupants and power equipment of a building. Simple problems
Heat load estimation using softwares. Psychrometer and Calculation of air properties
using psychrometer and psychrometric chart
COOLING LOAD
The design cooling load (or heat gain) is the amount of heat energy to be removed
from a house by the HVAC equipment to maintain the house at indoor design
temperature when worst case outdoor design temperature is being experienced.
There are two types of cooling loads:
• sensible cooling load
• latent cooling load
The sensible cooling load refers to the dry bulb temperature of the building and the
latent cooling load refers to the wet bulb temperature of the building. In the summer,
humidity influences the selection of the HVAC equipment and the latent load as well
as the sensible load must be calculated.
Factors that influence the sensible cooling load
• Glass windows or doors
• Sunlight striking windows, skylights, or glass doors and heating of the room
• Exterior walls
• Partitions (that separate spaces of different temperatures)
• Ceilings under an attic

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• Roofs
• Floors over an open crawl space
• Air infiltration through cracks in the building, doors, and windows
• People in the building
• Equipment and appliances operated in the summer
• Lights
Factors that influence the latent cooling load
Moisture is introduced into the structure through:
• People
• Equipment and appliances
• Air infiltration through cracks in the building, doors, and windows
Other latent heat gain is taken care of by the HVAC equipment before the air reaches
the rooms (system gain).
COOLING LOAD ESTIMATION
The total heat load to be removed from the space in order to bring it at the desired
temperature by the air conditioning and refrigeration equipment is known as heat
load. The purpose of heat load estimation is to determine the size of air conditioning
and refrigeration equipment that is required to maintain inside design condition during
the periods of maximum outside temperatures. The design load is based on the
inside and outside design conditions and it is the air conditioning and refrigeration
equipment capacity that produce satisfactory inside conditions.
STEPS FOR CALCULATING COOLING LOAD
SURVEY OF BUILDING
1. DBT and WBT of outside air -
2. DBT and WBT of inside air -
3. Size of building -
4. Structure of building -
5. Number of doors , windows , and ventilators -
6. Number of persons occupying the building -

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7. Electrical appliances used in building -

8. Temperature maintained in the building -
9. Ventilation required in the building -
10. Purpose for which the building is to be used -
11. Locations where plant is to be installed -
1. HEAT LOAD THROUGH WALLS, WINDOWS, DOORS,ROOFS AND
FLOORS
Heat load = U x A x (T2 – T1)
Where U is Overall heat transfer coefficient W/m2 K
A is Area in m2
T2 is Outside temperature
T1 is Inside temperature
U Values of common materials
Materials U value in W/m2K
Brick wall 30 cm 2.52
Brick wall 20 cm 2.82
Roof 20 cm concrete 3
Roof 15 cm concrete 3.5
Windows with glass 6
Doors 1.5
Floors 2

Heat load through walls = Total area of wall x U value x ( T2 - T1)

Heat load through doors = Total area of door x U value x ( T2 - T 1)
Heat load through windows and doors = Total area x U value x ( T2 - T1 )
Heat load through roofs = Total area of wall x U value x ( T2 - T1 )
Heat load through floors = Total area of wall x U value x ( T2 - T1 )

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2. HEAT LOAD DUE TO INFILTERATION AND

VENTILATION
Heat enters by means of infiltration that is through the cracks , leakage around
windows, doors and through ventilation etc. Ventilation is a source of heat entering
in to the building.
Amount of infiltered air = v = ( L x W x H x A ) / 3600
Where L  Length in meters
W  Width in meters
H  Height in meters
A  No of air changes per hour
No of air changes value of rooms
Kind of room No of air changes per hour - A
Room with no windows or outside doors .5 to .75
Room with one wall exposed 1
Room with two wall exposed 1.5
Room with 2/3 wall exposed 2
Entrance Hall 2 to 3
Reception hall 2
Bath rooms 2
As from the psychometric chart note the following
Specific volume at point 1 = vs
Enthalpy at point 1 = H1
Enthalpy at point 2 = H2
Enthalpy at point A = HA
Specific humidity at point 1 = w1
Specific humidity at point A = wA
Mass of in filtered air = m = v / vs

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Sensible heat gain due to in filtered air = m ( HA - H2 )

Latent heat gain due to in filtered air = m ( H1 – HA )
Ventilation required per person
Application Outside air in m3/min/person
Recommended minimum
Apartment 0.6 0.45
Banking space 0.3 0.23
Hospital 0.9 0.75
Offices 0.45 0.3
Theatres 0.23 0.15
Volume of ventilation or outside air = outside air in m3 x no of persons
Mass of in filtered air (m) = v / vs
Sensible heat gain due to ventilated air = m ( HA - H2 )
Latent heat gain due to ventilated air = m ( H1 – HA )

3. HEAT LOAD DUE TO ELECTRICAL LIGHTS AND

EQUIPMENTS
Calculate the total wattage of = Total wattage / 1000
Electrical lights and equipments
4. HEAT LOAD DUE TO OCCUPANTS
The human body in a cooled space constitutes the cooling load of sensible heat and
latent heat. The heat load from occupancies is based on the average number of
people that are expected to be present in the conditioned space. The heat load
produced by each person depends upon the activity of the person
Total sensible heat gain from occupants = Sensible heat per person x no of
persons
Total latent heat gain from occupants = latent heat per person x no of persons
Total heat load = (1+2+3+4)
Capacity of air conditioning plant = ( Total heat load/ 3.5 ) TR

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Practical
1. Identify the sources of heat in a building.
2. Calculation of heat load in a given room.
COOLING LOAD ESTIMATION
AIM:- To estimate the cooling load of a given building
TOOLS, EQUIPMENTS AND MATERIALS REQUIRED: Sling psychrometer,
50 meter tape, Building plan.
The purpose of heat load estimation is to determine the size of air-conditioning and
refrigeration equipment that is required to maintain inside design condition during the
periods of maximum outside temperatures.
Steps for calculating cooling load
1. Survey of building
2. Heat load through walls, windows, doors, roofs and floors.
3. Heat load due to infiltration and ventilation.
4. Heat load due to electrical lights and equipments.
5. Heat load due to occupants.
Total heat load = Heat load through walls, windows, doors, roofs and floors + Heat
load due to infiltration and ventilation + Heat load due to electrical lights and
equipments + Heat load due to occupants.
ASSESSMENT
Enumerate the points for heat load calculation of your computer lab. Find the capacity
of AC system required for your computer lab.
TE Questions
1. Which one of the following has the lowest heat transfer capacity?
a. Brick wall 20 cm bare b. Brick wall 20 cm plaster one side.
c. Brick wall 40 cm bare d. Brick wall 40 cm plaster one side.
2. Which one of the following liberates more heat?
a) person sitting at rest b) person sitting at a matinee show
c) person at light work d) person dancing
3. What do you mean by air change?

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UNIT 4.3
SPECIAL AIR CONDITIOINING APPLICATIONS

The unit explains different areas of application of air-conditioning.

Learning outcome
The learner :
Understand various types of air conditioning applications
SPECIAL AIRCONDITIONING APPLICATIONS: Elementary ideas of
automobiles, railways, clean room, hospital and theatre air-conditioning-Elementary
idea of Reefer AC, HVAC -Trouble shooting and wiring of automobile a c systems
1. AUTOMOBILE AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

Air Conditioning and Climate Control, both provide ways of controlling the air
temperature inside your vehicle to deliver passenger and driver comfort. During the
winter months, our vehicles use the waste heat from the engine to warm up the cabin
air. However, during the summer, air conditioning is often needed to reduce the
temperature of the cabin to a comfortable level. It also helps to de-humidify and de-
mist the vehicle. Air conditioning just cools and dries the air, whereas climate control
can provide both hot and cold air, allowing you to choose a specific temperature
(usually between 15° and 26°). The use of air conditioning and climate control units
can increase your fuel consumption by as much as 20% in cars and vans. This is
because they take power from the engine and add to the weight of the vehicle.

