DIPLOMA INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

ON

REFRIGERATION & AIR CONDITIONERS, WELDING, NON DESTRACTIVE TEST

SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT OF THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF DIPLOMA

IN

Mechanical Engineering

Submitted By

NAME: ARASHANAPALLI VARUN SAI PIN: 19233-M-210

Under the Guidance

MR.B.NAGESWAR

Head of Mechanical Engineering

MR.P. PRAVEEN KUMAR REDDY MR. ABDUL KHADER P

(INTERNAL GUIDE) (INDUSTRY GUIDE)

NATIONAL SMALL INDUSTRIES CORPORATION, ECIL, HYDERABAD

Department of Mechanical Engineering

MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGYPOLYTECHNIC,

BANDLAGUDA-500005, HYDERABAD, TELANGANA
 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHOLOGY
TECHNOLOGY POLYTECHNIC, BANDLAGUDA-500005,
HYDERABAD, TELANGANA
Department of Mechanical Engineering

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the work embodies in this dissertation entitled

REFRIGERATION & AIR CONDITIONERS, WELDING, NON DESTRACTIVE
TEST being submitted by

NAME: ARASHANAPALLI VARUN SAI PIN: 19233-M-210

Partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of ‘Diploma in

Mechanical Engineering to Mahaveer Institute of Science and
Technology, Polytechnic, Bandlaguda, Hyderabad during the academic
year 2021 - 2022 is a record of bonafide piece of work, undertaken by the
supervision of the undersigned.

Approved and Supervised by

Mr. B. NAGESWAR Dr. S. RAVINDER REDDY

Head of the Department Principal

P. PRAVEEN KUMAR REDDY MR. ABDUL KHADER P

(INTERNAL GUIDE) (INDUSTRY GUIDE)

 MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE &
TECHNOLOGY POLYTECHNIC, BANDLAGUDA-500005,
HYDERABAD, TELANGANA
Department of Mechanical Engineering

DECLARATION
We declare that this written submission represents our ideas in our own words and where other's
ideas have been included. We have adequately referenced the original sources and we also declare
that we have followed all principles of academic honesty and integrity and have not mis-
represented or fabricated or falsified any idea/data/fact/source in our submission.

We hereby declare that the result occurred in this project report titled “REFRIGERATION &
AIR CONDITIONERS, WELDING, NON DESTRACTIVE TEST” requirements for the
award of Diploma are obtained by us from our project. We have not submitted this project report
to any other university/institute for the award of any degree/diploma.

NAME: PIN:

ARASHANAPALLI VARUN SAI 19233-M-210

SIGNATURE
 ABSTRACT

It became evident nowadays that modernization influences domestic and commercial

HVAC industry, and thus high technological and energy-reticent central air
conditioning systems are demanded. Therefore, the selection of proper type of
central air conditioning System is a crucial target in the construction industry as
improper selection can maximize initial and/or running costs of the system and
decreases the human comfort and indoor air quality levels. In fact, a pre-assessment
of the construction type and budget available is required for selecting the proper type
of central air conditioning system. Therefore, there is a continuous need for an
updated material in the literature that reviews the central air conditioning systems
and applications, which is the motivation of the present chapter. The present chapter
reviews the central air conditioning systems and applications. Specifically, all-air
systems, all-water systems, and air water systems are discussed. In addition, all
provided systems are further explored through several developed schematic
diagrams enabling the identification of their various components and the
understanding of their working principles. It is may be of interest to note that this
chapter is suitable for undergraduate level students in the fields of HVAC and R,
mechanical, and construction engineering.
INTRODUCTION TO NSIC

THE NATIONAL SMALL INDUSTRIAL CORPORATON Ltd

The National Small Industries Corporation, a Government of India enterprise under the ministry of
SSI was set up with a prime aim of promoting and to fasten the growth of small scale industries in
India through its various developmental activities. To provide technical services to small scale
industries, NSIC has set up five technical service centers (TSC) all over the country, which include
one at Hyderabad.

The main objective of NSIC is to impart practical and classroom training in several industries
trades, It also provides common facilities in such area PCB testing, designing. Wave soldering
CNC jobbing and provision of test Equipment for SSIs.

It also helps to develop prototypes of electronic equipment and import substitutes. These
prototypes are then passed on to the manufacturing units commercials production under
technology transfers.

To develop technology and Equipment in critical areas such as energy saving. It also helps to
design, develop and produce improved tools for increasing the productivity. The main activity of
this centre is in development of manpower & variety of programs has been incorporated in their
training schedules in the area of computer, software & hardware, electronics. Fiber optics
communications, CNC programming they train the students and accomplish placements to them.