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When air conditioning is set to ‘off’, it should use no engine power. When it is turned
on, it will use the maximum amount of fuel when set to high, and the minimum when
set to low. If you need air conditioning, set it to its ‘low’ setting as soon as you can
after starting your journey. To keep your vehicle cool, park in the shade or use
underground car parks. Hybrid vehicles (A hybrid vehicle uses two or more distinct
types of power, such as internal combustion engine+electric motor) also use their
petrol or diesel engine to heat air for passenger comfort; this means these vehicles
use significantly more fuel in cold conditions. During hot conditions, hybrid vehicles
can use less fuel (relative to normal vehicles) as the air conditioning uses electricity
from battery. Remember, air conditioning uses more fuel the cooler you wish to be.
If you have climate control, set it to 20-22° or higher to reduce the load on air
conditioning and your engine. Also – If you are driving a truck at high speeds for
long periods, using air conditioning can be more fuel-efficient than driving with the
windows open. This is because the increased drag caused by open windows uses
more fuel than the air conditioning unit on a large engine. For coaches and buses,
passenger comfort is part of the service, encourage drivers to: Use blowers only to
cool the passenger compartment. Use air conditioning for just a few minutes before
boarding. Set climate control to 20-22° and consider ‘locking off’ the setting in
coaches. All automobile a c systems are used with R – 134a ( HFC – 134a )
The main components of an automobile air conditioning system are compressor,
condenser , thermostatic expansion valve ( TEV) and evaporator.
2. RAILWAY AIR CONDITIONING

Passengers in a railway travel are adversely affected by infiltration of air unpleasantly

laden with dust due to open windows. This is more so in the case of high speed
passenger carrying trains. Secondly for a tropical country like India, the temperature
varies from 46 degree C during summer to 2 degree C during winter. Airconditioning

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of railway coaches is, therefore, necessary for the maximum comfort and well being
of passengers in railway travel. In keeping with modern trend, airconditioning of
coaches for upper class travellers and lately even for lower class travellers has been
introduced by the Indian Railways.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS FACED IN RAIL AIRCONDITIONING
As compared to the normal buildings, air conditioning of Railway coaches poses the
following additional problems:
• Requirement of very high reliability standard.
• Equipment should be light in weight.
• Equipment should take minimum space.
• Available power, generally at 110V D.C. has to be utilised. 415 V, 50 Hz, 3
Ph, industrial power is available only on a few nominated trains like Rajdhani
and Shatabdi Express. However, in such cases, the flexibility of attaching and
detaching coaches is lost.
• Due to large number of passengers in small space, the space left for air circulation
is limited.
• In the Railway coaches, where people move in and out at all hours of the day,
sudden changes in temperature, which may cause chill or heat are to be avoided.
• Rapidly changing ambient conditions as the train moves from one part of the
country to another.
• Excessive vibrations.
• Dusty atmosphere.
• Vandalism and abuse.
• Flying ballast hitting the equipment.
• Safety of passengers and trains.
• Dirty environment for the maintenance staff.
• Restricted time available for maintenance. All these problems have to be solved,
within a comparatively small outlay, so that air conditioned travel becomes
more common.

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REQUIREMENTS OF RAILWAY COACH AIRCONDITIONING

SYSTEM
• Supplying clean fresh air at a controlled uniform temperature.
• Catering, within the confines of the Railway carriages to the continuously
changing number of passengers.
• Providing heating as well as cooling for a train that travels through areas of
widely differing climate during its journey.
• Operation of the equipment from the power generated, stored and controlled
on the train.
AC EQUIPMENT IN RAILWAY COACHES
This consists of the following:
• Evaporator Unit.
• Compressor.
• Condenser Unit.
• Gauge panel.
• AC control panel.
• Air Duct.
• Refrigerant piping & joints.
Evaporator Unit
The evaporator unit consists of a thermostatic expansion valve, a heat exchanger, a
resistance heating unit and centrifugal blower driven by a motor. The thermostatic
expansion valve controls the quantity of high pressure liquid refrigerant and allows
to expand to a lower pressure corresponding to the load demand. The expanded
refrigerant passes through the distributor into the heat exchanger consisting of finned
copper tubes. The return air from the air conditioned compartment (75 %) is mixed
with fresh air (25%) and this mixture is drawn/blown through the heat exchanger,
where heat in the air is transferred to the cool refrigerant causing cooling of the air
and the evaporation of the refrigerant inside the tubes. The cooled air is led through
the ducting to the various compartments and diffused by means of air diffusers.
Filters are provided in the fresh air and return air path to eliminate dust. When the
outside ambient temperature is very low, heater is switched on according to the
settings of the thermostats.

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Compressor
The refrigerant vapour drawn from the evaporator is compressed by means of a
multi cylinder reciprocating compressor and compressed to a pressure ranging from
10 to 15 Kg/cm2 according to the load demand. The work done due to compressor
raises the temperature of the refrigerant vapour.
Condenser
The condenser serves the function of extracting the heat absorbed by the refrigerant
vapour in the evaporator and the heat absorbed during the compression process.
The condenser consists of a heat exchanger, which is forced-air-cooled by means
of two or three axial flow impeller fans. The refrigerant vapour is liquified when
ambient cool air is passed through the heat exchanger. The refrigerant liquid leaving
the condenser is led into the liquid receiver from where it proceeds to the expansion
valve on the evaporator. The liquid receiver is a cylindrical container which contains
a reserve of the refrigerant liquid. A dehydrator and filter are also provided to ensure
that the refrigerant is free from moisture and dust particles.
*Gauge panel - Gauge panel consists of pressure gauges (HP, LP, and OP) and
pressure cut-outs to protect the compressor against (i) High pressure, (ii) Low
pressure and (in) low oil pressure. 5.7.5 High pressure cut-out. It is a safety device
against build up of excessive delivery pressures and protects the compressor and
piping system from damage. It is a pressure operated switch which switches off the
compressor drive motor when the pressure exceeds a preset value ( 17.6 Kg/cm2).
The plant cannot be restarted unless the cut-out is reset manually.
*Low pressure cut-out
It is also a pressure operated switch similar to the H.P. cut-out switch, but it shuts
down the compressor if the suction pressure drops down below 0.7 Kg/cm2 . It
protects the system against unduly low evaporator temperatures and formation of
frost on the evaporator. No manual reset is provided on this and therefore the
compressor starts automatically if the suction pressure rises above the pre-set value.
Low oil pressure cut-out - It ensures adequate lubrication of compressor to avoid
piston seizure due to less lubricating oil or failure of oil pump. This cut-out is set at
2.5 Kg/cm2 . 5.7.8 AC control panel. The control of the air-conditioning system is
achieved by means of air conditioning control panel. The design of the various elements
in the control panel takes into account the system safety requirements.

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*The safety requirements for the operation of the AC system are listed as under:
a. The working of blower fan of the evaporator and the blower fan of the condenser
have to be ensured before the compressor starts functioning.
b. Suitable protection to ensure adequate lubrication of compressor to avoid piston
seizure.
c. The excessive pressure on the discharge side of the compressor (High Head
Pressure) should be avoided.
d. The suction pressure should not be lower than 0.7 Kg/cm2 to prevent frosting
of the evaporator. ie. The compressor motor has to be soft started to limit the
sudden in rush of starting current.
f. A suitable interlock has to be provided to ensure that heater is not on, when the
compressor is working.
g. A low voltage protection for compressor motor to ensure that voltage does not
go below 100 volts in order to avoid undue drain on battery.
h. The blower fan has to come ‘ON’ before the heater comes ‘ON’. Over load
protection and short circuit protection for all electrical circuits. The AC control
panel incorporates all the above safety requirements.
*CLEAN ROOM
A cleanroom is a controlled environment where products are manufactured. It is a
room in which the concentration of airborne particles is controlled to specified limits.
Eliminating sub-micron airborne contamination is really a process of control. These
contaminants are generated by people, process, facilities and equipment. They must
be continually removed from the air. The level to which these particles need to be
removed depends upon the standards required. A cleanroom is an environment,
typically used in manufacturing, including pharmaceutical products or scientific
research, with a low level of environmental pollutants such as dust, airborne microbes,
aerosol particles, and chemical vapours.
CLEAN ROOM APPLICATION AREAS
• Critical areas like operation theatres, post operative rooms ICU’ s etc, in
hospitals
• Certain pharmaceutical processes like manufacture of antibiotics, injectibles
etc
• Fabrication of microscopically small sub assemblies

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• Electronic industry – manufacture of integrated circuits, electronic devices,

instruments
• Space research, defence labs, scientific research are typical examples
CLEAN ROOM CLASSIFICATIONS
Clean rooms are not dust/ particle free, and so are classified according to the
numerical count of particles of specified dimensions in the unit volume of air. More
accurately, a cleanroom has a controlled level of contamination that is specified by
the number of particles per cubic meter at a specified particle size. To give perspective,
the ambient air outside in a typical urban environment contains 35,000,000 particles
per cubic meter in the size range 0.5 ìm and larger in diameter, corresponding to an
ISO 9 cleanroom, while an ISO 1 cleanroom allows no particles in that size range
and only 12 particles per cubic meter of 0.3 ìm and smaller.

AIR FLOW PATTERN IN A CLEAN ROOM

Laminar air flow refers to the air that flows in a straight, unimpeded path. Unidirectional
flow is maintained in clean rooms through the use of laminar air flow hoods that
direct air jets downward in a straight path, as well as clean room architecture, that
ensures lessened turbulence. Laminar air flow utilizes HEPA filters to filter and clean
all air entering the environment. Laminar filters are often composed of stainless steel
or other non-shed materials to ensure that the amount of particles entering the facility

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remains low. These filters usually compose roughly 80 percent of the ceiling space.
Clean rooms employing laminar air flow are typically referred to as Unidirectional
Airflow Clean rooms.

AIR FILTERATION METHODS

Pre-filters, fine filters and HEPA filters are used for filtering the supply air to the
clean rooms.The pre-filters remove big particles and fabrics down to the size of 10
to 20 microns. The second stage of filteration is by fine filters ( Electric filters ) which
arrest particulates up to three to five micron size. The fine filters are used to prolong
the life of HEPA filters which do the final filtering to about 0.3 micron size. Clean
rooms employ air filtration to limit the particles in the environment air. Typically, this
is through the use of either a highly efficient particulate air (HEPA) or ultra low
particulate air (ULPA) filter. These filters can remove roughly 99.9 percent of all
micro-particles in room air by applying either laminar air flow or turbulent air flow
techniques to the environment air.
Air conditioning requirements in hospitals
Proper air conditioning is helpful in the prevention and treatment of diseases. The
factors determining the need for air conditioning in hospital facilities are:
(a) The need to restrict air movement within and between various departments.
(b) The specific requirements for ventilation and filtration to dilute and remove
contaminants in the form of airborne microorganisms, viruses, odour, hazardous
chemicals and radioactive substances.
(c) Different types of temperature and humidity requirements for various areas.
(d) Permit accurate control of environmental conditions.
(e) Control of air quality and air movement.

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Indoor Air Quality in Hospitals

Indoor air quality in hospitals is a complex multi-faceted issue. Contaminants come
with dust, air and visitors as well as originate inside the hospital complex and threaten
the quality of environment. Most common contaminants are microbes and organic
compounds. Ventilation and filtration provides means of combating contaminants by
diluting their concentration.
Acceptable indoor air quality can be achieved by following the fundamental principles:
(a) Contaminant source control.
(b) Proper ventilation.
(c) Humidity management.
(d) Adequate filtration
The temperature and humidity conditions in a hospital environment can inhibit or
promote the growth of bacteria and activate or deactivate viruses. Ventilation systems
are used to provide air virtually free of dust, dirt, odour, chemicals and radioactive
pollutants.
Contamination can be dispersed into the air of the hospital environment by one of
the many routine activities of normal patient care. Because of the dispersal of bacteria
resulting from such necessary activities, air-handling system should provide air
movement patterns to minimise the spread of contamination.
The sense of thermal comfort results from an interaction between temperature, relative
humidity, air movement, clothing, activity levels and individual physiology. The
temperature and relative humidity measurements are indicators of thermal comfort.
The medical need cares of patients require thermal comfort provided by air
conditioning system.
Operating Room Air Conditioning Requirements
The primary task of the ventilation system in an operating room is to provide an
acceptable indoor climate for personnel and patients, to remove odour, released
anaesthetic gases and to reduce the risk of infection in the operating area. The greatest
amount of bacteria found in operating rooms comes from the surgical team and is a
result of their activity during surgery.
During an operation, most members of the surgical team are in the vicinity of the
operating table, creating the undesirable situation of concentrating contaminants in
this highly sensitive area. Studies of operating room air distribution systems and

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various air delivery systems indicate that these are the most effective methods for air
movement pattern in operation theatres for limiting the concentration of contaminants
to an acceptable level.
Theatre air conditioning
Same as that of DX system explained in Module 3
REEFER REFRIGERATED CONTAINERS

Refrigerated and insulated containers are mainly available as 20' and 40' containers.

1. Integral Unit (Integral Reefer Container,Integrated Unit)

This type of refrigerated container has an integral refrigeration unit for controlling the
temperature inside the container. The refrigeration unit is arranged in such a way that
the external dimensions of the container meet ISO standards and thus fit into the
container ship cell guides. The presence of an integral refrigeration unit entails a loss
of internal volume and payload.When being transported by ship, integral units have
to be connected to the on-board power supply system. The number of refrigerated
containers which may be connected depends on the capacity of the ship’s power
supply system. If the aforesaid capacity is too low for the refrigerated containers to
be transported, “power packs” may be used, which are equipped with relatively
large diesel generators and satisfy ISO requirements with regard to the dimensions
of a 20' container. When at the terminal, the containers are connected to the terminal’s
power supply system. For transport by road and rail, most integral unit refrigeration
units are operated by a generator set (genset). This may either be a component of
the refrigeration unit or connected to the refrigeration unit.Air flows through the
container from bottom to top. In general, the “warm” air is drawn off from the inside
of the container, cooled in the refrigeration unit and then blown back in to the container

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as cold air.To ensure adequate circulation of the cold air, the floor is provided with
gratings. Pallets form an additional space between the container floor and the cargo,
thus forming a satisfactory air flow channel. In addition, the side walls of the container
are “corrugated”, which ensure satisfactory air flow there too. In the upper area of
the container, adequate space (at least 12 cm) must likewise be provided for air
flow. For this purpose, during the packing of the container adequate free space must
be left above the cargo. The maximum load height is marked on the side walls.To
ensure vertical air flow from bottom to top, packaging must also be appropriately
designed and the cargo must be sensibly stowed. In addition to temperature
regulation, integral units also allow controlled fresh air exchange, for example, for
the removal of metabolic products such as CO2 and ethylene in the case of the
transport of fruits.In the refrigeration units, both the supply and return air temperatures
are measured and, depending on the operating mode, one of these values is used to
control the cold air. Temperature measurement may be performed in various ways.
The Partlow recorder generally records return air temperature, since this provides
an indication of the state or temperature of the cargo. Data loggers are increasingly
used, which detect temperature digitally and indicate it on a display. Once transferred
to a PC, the data may then be evaluated. The temperature display is attached to the
outside of the refrigeration unit, so that operation of the unit may be checked at any
time.Digital or analog recorders may also be positioned directly in the cargo, so as
to measure temperatures inside the container. The recorder should be accommodated
in such a way that it records the temperatures at risk points in the container (inside
the packaging, top layer at door end).Integral units may be stowed both above and
below deck on a ship. Above deck stowage has the advantage that the heat from
return air may be more readily dissipated. However, the containers are often exposed
to strong solar radiation,leading to increased refrigeration capacity requirements.

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HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air conditioning; also heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning) is the technology of indoor and vehicular environmental comfort. Its
goal is to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality. HVAC system
design is a sub discipline of mechanical engineering, based on the principles of
thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer. Refrigeration is sometimes added
to the field’s abbreviation as HVAC&R or HVACR, (heating, ventilating and air-
conditioning & Refrigeration) or ventilating is dropped as in HACR (such as the
designation of HACR-rated circuit breakers).
HVAC is important in the design of medium to large industrial and office buildings
such as skyscrapers, onboard vessels, and in marine environments such as aquariums,
where safe and healthy building conditions are regulated with respect to temperature
and humidity, using fresh air from outdoors. Ventilating or ventilation (the V in HVAC)
is the process of “exchanging” or replacing air in any space to provide high indoor
air quality which involves temperature control, oxygen replenishment, and removal
of moisture, odours, smoke, heat, dust, airborne bacteria, and carbon dioxide.
Ventilation removes unpleasant smells and excessive moisture, introduces outside
air, keeps interior building air circulating, and prevents stagnation of the interior air.
Ventilation includes both the exchange of air to the outside as well as circulation of
air within the building. It is one of the most important factors for maintaining acceptable
indoor air quality in buildings.
Practical
1. Identifying the components of an automobile airconditioner
2. Study of Railway air conditioning.(Field visit)
SERVICING OF AUTOMOBILE AIR CONDITIONER
AIM:- To study and service the components of an automobile air conditioner.
Tool, materials and equipments required
Screw driver, combination plier, spannerset, multimeter, clamp meter, cotton
waste…etc…
Procedure
1. Take the Automobile AC system to a safe and convenient place.
2. Clean the outer surface of Auto AC system by a clean cloth.
3. Open the front cover carefully.

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4. Observe the components thoroughly.

5. Identify the components and controls and record their names with the locations,
functions and specifications.
6. Observe the details of all components.
7. Find out the faults of components, if any.
8. Service the faulty components or replace them.
9. Clean all the components.
10. Close the front cover with care.
ASSESSMENT
In a car AC, the compressor and evaporator blower are working, but do not
get sufficient cooling. Find the trouble.