National Small Industrial Corporation Ltd

ROLE OF NSIC-TECHNICAL SERVICES CENTRE HYDERABAD
The National Small Industries Corporation a premier National level organization fully owned by
the government of India under the Ministry of industry (MSME) was established IN 1955.NSIC-
TSC Hyderabad Technical Service Centre was set up in 1989 to provide service in various
Technical areas thus helping the MSME industries by providing skilled manpower, common
facilities services. Research and Development (R&D) in the field of electronics and IT Major
activities of this centre include Training on computer software and hardware electronics, projects,
Embedded Systems, Multimedia, Fiber Optics, Testing equipment's, Software testing tools and
project assistance for Engineering Students in all disciplines final year projects and Mini projects.
The centre is situated at Kushaiguda, Hyderabad. The centre has well-equipped laboratories,
workshop, Conference hall, Meeting Hal, Classrooms, library, latest software, Internet facility
available and all labs are set up with latest and sophisticated equipment's" machine to meet current
technological requirements and trends.

Common facilities for MSME enterprises:

1. Roto type Development.

2. Technology transfer.

3. Technical training

4. Seminars, Development program

The prime objective of this centre is to develop professional and technical skills of educated. And
unemployed youth by providing skill development training and support services for getting wage
or self-employment. The program is aimed at creating sustainable wage employment, income and
opportunities for all eligible, women. Our contribution towards social welfare has been met by the
conduction of a special training program me for physically challenged their electronics and
Software
Table of content: page no

Basic electrical in refrigeration and air conditioners………………………………………………..01

Tools and equipments required for refrigeration and air conditioners…………………….……02

CHAPTRE-1
Refrigeration & air conditioning ……………………………………………………………02-04

CHAPTER-2
Simple vapour compression refrigeration system…………………………………………05-08
Vapour absorption cooling system……………………………………………………….....08-09

CHAPTER-3
Refrigerant…………………………………………………………………………………..10-12

CHAPTER-4
Types of air conditioners……………………………………………………………………13-16

CHAPTER-5
Air conditioner parts & functions………………………………………………………...17-21

CHAPTER-6
Compressors……………………………………………………………………………….22-28

CHAPTER-7
Heat exchangers…………………………………………………………………………...29-31

CHAPTER-8
Expansion valve……………………………………………………………………………..32-34
Blower motors / fan motors……………………………………………………………….35-37

CHAPTER-9
Installation of the split air conditioners………………………………………………….38-44

CHAPTER 10
Air conditioner, nitrogen-charging……………………………………………………….45-46
Gas charging in split air conditioners…………………………………………………….47-48

CHAPTER-11
Servicing and maintenance……………………………………………………………….49-53

CHAPTER-12
Refrigerator………………………………………………………………………………..54-57
CHAPTER-13
Introduction to Welding………………………………………………………………………58
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)………………………………………………………..59
Gas tungsten arc welding (GIAW)…………………………………………………………..60
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)…………………………………………………………….61
Gas welding……………………………………………………………………………….62-66

CHAPTER-14
Examples of welds………………………………………………………………………...67-69

CHAPTER-15
Welding safety rules to follow…………………………………………………………....70-73

CHAPTER-16
Welding defects…………………………………………………………………………...74-78

CHAPTER-17
Introduction to non destructive testing…………………………………………………….79
Liquid (Dye) penetrant method…………………………………………………………..80-82
Magnetic particles………………………………………………………………………...82-83
Radiographic testing………………………………………………………………………83-85
Ultra violet testing………………………………………………………………………...85-86
BASIC ELECTRICAL IN REFRIGERATION AND AIR
CONDITIONERS

1
Tools and equipments required for refrigeration and air conditioners

2
 CHAPTER-1
REFRIGERATION & AIR CONDITIONING

Air conditioning

Air conditioning, often abbreviated as A/C or AC, is the process of removing heat and controlling
the humidity of air in an enclosed space to achieve a more comfortable interior environment by use
of powered "air conditioners" or a variety of other methods, including passive cooling and
ventilative cooling. Air conditioning is a member of a family of systems and techniques that
provide heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC).

Air conditioners, which typically use vapor-compression refrigeration, range in size from small
units used within vehicles or single rooms to massive units that can cool large buildings. Air
source heat pumps, which can be used for heating as well as cooling, are becoming increasingly
common in cooler climates.