TE QUESTIONS
1. The expansion device used in an Automobile AC is :
(a) Automatic expansion value (b) Thermostatic expansion
(c) Capillary tube. (d) Low side float value.
2. In an automobile, to connect and disconnect the drive to the compressor
__________ is used.
3. The refrigerant used in an Automobile AC is:
a) R-134a b) R-22 c) R-500 d) Ammonia
4. What are the possible reasons for refrigerant leakage in a car AC?
5. What are the reasons for poor cooling in a vehicle ?
6. The filters used in a clean room AC are called _________ .
7. In a railway air conditioning system, power is generated from _________ .

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UNIT 4.4
REFRIGERATION AND
AIR CONDITIONING CONTROLS

The unit details about different controls used in refrigeration and air-
conditioning like pressure controls and oil pressure failure controls, solenoid
valves, Variable speed drives, Humidity controls, humidistat, and humidity
sensors.
Learning outcome
The learner :
Study different types of relays, control components and variable speed drives
PRESSURE CONTROLS
Pressure controls can also be used as protective devices. Low-pressure controls
can protect compressors from excessive low pressure situations as the case of a coil
freeze-up or lost refrigerant charge. Low-pressure controls can also protect water
chillers from freeze-ups. High-pressure controls can protect compressors and system
components from dangerously high-pressure situations by shutting the compressor
off at certain elevated pressures.
High Pressure Cut-Out
High pressure can be caused in a refrigeration plant due to various reasons like over
charge, loss of cooling water, high ambient temperature, air, or other incompressible
gases in the system, and obstruction in the discharge line of the compressor. For
protecting the compressor from high pressure and subsequent failure, a high pressure
cut out is provided that take a pressure tapping from the discharge line and when it
detects an over pressure, it stops
the compressor. The HP cut-out is
not resettable automatically but has
to be reset manually by the
operator. This is because the high
pressure is a serious fault and the
cause must be investigated and
corrected before the plant gets
started again.

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Low Pressure Cut-Out

To protect the compressor against low pressure
in the system and to avoid the ingress of air into
the system if a vacuum is generated in the lines,
a low pressure cut-out is provided. Also when
the refrigerated compartments are cut off by
the solenoids and there is no return gas, the
low pressure cut-out is activated. When the
solenoid of the refrigerated compartments open,
the return gas comes in through the inlet of the
compressor and the suction pressure rises, and
then the low pressure switch cuts off the compressor. Unlike the high pressure cut
out, the low pressure cut out is self-resettable and does not need to be reset manually.
OIL PRESSURE FAILURE CONTROL VALVES
The oil pressure safety control is a switch which disconnects the compressor motor
if there is pressure difference between the two opposite bellows, one is connected
to the low pressure side and the other connected to where the oil pressure build
goes below the required oil pressure. There are several types of oil safety control
devices the market today. The two basic controls most familiar with are the mechanical
differential control and the pressure-sensing electronic control. The mechanical control
uses tubing that senses the suction pressure of the compressor and the outlet oil
pressure of the pump. The electronic control has a special pressure sensor that
mounts the outlet of the pump and connects only with an electric cable. In the
mechanical control, the total pressure from the pump (less the suction pressure) is
the actual net oil pressure. The control requires a manual reset, once it is tripped. In
the electronic control, the pressure sensor
sends a signal to the control module whenever
the pressure sensed falls below 7 from 9 psig.
This signal causes the control module to open
the safety contact points after a time delay.
This control also requires manual reset, once
it is tripped. In both controls, the opening of
the safety contacts breaks the electric current
in the system control circuit.

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SOLENOID VALVES
A solenoid valve is an electromechanically
operated valve. The valve is controlled by
an electric current through a solenoid: in the
case of a two-port valve the flow is switched
on or off; in the case of a three-port valve,
the outflow is switched between the two
outlet ports. Solenoid valves are the most
frequently used control elements in fluidics.
Their tasks are to shut off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids. They are found in
many application areas. Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high reliability, long
service life, good medium compatibility of the materials used, low control power
and compact design. Besides the plunger-type actuator which is used most frequently,
pivoted-armature actuators and rocker actuators are also used.
VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES
The speed of standard induction motors can be controlled by variation of the
frequency of the voltage applied to the motor. Avariable-frequency drive (VFD)
(also termed adjustable-frequency drive, variable-speed drive, AC drive, micro drive
or inverter drive) is a type of adjustable-speed drive used in electro-mechanical
drive systems to control AC motorspeed and torque by varying motor input frequency
and voltage.
Variable speed drives can have an integrated motor in a packaged configuration.
The “packaged” drive consists of the adjustable speed section and an electric motor.
The unit may also include a geared reducer. Choices for motor input include 115/
120V 60Hz, 208-230 / 240V 60 Hz,460 / 480 V 60Hz, 575/600 V 60Hz, 50 Hz/
International Power, DC motor, and hydraulic motor. The phase for variable speed
drives can be single or
three phase. Special or
extreme environments
that variable speed drives
can be configured for
include clean room,
cryogenic, explosion-
proof, radiation hardened,
vacuum use, and wash
down duty.

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HUMIDITY CONTROLS
Humidity control systems add or remove water vapour from the indoor air to stay
within proper humidity ranges.
Humidity control is important for three reasons:
1. It is a large factor in people’s thermal comfort.
2. Excess moisture in a building can lead to mould and mildew, causing problems
indoor air quality.
3. It is a large energy user. De-humidification alone can be a quarter to a third of
cooling energy in humid climates or seasons.
To keep humidity within comfort range, the building’s thermostats should have
humidity sensors in them. If they do not, you can specify separate hygrometer systems
that can control humidifiers and de-humidifiers separately from the rest of the HVAC
system.
The air inside a building can be very different from the air outside it. The enclosed
nature of a building can cause pollution and allergens to build up inside a home. In
addition, the use of air conditioning, heaters, stoves, baths, and similar items can
dramatically change the humidity of the air. In order to keep the air inside buildings
more comfortable, different methods of humidity control were developed. Some of
these methods include humidifiers, de-humidifiers, vaporizers, and exhaust fans.
There can be physical consequences of having too little humidity inside a house.
Like many natural processes, humidity travels from high concentration to low
concentration. Thus, the lack of humidity in the air can result in the air stealing moisture
from you, leading to chapped lips and dry noses. To counteract this, different humidity
control methods are available to add humidity into the air. Some of these humidity
control devices are humidifiers and vaporizers.
There are several types of humidifiers in the market. Some of them are evaporative,
ultrasonic, impeller, and steam humidifiers. In some cases, such as impeller humidifiers,
you may see the moisture rising from the product in the form of fog. Steam humidifiers
are also known as vaporizers and add moisture to the air by boiling water. Medicine
and herbs can also be added to a vaporizer, which can be of immense help it there
is a sick person in the building.
HUMIDSTAT
A machine or device which automatically regulates the humidity of the air in a room
or building.

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An electronic device analogous to a thermostat but responds to relative humidity,

and not temperature. Humidistats are used in a number of devices including de-
humidifiers, humidifiers, and microwave ovens. In humidifiers and de-humidifiers the
humidistat is used, where constant relative humidity conditions need to be maintained
such as in a refrigerator, greenhouse, or climate controlled warehouse. When adjusting
the controls in these applications the humidistat would be with what is being set. In
microwaves they are used in conjunction with “smart cooking” 1-button features
such as those for microwave popcorn. Humidistats employ hygrometers, but are
not the same as hygrometers. A humidistat has the functionality of a switch and is not
just a measuring instrument like a hygrometer.
For Heating Ventilating and Air Conditioning (HVAC) of buildings, humidistats or
humidity sensors are used to sense the air related humidity in the controlled space
and thereby turn on and off the HVAC equipment. In fact, the work principal of a
humidistat is very simple. If there are any variations in the relative moisture, an electrical
resistance will be caused between the conductor sets that are mounted on the sensing
element. The quantity of the electrical resistance can be precisely predicted by the
alternate metal conductors according to the relative humidity. And the relay amplifier
will measure the resistance, so that it can turn the humidifier on if the electrical resistance
shows the humidity below the optimal level, or turn off the humidifier if the ideal level
is achieved.
HUMIDITY SENSORS
Humidity is the presence of water in air. The
amount of water vapour in air can affect human
comfort as well as many manufacturing
processes in industries. The presence of water
vapour also influences various physical,
chemical, and biological processes. Humidity
measurement in industries is critical because it
may affect the business cost of the product and
the health and safety of the personnel. Hence,
humidity sensing is very important, especially
in the control systems for industrial processes and human comfort.

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HUMIDITY SENSING – CLASSIFICATION &

PRINCIPLES
According to the measurement units, humidity sensors are of two types: Relative
humidity(RH)sensors and absolute humidity(moisture) sensors. Most humidity sensors
are relative humidity sensors and use different sensing principles.
Sensing Principle
Humidity measurement can be done using dry and wet bulb hygrometers, dew point
hygrometers, and electronic hygrometers. There has been a surge in the demand of
electronic hygrometers, often called humidity sensors.
Electronic type hygrometers or humidity sensors can be broadly divided into two
categories: one employs capacitive sensing principle, while the other uses resistive
effects.

Sensors based on capacitive effect:

Humidity sensors relying on this principle consists of a hygroscopic dielectric material
sandwiched between a pair of electrodes forming a small capacitor. Most capacitive
sensors use a plastic or polymer as the dielectric material, with a typical dielectric
constant ranging from 2 to 15. In the absence of moisture, the dielectric constant of
hygroscopic dielectric material and the sensor geometry determines the value of
capacitance.
At normal room temperature, the dielectric constant of water vapour has a value of
about 80, a value much larger than the constant of the sensor dielectric material.
Therefore, absorption of water vapour by the sensor results in an increase in sensor
capacitance.
At equilibrium conditions, the amount of moisture present in a hygroscopic material
depends on both the ambient temperature and the ambient water vapour pressure.

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This is true also of the hygroscopic dielectric material used on the sensor.
By definition, relative humidity is a function of both the ambient temperature and
water vapour pressure. Therefore, there is a relationship between relative humidity,
the amount of moisture present in the sensor, and sensor capacitance. This relationship
governs the operation of a capacitive humidity instrument.
The basic structure of a capacitive type humidity sensor is shown below:

On an alumina substrate, lower electrode is formed using gold, platinum or other

material. A polymer layer such as PVA is deposited on the electrode. This layer
senses the humidity. On the top of this polymer film, a gold layer gets deposited
which acts as a top electrode. The top electrode also allows water vapour to pass
through it, into the sensing layer. The vapours enter or leave the hygroscopic sensing
layer until the vapour content is in equilibrium with the ambient air or gas.Thus
capacitive type sensor is basically a capacitor with humidity sensitive polymer film
as the dielectric.
Sensors based on Resistive effect:
Resistive type humidity sensors pick up changes in the resistance value of the sensor
element in response to the changes in the humidity. The basic structure of a resistive
type humidity sensor from TDK is shown below :

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A thick film conductor of precious metals like gold, ruthenium oxide is printed and
calcinated in the shape of the comb to form an electrode. Then a polymeric film is
applied on the electrode; the film acts as a humidity sensing film due to the existence
of movable ions. A change in impedance occurs due to the change in the number of
movable ions.
Practical
1. Study of thermostatic expansion valve
Aim:- To study the components of a TEV, and its common faults, causes and remedies.
Tools, Materials required:-
A thermostatic expansion valve.
A TEV keeps the evaporator supplied with enough refrigerant to satisfy all load
conditions.
It is not a temperature control or suction pressure control, but a control to vary the
compressors running time, or humidity control. Checking the superheat is the first
step in a simple and systematic analysis of TEV performance.
The following are the typical valve complaints, causes and remedies.
1. Valve does not feed enough refrigerant.
2. Valve feeds too much refrigerant.
3. Valve feeds too much refrigerant at start up only.
4. Valve does not feed properly.
5. System hunts or cycles.

Fig: Element positioning of

TEV

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2. TESTING AND ADJUSTING OF TEV

AIM:- To study the testing and adjusting of thermostatic expansion valve.
Tools, materials and equipments required.
High pressure gauge, Compound gauge, Shutoff valve, Adjustable wrench, Pressure
regulator, Service cylinder, Flare nuts, Tee, Cracked ice, Copper tubes, Orifice,
Thermostatic expansion valve.
Procedure:-
1. Connect the inlet of the TEV to the refrigerant cylinder with a hand shutoff
valve and high pressure gauge.
2. Connect the outlet of the TEV to a pressure regulator to reduce pressure
fluctuations.
3. Insert the feeler bulb in to the crushed ice.
4. Open the refrigerant cylinder valve and hand shutoff valve and build up a pressure
of 70 Ps on the high pressure gauge.
5. Adjust the TEV.The Pressure at the outlet should be equal to the pressure of
the refrigerant to be charged in the system at a temperature of 32 degree super
heat temperature.
Testing of TEV
• Close the orifice and stop the leakage.
• If the pressure at the outlet increases a few pounds, and then either stops
or build up slowly, the valve is not leaking.
• Take the thermal bulb from the ice and warm it by hand. If the pressure is
increasing rapidly, power element is functioning properly.
3. Testing of a box type relay/ combination relay.
4. Testing of LMS relay.
5. Testing of PTC Relay.
6. Testing of a Voltage relay
7. Testing of Over load protector
8. Testing of a thermostat.

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ASSESSMENT
Give ice, test lamp, and thermostat to students and ask to demonstrate the
cut-out and cut-in temperature.

TE QUESTIONS
1. The temperature of a refrigerated space is controlled by ____________.
2. In a CSR motor, __________ relay is used.
3. State whether the statement is TRUE OR FALSE.
a. The capacity of a starting capacitor is higher than a running capacitor.
b. A selector switch is the ON-OFF control of an AC system.
c. A relay coil is connected parallel to the motor running winding.
d. In a window AC the refrigerant control is the capillary tube.
e. In a window AC separate motors are used for condenser and evaporator.
4. A high pressure cut out is fitted in ___________ pressure side of the refrigeration
system.

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UNIT 4.5
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF AIR

The unit explains different types of ducting systems used in air-conditioning.

Learning outcome
The learner :
Compare and explain various ducts, duct outlets and different duct arrangements.

In air conditioning systems the ‘duct’ is considered a static component of the

installation through which air flows within the building, connecting all parts of the
system and via used or exhaust air is discharged.
The a dvantages of Air Duct System
• Centralized filtration
• Humidity control
• Quiet operation – air handling equipment is centrally located allowing much
simpler acoustic design
• Return air passing through the central treatment unit, is re-filtered and humidified,
increasing air quality
• Fresh air replenishment from a external intake point, located to minimize the influence
of windturbulence and avoid contamination with discharging exhaust air
• Centralized maintenance and easy installation – filters, humidity systems, mobile
heat exchangers and equipment all located in the same area
• Multi-area control options

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Classification of ducts
Ducts are classified based on the load on duct due to air pressure and turbulence.
The classification varies from application to application, such as for residences,
commercial systems, industrial systems and so on. For example, one such classification
is given below:
Low pressure systems: Velocity d” 10 m/s, static pressure d” 5 cm H2O
Medium pressure systems: Velocity d” 10 m/s, static pressure d” 15 cm H2O
High pressure systems: Velocity > 10 m/s, static pressure 15 < p < 25 cm H2o
High velocities in the ducts result in:
1. Smaller ducts and hence, less initial cost and less space requirement
2. Higher pressure drop and hence larger fan power consumption
3. Increased noise and hence need for noise attenuation. Recommended air
velocities depend mainly on the application and the noise criteria.
Typical recommended velocities are:
Residences : 3 m/s to 5 m/s
Theatres : 4 to 6.5 m/s
Restaurants : 7.5 m/s to 10 m/s
If nothing is specified, then a velocity of 5 to 8 m/s is used for main ducts and a
velocity of 4 to 6 m/s is used for the branches. The allowable air velocities can be as
high as 30 m/s in ships and aircrafts to reduce the space requirement.
DUCT MATERIALS
Ducting may be categorized according to the materials of construction and are either
metallic or non-metallic. The majority of ducts are constructed of metal and installed
by tradesmen called sheet metal workers. In fact, sheet metal use in HVAC is greater
than all the other materials combined together. The steel and aluminum used for
ductwork is a “high achiever” in the 21st-century move toward sustainable buildings
because of the high recycling rates and cleanliness.
Metallic Ducts
1. Galvanized Steel
2. Carbon Steel (Black Iron)
3. Aluminium

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4. Stainless Steel
5. Copper
Non metallic ducts
1. Fibreglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP)
2. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
3. Polyvinyl Steel (PVS)
4. Flexible Nonmetallic Duct
5. Concrete
6. Rigid Fibrous Glass
SUPPLY AIR DUCTS

SUPPLY DUCT CONFIGURATIONS The configuration of a duct system is

often like a tree with branches connected to the terminal units and a fan located at
the root. In reality, the ductwork forms a double tree because the fan is in the middle
of the supply and return/outside air parts of the system. The two most common
supply duct systems are the ‘extended plenum’ system and the ‘radial’ system
because of their versatility, performance, and economy.
SUPPLY DUCT ARRANGEMENT SYSTEM
The duct systems carry the conditioned air from the air handling equipment to the air
supply openings in the room . The different duct arrangement systems of the supply
air duct system are given below
LOOP PERIMETER / RADIAL PERIMETER SYSTEM
The perimeter system may be of loop type or radial type as shown in the figure. The

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conditioner is usually placed in the basement and is located near the geometric centre
of all outlets. The supply outlets are placed close to the ceiling level. The ducts run
through the basement, building, foundation lab, floor and connect with the air
conditioner for supplying to the outlet grills.
EXTENDED PLENUM SYSTEM
The arrangement of this duct system is shown in the figure. The advantage of this
system is that grills can be located at any point as per structural demands. The air
conditioner unit may be located in the attic , in the basement or any other convenient
place . This system can be used either for residential or commercial purposes.