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), as of 2018, 1.6 billion air conditioning units
were installed, which accounted for an estimated 20% of energy usage in buildings globally with
the number expected to grow to 5.6 billion by 2050. The United Nations called for the technology
to be made more sustainable to mitigate climate change using techniques including passive
cooling, evaporative cooling, selective shading, wind catchers and better thermal insulation. CFC
and HCFC refrigerants such as R-12 and R-22, respectively, used within air conditioners have
caused damage to the ozone layer, and HFC refrigerants such as R-410a and R-404a, which were
designed to replace CFCs and HCFCs, are instead exacerbating climate change. Both issues
happen due to venting of refrigerant to the atmosphere, such as during repairs. HFO refrigerants,
used in some if not most new equipment, solve both issues with an ozone damage potential (ODP)
of zero and a much lower global warming potential (GWP) in the single or double digits vs. the
three or four digits of HFCs.

Refrigeration

The term refrigeration means cooling a space, substance or system to lower and/or
maintain its temperature below the ambient one (while the removed heat is rejected at a higher
temperature. In other words, refrigeration is artificial (human-made) cooling Energy in the form of
heat is removed from a low-temperature reservoir and transferred to a high-temperature reservoir.
The work of energy transfer is traditionally driven by mechanical means, but can also be driven by
heat, magnetism, electricity, laser, or other means. Refrigeration has many applications, including
household refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics, and air conditioning. Heat pumps may use

3
the heat output of the refrigeration process, and also may be designed to be reversible, but are
otherwise similar to air conditioning units.

Refrigeration has had a large impact on industry, lifestyle, agriculture, and settlement patterns. The
idea of preserving food dates back to at least the ancient Roman and Chinese empires. However,
mechanical refrigeration technology has rapidly evolved in the last century, from ice harvesting to
temperature-controlled rail cars. The introduction of refrigerated rail cars contributed to the
westward expansion of the United States, allowing settlement in areas that were not on main
transport channels such as rivers, harbors, or valley trails. Settlements were also developing in
infertile parts of the country, filled with newly discovered natural resource These new settlement
patterns sparked the building of large cities which are able to thrive in areas that were otherwise
thought to be inhospitable, such as Houston, Texas, and Las Vegas, Nevada. In most developed
countries, cities are heavily dependent upon refrigeration in supermarkets in order to obtain their
food for daily consumption. The increase in food sources has led to a larger concentration of
agricultural sales coming from a smaller percentage of farms. Farms today have a much larger
output per person in comparison to the late 1800s. This has resulted in new food sources available
to entire populations, which has had a large impact on the nutrition of society.

4
 CHAPTER-2
Simple Vapour Compression Refrigeration System:
A simple vapor compression refrigeration system consists of the following
equipments:
i) Compressor ii) Condenser iii) Expansion valve iv) Evaporator.

Fig.1.1 Simple Vapor Compression System

The schematic diagram of the arrangement is as shown in Fig.1.1. The low temperature, low
pressure vapor at state 1 is compressed by a compressor to high temperature and pressure vapor at
state2. This vapor is condensed into high Pressure evaporate state3 in the condenser and then
passes through the expansion valve. Here, the vapor is throttled down to a low pressure liquid and
passed on to an evaporator, where it absorbs heat from the surroundings from the circulating fluid
(being refrigerated) and vaporizes into low pressure vapor at state 1. The cycle then repeats.

The exchange of energy is as follows:

a) Compressor requires work, δw. The work is supplied to the system from the Surroundings.
b) During condensation, heat δQ1 the equivalent of latent heat of condensation etc, is lost from
the refrigerator.
c) During evaporation, heat δQ2 equivalent to latent heat of vaporization is absorbed by the
refrigerant.
d) There is no exchange of heat during throttling process through the expansion valve as this
process occurs at constant enthalpy.

5
 1. Compression process:
The vapour refrigerant at low pressure p1 and temperature T1is compressed is entropically to
dry saturated vapour as shown by the vertical line 1-2 on T-s diagram and by the curve 1-2 on p-h
diagram. The pressure and temperature rises from 1 to 2.
The work done during isentropic compression is given by:
W=h2-h1……… 1

2. Condensing process:
The high pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant from the compressor is passed through
the condenser where it is completely condensed at constant pressure p2and temperature T2. The
vapour refrigerant is changed into liquid refrigerant. The refrigerant while passing through the
condenser, gives its latent heat to the surrounding condensing medium.

3. Expansion process:
The liquid refrigerant at pressure p3=p2expanded by throttling process through the expansion valve
to a low pressure p4=p1and temperature T4=T1. Some of the liquid refrigerant evaporates as it
passes through expansion valve, but the greater portion is vaporized in the evaporator. During the
throttling process no heat is absorbed or rejected by the liquid refrigerant.

4. Vaporizing process:
The liquid vapour mixture of the refrigerant at pressure p4=p1 and temperature T4=T1is evaporated
and changed into vapour refrigerant at constant pressure and temperature. During evaporation, the
liquid vapour refrigerant absorbs its latent heat of vaporization from medium (air, water or brine)
which is to be cooled.