RETURN AIR DUCTS

Return ducts are an integral part of nearly all heating, ventilating and air conditioning
(HVAC) systems. Generally, HVAC systems use a forced air process that blows
heat or air through ductwork. Return ducts are usually located either in a hallway or
ceiling, and their purpose is to extract air from the room and recycle it through the
system where it is further conditioned, either by heating or cooling. The main thing
the duct does is to pull the air out of a room. In summer it will pull out air that is cold,
whereas in winter it will pull out air that is hot and humid. In most cases, different
ducts will re-circulate warm or cool air to bring the building to the optimum
temperature.

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FRESH AIR DUCTS

Adding fresh air to a heating or cooling system accomplishes two primary indoor air
quality goals: It pressurizes a building, and increases indoor air quality by diluting
polluted or stale indoor air. Adding a fresh air inlet to most systems is typically a
simple and relatively inexpensive proposition. Fresh air ducts are used for carrying
fresh air to mix with the re-circulated air.
PRESSURE LOSSES IN DUCTS
The schematic diagram of an air conditioning system is shown in the figure. The flow
of air within the duct system is produced due to the pressure differences in different
locations. The greater the pressure difference, the faster will be the air flow. The
following are the three kinds of pressure evolved in a duct system.

1. Static pressure - The static pressure always exist in a duct system. Since it is
not dependent upon the air movement, it is called static (stationary) pressure.
This type of pressure pushes against the walls of the duct. It tends to burst a
duct when it is greater than the atmospheric pressure and tends to collapse the
confining envelope when its force is less than that of the atmosphere. The static
pressure overcomes the friction and shock losses, when the air flows from the
delivery of the fan to the outlet of the duct.
2. Dynamic or Velocity Pressure - The dynamic or velocity pressure is equal to
the drop in the static pressure needed to produce a given velocity of flow.
Conversely, it is equal to the possible increase in static pressure, when the
velocity is reduced to zero.

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3. Total Pressure - The total pressure is the algebraic sum of the static pressure
and dynamic or velocity pressure.
Mathematically total pressure of air PT = P S + PV
P S = Static pressure of air
PV = Dynamic pressure or velocity pressure
Pressure is lost due to friction between the moving particles of the fluid and the
interior surface of a duct. When the pressure loss occurs in a straight duct , it is
usually termed as friction loss. The pressure is also lost dynamically at the changes
of direction such as in bends, elbows etc and at the changes of cross section of the
duct. This type of pressure loss is usually termed as dynamic loss.
DUCT DESIGN METHODS
The main goal of designing HVAC duct system is to use the lowest cost (read smallest)
duct sizes without violating certain sizing constraints. First hand operating cost
considerations dictate that duct systems should be designed to operate at the lowest
possible static pressure. The most widely used method to size duct is equal friction
loss method. The other methods are velocity reduction method and static regain
method.
Equal friction Loss Method
A proper speed is selected in the main duct close to the fan. The pressure loss in the
main duct is then used as a template for the rest of the system. The pressure (or
friction) loss is kept at a constant level and automatic velocity reduction is maintained
throughout the system. More duct cross-sectional changes can be added and the
number of components increased in this system compared to other methods.
The equal friction method for sizing air ducts is often preferred to because it is quite
easy to use. The method can be summarized as :
1. Compute the necessary air volume flow (m3/h, cfm) in every room and branches
of the system.
2. Use to compute the total air volume (m3/h, cfm) in the main system.
3. Determine the maximum acceptable airflow velocity in the main duct.
4. Determine the major pressure drop in the main duct.
5. Use major pressure drop for the main duct as a constant to determine the duct
sizes throughout the distribution system.

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6. Determine the total resistance of the duct system by multiplying the static
resistance with the equivalent length of the longest run.
7. Compute balancing dampers.
Advantages
1. If the duct layout is symmetrical giving the same length in each run , then no
dampers are required to balance the system as this method gives equal pressure
loss in various branches.
Disadvantages
1. If the runs are of different length , then the shortest run will have the minimum
drop and air will come out with higher pressure compared the long run ducts
2. It makes it necessary to reduce the high pressure of the air coming out with the
help of dampers or high velocity can be reduced in the shorter run but may
create an objectionable noise, therefore noise absorbing outlets must be
provided.
3. This method doesnot balance pressures at the outlets if the length of the runs
are different, so that dampers are required for balancing the pressure drops in
various runs.
VELOCITY REDUCTION METHOD
The various steps involved in this method are:
1. Select suitable velocities in the main and branch ducts.
2. Find the diameters of main and branch ducts from airflow rates and velocities
for circular ducts. For rectangular ducts, find the cross-sectional area from
flow rate and velocity, and then by fixing the aspect ratio, find the two sides of
the rectangular duct.
3. From the velocities and duct dimensions obtained in the previous step, find the
frictional pressure drop for main and branch ducts using friction chart or equation.
4. From the duct layout, dimensions and airflow rates, find the dynamic pressure
losses for all the bends and fittings.
5. Select a fan that can provide sufficient FTP for the index run.
6. Balancing dampers have to be installed in each run. The damper in the index
run is left completely open, while the other dampers are throttled to reduce the
flow rate to the required design values.

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The velocity method is one of the simplest ways of designing the duct system for
both supply and return air. However, the application of this method requires selection
of suitable velocities in different duct runs, which requires experience. Wrong selection
of velocities can lead to very large ducts, which, occupy large building space and
increases the cost, or very small ducts which lead to large pressure drop and hence
necessitates the selection of a large fan leading to higher fan cost and running cost. In
addition, the method is not very efficient as it requires partial closing of all the dampers
except the one in the index run, so that the total pressure drop in each run will be
same.
Advantages
1. This method is easiest among all methods in sizing the duct diameters.
2. The velocities can be adjusted to avoid noise.
3. This is adopted only for simple systems.
Dis advantages
1. The application of this method requires selection of suitable velocities in different
duct runs, which requires experience for optimum economy and power.
STATIC REGAIN METHOD
The Static Regain method of duct sizing is based on Bernoulli’s equation, which
states that when reduction of velocities takes place, a conversion of dynamic pressure
into static pressure occurs. This is used as the major principle for sizing the ducts, so
that the increase in static pressure at each branch offsets the friction loss in the
succeeding section of the duct. The static pressure should then be the same before
each terminal and at each branch. This method provides a convenient means of
designing a long duct run with several take offs, so that the same static pressure
exists at the entrance to each branch, outlet, or terminal take off.
This method is commonly used for high velocity systems with long duct runs, especially
in large systems. In this method the static pressure is maintained at each terminal or
branch. The procedure followed is given below:
i. Velocity in the main duct leaving the fan is selected first.
ii. Velocities in each successive runs are reduced such that the gain in static pressure
due to reduction in velocity pressure equals the frictional pressure drop in the
next duct section.

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Advantages
1. It is possible to design long runs as well as short runs for complete regain.
2. It is sufficient to design the main duct for complete regain and use of the same
pressure at the outlets of branches.
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Important air conditioning system components are:-
1. AHU
2. FCU
3. Chillers
4. Fans & blowers
5. Grills and registers
6. Diffuser
7. Dampers
8. Humidifiers & de-humidifiers
9. Air filters
1. AHU
An air handler, or air handling unit (often
abbreviated to AHU), is a device used to
regulate and circulate air as part of the
heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning
(HVAC) system.
The air handling unit is an integrated piece of
equipment consisting of fans, heating and
cooling coils, air-control dampers, filters and
silencers. An air handling units is often called
AHU. The purpose of this equipment is to collect and mix outdoor air with that
returning from the building space. The air mixture is then cooled or heated, after
which it is discharged into the building space through a duct system made up of five-
feet diameter pipes.Air Handler is normally associated with heating/cooling (HVAC)
systems in commercial buildings. These are normally very large systems moving
from 2000 CFM to 10,000 CFM and higher. They may be mounted on the top of

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a roof or in large mechanical rooms located in the building. They often have an
economizer or inlet damper that allows small amount of outside air or make-up air
to be pulled in through the air handler. There are several types of Air Handling Units:
Compact, Modular, Residential, DX integrated, Low Profile (ceiling), Packaged,
Rooftop mounted (typically on the roofs of buildings, with special weather protection),
etc.
To be considered as an air handling unit, a minimum of the following components are
required : at least 1 filtration section, 1 heat transfer component (cooling/
heating coil or heat recovery system) and 1 fan. Air Handling Units can have
several components, depending on the complexity and requirements, such as the
energy efficiency of each specific building and application.
Some of the most known components are:
Fans (Plug Fans, Double Inlet, Single Inlet, Axial, etc)- Filters (Plate Filters, Bag
Filters, Compact Filters, EPA Filters, HEPA Filters, ULPA Filters, Carbon Filters)
Cooling/Heating Coils (water/steam/Direct Expansion DX/electric/gas fired)
Heat recovery systems (cross flow plate heat exchangers, cross flow plate heat
exchangers, heat wheel/rotating heat exchangers, run around coils and heat pipes,
etc)
Humidifiers (Adiabatic/Evaporative Pad, non-pressurized Steam, pressurized steam)
Dehumidifiers (DX coil, desiccant rotor)
Ultraviolet UV disinfection lamps
Photocatalytic oxidation (PCO) air cleaners
Sound attenuators
Mist/Droplet eliminators
Dampers
2. FCU
Fan coil units (FCU) consist of only a fan and a heating or cooling element, and are
located within the space they are serving, and generally not connected to the
ductwork. They may either just recirculate internal air, in which case a separate
ventilation system is required, or may introduce proportion of ‘fresh’ air that is mixed
with the re-circulated air.
Fan coil units can be wall-mounted, freestanding or ceiling-mounted and may be
concealed in ceiling voids. They may be controlled by local thermostats or by a

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building management system(BMS).Due to their simplicity, fan coil units are more
economical to install than ducted air handling units. However, they can be noisy and
can create vibrations because the fan is in the occupied space. Where fan coil units
are supplied with chilled water and hot water from central boilers and chillers they
are generally referred to as two pipe (either heating or cooling) or four pipe (both
heating and cooling) units. Where the heating and cooling is provided locally, they
may be referred to as variable refrigerant volume (VRV) or variable refrigerant flow
(VRF) systems. Here, refrigerant is circulated between one or more fan coil units
and is connected to an external heat exchanger. These systems may be more prone
to refrigerant leakage than units that are connected to hermetically-sealed central
chillers. Fan coin units are relatively compact and straightforward to install. However,
they require regular maintenance to ensure continued efficient operation. When a
fan coil unit cools air, it generally causes condensation which must be collected and
drained or pumped away.

FCU is the abbreviation used for FAN COIL UNIT that are available for either DX
or chilled water system that houses refrigerant or chilled water coil respectively.
Beside the type of coil used, the other components are common such as the blower
fan & filters. FCUs are usually available from0.75 to5 TR from various brands
across the globe.
AHU is the abbreviation used for AIR HANDLING UNIT; is an adavnce type of
FCU beyond5 TR capacity. They are either available in standard sizes or custom
size & body construction. In addition to the standard components (blower fan &
filter), it has advance filters, UV light, mixing chambers, etc. depending upon the
requirement & construction.

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3. CHILLERS

A chiller is a machine that removes heat from a liquid via vapour-compression or

absorption refrigeration cycle. This liquid can then be circulated through a heat
exchanger to cool air or equipment as required.

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When people first encounter the term “chiller” they usually think of something that
creates cold or cools the surrounding air like an air conditioner or maybe even a
refrigerator. This is a bit misleading.
A chiller consists of following six main components:
Evaporator - cools the water, water/glycol or air by transferring the heat to a
refrigerant which is turned into a gas.
Compressor - takes this gas and increases its pressure, so that ambient air or water
can remove the heat.
Condenser - rejects heat gained by the gas using ambient air or cooling tower
water to condense the gas back to a liquid for reuse by the evaporator.
Holding Tank - holds the circulating coolant, usually water (can be water/glycol),
tank is sized large enough to prevent a turbulent flow in the tank causing pump
cavitation.
Pump - circulates the coolant from the holding tank to the evaporator and from the
evaporator to the machine or process equipment after being cooled and back to the
tank.
Control Panel - houses temperature controller, compressor contactor, pump starter,
3-phase fuses, control transformer, safety controls, run and fail lights.
While it is true that a chiller is a device that cools something else, i.e., in a plastic
injection moulding machine, it does not cool, it removes heat. In short, it’s a heat
removal device.
Using the six components listed above an “industrial” chiller removes heat from one
element - water/glycol/air - and then circulates the cooler element through a heat
exchanger to cool the surrounding air or process equipment.
A basic chiller has two circuits: the water circuit, and therefrigeration circuit.
In the water circuit, a pump circulates the water from the holding tank to the
evaporator which cools it by transferring the heat to a refrigerant, the water then
goes on to the process in a portable chiller or back to the tank in a packaged or
central chiller. In the refrigeration circuit, the evaporator boils the liquid refrigerant
into a gas, cooling the water. The compressor increases the pressure of the refrigerant
gas to a pressure (200 to 220 psi for freon 22), so that the condenser can condense
the gas back to a liquid (remove the heat gained) using ambient air at 95° F or
cooling tower water at 85° F. In the case of an industrial chiller, the principle is the
same. Water is pumped to the chiller normally at 60° F and cooled to 50° F, when

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using water/glycol, the solution can be cooled to 20° F. The heat is removed from
the condenser either by means of a plant cooling tower water system, or outdoor air
on the case of remote condenser and outdoor air cooled chillers, or by plant air for
portable or indoor heat reclaim chillers. As one can imagine, chillers are extremely
important in the industrial world where there are literally millions of machines that
generate lots of heat. If these machines are to last any time at all, they need to be
cooled. This is where chillers come in. A chiller can be used to cool any machine or
process that operates at 60° F or lower. A cooling tower can be used to cool any
machine or process that operates at 85° F or higher.
Applications
Plastics 
In plastic industry, a chilling system cools the hot plastic that is injected, blown,
extruded or stamped. A chilling system can also cool down the equipment that is
used to create plastic products (hydraulics of the moulding machine, gear box and
barrel of the extruder) that saves energy and wear and tear of the machine. itself.
Printing 
In the printing industry, a chiller not only removes the heat generated by the friction
of the printing rollers, but cools down the paper after it comes out of the ink drying
oven in the process.
Laser 
In the laser cutting industry, light projection industry, etc. a chilling system is used to
cool down the lasers and power supplies.
Rubber 
In the rubber industry, to cool the multizone water temperature control units of the
rubber extruder barrel cool the rubber mill, calendars and bambury mixers.
Beverage 
In the beverage industry, a chiller removes the heat gained from the process during
mixing, cooking, or when pasteurizing the product.
Medical
If you use high tech equipment for magnetic resonance imaging, scanning, blood
cooling and laboratory testing, you’ll need a cooling system to remove all the heat
thus generated.

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AVAC
With cooling expenses accounting for 30% to 50% of your total energy costs rising
fast, and the impending phase-out of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and hydro chloro
fluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerants, there is a rapidly growing need to replace large
commercial air conditioning and refrigeration systems with a modular chilling system.
FANS & BLOWERS
Fans and blowers provide air for ventilation and industrial process requirements.
Fans generate a pressure to move air (or gases) against a resistance caused by
ducts, dampers, or other components in a fan system. The fan rotor receives energy
from a rotating shaft and transmits it in to the air.
Difference between Fans, Blowers and Compressors
Equipment Specific Ratio Pressure rise (mmWg)
Fans Up to 1.11 1136
Blowers 1.11 to 1.20 1136 – 2066
Compressors more than 1.20 -
Fans, blowers and compressors are differentiated by the method used to move the
air, and by the system pressure they must operate against. As per the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) the specific ratio - the ratio of the discharge
pressure over the suction pressure is used for defining the fans, blowers and
compressors.
Fans fall into two general categories: centrifugal flow and axial flow.
Centrifugal Fan : Types
The major types of centrifugal fan are radial, forward curved and backward curved.
Radial fans are industrial workhorses because of their high static pressures (upto
1400 mm WC) and ability to handle heavily contaminated airstreams. Because of
their simple design, radial fans are well suited for high temperatures and medium
blade tip speeds.
Forward-curved fans are used in clean environments and operate at lower
temperatures. They are well suited for low tip speed and high-airflow work - they
are best suited for moving large volumes of air against relatively low pressures.

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Backward-inclined fans are more efficient than forward-curved fans. Backward-

inclined fans reach their peak power consumption and then power demand drops
off well within their useable airflow range.

AXIAL FLOW FANS

An axial fan is a type of compressor that increases the pressure of air flowing through
it. The blades of the axial flow fans force air to move parallel to the shaft around
which the blades rotate.
The major types of axial flow fans are: tube axial, vane axial and propeller
Tubeaxial fans have a wheel inside a cylindrical
housing, with close clearance between blade and
housing to improve airflow efficiency. The wheel turn
faster than propeller fans, enabling operation under
high pressures upto 250 – 400 mm WC. The efficiency
is up to 65%.
Vaneaxial fans are similar to tubeaxials, but with the addition
of guide vanes that improve efficiency by directing and
straightening the flow. As a result, they have a higher static
pressure with less dependence on the duct static pressure.
Such fans are used generally for pressures upto 500 mmWC.
Vaneaxials are typically the most
energy efficient fans available and
should be used whenever possible.
Propeller fans usually run at low speeds and moderate
temperatures. They experience a large change in airflow
with small changes in static pressure. They handle large

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volumes of air at low pressure or free delivery. Propeller fans are often used indoors
as exhaust fans. Outdoor applications include air-cooled condensers and cooling
towers. Efficiency is low – approximately 50% or less.
GRILLS, REGISTERS, DIFFUSERS
Grill : A decorative covering element for an outlet or intake is known as
grill. A fixed opening through which air passes.
Register : A grill equipped with a damper which supplies conditioned air.
Typically used for supply air applications.
Diffuser : An air flow device designed to discharge conditioned air in a specific
direction, path, or pattern. Used for supply air applications.
The proper supply to an air conditioned room is made through grills or registers.
The grill or register can be located in the floor, high side of the wall or in the ceiling.
The essential requirement of the supply point is that the air stream coming out should
not strike the occupants before it looses its high velocity.
HUMIDIFIERS
A humidifier is a device that increases humidity (moisture) in a single room or an
entire building. The humidification of air is one of the important phase of air
conditioning system. The humidification is achieved by using any one of the four
following methods :
1. Injecting the steam
In this system , humidification of air is carried out by injecting the steam into the
air just above atmospheric pressure. The steam condenses to a very fine mist
as it is dispersed and evaporates almost instantly to the gaseous state raising
the RH.
2. Atomizing the water
An effective humidification can be achieved by using compressed air to draw
water by aspiration from a supply tank and blow it in the form of fine mist into
the duct carrying the air to the conditioned space.
3. Evaporation of water
These type of equipments discharge pure water vapour into the air to be
humidified. The process is endothermic and requires heat which is often provided
by the equipment itself.

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4. Air washing
An air washer is a piece of equipment that is designed to improve air quality by
scrubbing the air that moves through it and adjusting humidity levels to keep
the environment consistent. Air washers are used as part of climate control
and air quality systems. The air washer works by continuously moving a supply
of air over chilled water and pushing the air out to cycle it through a room or
building. Humidity is pulled out of the air as it reaches the dew point by passing
over the cold water. In addition, impurities in the air such as pollen and dust
precipitate out. The air exiting the machine is drier and cooler. It also contains
fewer particulates, making it safer and more comfortable to breathe.
Application area – Air conditioning systems used in winter.
DE-HUMIDIFIERS
De-humidification is the process of removal of water from the air and the instrument
used for de-humidification is called de-humidifier. De-humidifier is an instrument
associated with summer air conditioning. There are three methods to accomplish
dehumidification
1. By reducing the temperature of air below DPT. This is accomplished by passing
the air over the cooling coil whose surface temperature is maintained below
DPT of the air.
2. By absorption of moisture from the air: This is accomplished by passing the air
through absorption bed. The moisture in the air does not enter into a chemical
combination with the medium through which it is passed .It is simply removed
from air.
3. By adsorption of moisture from air: This is accomplished by passing the air
through a chemical .The moisture in the air enters into a chemical combination
with the drying agent.
Application area
1. Food industry
2. Packaging industry
3. Production of english medicines
4. Storage area of iron products
5. Sugar industry

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AIR FILTER
The air taken from atmosphere carries dust, bacteria and odours in the air conditioned
system which are harmful for human health .The oxygen level in the air will be reduced
when it goes out of air conditioning system as oxygen is used by the occupants. The
removal of impurities from the outside air is most essential and important part of all
air conditioning systems.
The different methods of air filtering are given below :
1. Dry Filter
2. Wet Filter
3. Electric Filters
4. HEPA filters
5. Centrifugal dust collectors

INSULATORS
A thermal insulator is something that prevents heat from moving from one place to
another. There are 3 main ways that heat can travel: convection, conduction, and
radiation. Typically the phrase ‘thermal insulator’ refers to a material that blocks
conduction. A material or an object that does not easily allow heat, electricity, light,
or sound to pass through it. Air, cloth and rubber are good electrical insulators;
feathers and wool make good thermal insulators. (Compare it with conductor)
Insulations are defined as those materials or combinations of materials which retard
the flow of heat energy by performing one or more of the following functions:
1. Conserve energy by reducing heat loss or gain.
2. Control surface temperatures for personnel protection and comfort.
3. Facilitate temperature control of process.
4. Prevent vapour flow and water condensation on cold surfaces.
5. Increase operating efficiency of heating/ventilating/cooling, plumbing, steam,
process and power systems found in commercial and industrial installations.

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6. Prevent or reduce damage to equipment from exposure to fire or corrosive

atmospheres.
7. Assist mechanical systems in meeting the criteria of food and cosmetic plants.
Reduce emissions of pollutants to the atmosphere.
PROPERTIES
1. Low thermal conductivity
2. Permanence
3. Strength
4. Light weight
5. Water repellent
6. Sanitary
7. Odourless
8. Fire proof
9. Low cost
Insulating materials
• Fiberglass. Fiberglass insulation. ...
• Mineral Wool. Mineral Wool. ...
• Cellulose. Cellulose insulation material. ...
• Polyurethane Foam. Polyurethane insulation. ...
• Polystyrene. Polystyrene (Styrofoam).
Air distribution systems
The object of air distribution in a warm air heating and air conditioning system is to
create proper combination of temperature, humidity, and air motion in the occupied
zone of the conditioned room.
The following points are preferred to in air distribution systems :
1. The temperature variation should not be more than two Degree Celsius in the
occupied zone of the room.
2. The desirable air movement around the bodies of the people is 7.5 m/mt.
3. Flow direction of air towards the face of the people is preferred to instead of
back or sides.
4. Downward flow is preferable to upward flow.

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There are several methods of air distribution system which can be successfully used
for different purposes.

Excellent for cooling & heating (Year round air

conditioning system)

Excellent for cooling & heating (Year round air

conditioning system)

Excellent for cooling & heating (Year round air

conditioning system)

Excellent for heating (Winter air conditioning system)

Excellent for heating (Winter air conditioning system)

Excellent for cooling (Summer air conditioning system)

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Practical
STUDY DIFFERENT TYPES OF FILTERS USED IN AIR DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
AIM:-To study different types of filters used in air distribution system.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:-
Different types of filters used in air distribution system
Air filters
Primary filters up to 20 microns
Secondary filters up to 10 microns
HEPA filters of 3 to 5 microns.
Bag Air filter for AHU (10 microns)

Heppa filter Regular filter Linear Slot Diffuser

(3-5 microns) (20 microns)

Linear Bar Grills Air Line Grills Round Cieling

Diffuser

Diffuser Rubber insulation Superloan pipe

copper tube insulator

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ASSESSMENT
Give a lay out of the structure of different types of buildings and ask to
draw suitable ducting arrangements.
\
TE QUESTIONS
1. What are the factors to be considered for selecting a blower fan ?
2. The pressure inside the duct is measured using __________.
3. The velocity inside the duct is measured using _____________.
4. The duct used to intake outside air is called ____________.
5. The conditioned air is distributed to the rooms through ______________.
6. What are the factors to be considered while selecting a duct insulating material?

UNIT 4.6
PROJECT WORK

Construct a feasible working model or still model of relevant R & AC system and
prepare a Project report.

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REFERENCE :-
1. Heating and Cooling Essentials by Jerry Killinger. Good Heart – Will Cox
Company (2005)
2. Refrigeration and Airconditioning Technology by William C Whitman,
William M Johnson, John.A.Tom, Cengage Learning Custom Publishing (2012)
3. Technicians Guide to Refrigeration System by John.A.Corinchock. Mc Graw-
Hill Education (1996)
4. Refrigeration and Airconditioning by R.S.Khurumi, S.Chand (2006)
5. Refrigeration and Airconditioning by C.P Arora, Tata Mc Graw-Hill (2006)
6. Refrigeration and Airconditioning by A.K. Anandharaman, Tata Mc Graw-Hill
(2005)
7. Skill Development Handbook for Technicians by Indian Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Airconditioning Engineers (2015)
8. Work Shop Practice by Hajra Chaudhary
9. Basic Refrigeration - R Waxes Marsh
10. Refrigeration and Airconditioning by S. Domkundwar
11. Refrigeration and Airconditioning by N.Singh

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