Fig. 1.2.T-sdiagramofrefrigerationcycle

1.2 Simple Vapor Compression Cycle:

Figure.1.2.shows a simple vapor compression refrigeration cycle on T-s diagram for different
compression processes. The cycle works between temperatures T1 and T2 representing the
6
condenser and evaporator temperatures respectively. The various process of the cycle 4-1-2-3 (4-1’-
2’-3 and 4-1”-2”-3) are as given below:

i) Process B-C (1’-2’ or 1”-2”): Isentropic compression of the vapor from state 1 to 2. If vapor
state is saturated (1), or superheated (1”), the compression is called dry compression. If initial state
is wet (1’), the compression is called wet compression as represented by1-2’.

ii) Process 2-3 (2’-3 or 2”-3): Heat rejection in condenser at constant pressure.

iii) Process 3-4: An irreversible adiabatic expansion of vapor through the expansion value. The
pressure and temperature of the liquid are reduced. The process is accompanied by partial
evaporation of some liquid. The process is shown by dotted line.

iv) Process 4-1 (4-1’ or 4-1”): Heat absorption in evaporator at constant pressure. The final state
depends on the quantity of heat absorbed and same may be wet (1’) dry 1) or superheated (1”).

1.3 COP of Vapor Compression Cycle:

COP = Heat extracted at low temperature

Work supplied

Heat extracted at low temperature = Heat transfer during the process 4-1 = refrigerating effect

q2= (h1- h4)

Work of compression = w = (h2-h1) (adiabatic compression).

So, COP = {
h 1−h 4
h 2−h 1 }
Now, heat rejected to the condenser, = q1= w + q2
= (h2– h1) + (h1– h4)
= (h2– h4) = (h2– h3 )

Advantages and Disadvantages of Vapour Compression Refrigeration system:

Advantages:
1. It has smaller size for given capacity of refrigeration.
2. It has less running cost.

7
 3. It can be employed over a large range of temperatures
4. The coefficient of performance is quite high.

Disadvantages:
1. The initial cost is high
2. The prevention of leakage of refrigerant is the major problem in vapour
compression system.

VAPOUR ABSORPTION COOLING SYSTEM

ABOUT THERMAX ABSORPTION COOLING TECHNOLOGY

Thermax offers a diverse range of Profetherm Solutions which help you get 'Profit from Heat'.
These solutions are energy efficient and reduce operating cost.

Thermax Profetherm Solutions include Lithium Bromide absorption chillers as a cost effective
alternative to electricity-driven compression chillers. Our absorption chillers also known as VAMs
(vapour absorption machines) are extensively used in a variety of industries as well as commercial
buildings for process-cooling and air-conditioning.

Thermax Profetherm range of absorption chillers cater to industrial-cooling, commercial air-

conditioning as well as industrial and space heating needs. Our USP lies in identifying the unused
heat available at the customer's plant and providing recovery based or live energy based solutions
to optimize energy thus reduce operational cost.

BASICS OF ABSORPTION COOLING

8
Vapour Absorption chillers uses water as the refrigerant and Lithium Bromide (LiBr) solution as
the absorbent. The process of cooling goes through stages such as evaporation of refrigerant in
evaporator, absorption of refrigerant by concentrated LiBr solution in absorber, boiling of diluted
LiBr solution to generate refrigerant vapour in generator and condensation of refrigerant vapour in
condenser.

The boiling point of water is directly proportional to pressure. At 6 mm Hg absolute pressure the
boiling point of water is 3.7°C. To change water from liquid to vapour it has to be heated. The
heat, required to change the phase of a liquid to vapour, is called the Latent heat of evaporation.

Lithium Bromide (LiBr) is a chemical similar to common salt (NaCl). LiBr is soluble in water. The
LiBr water solution has a property to absorb water due to its chemical affinity. As the
concentration of LiBr solution increases, its affinity towards water vapour increases. Also, as the
temperature of LiBr solution decreases, its affinity towards water vapour increases. Further, there
is a large difference between vapour pressure of LiBr and water. This means that if we heat the
LiBr water solution, the water will vaporize but the LiBr will stay in the solution and become
concentrated.

ADVANTAGES

 No CFC, hence environment friendly

- Uses water (R 712) as refrigerant instead of ozone depleting Chlorofluorocarbons
 No noise
- No moving parts, therefore no dynamic load

9
Refrigerant CHAPTER-3

A refrigerant is a working fluid used in the refrigeration cycle of air conditioning systems
and heat pumps where in most cases they undergo a repeated phase transition from a liquid to a gas
and back again. Refrigerants are heavily regulated due to their toxicity, flammability and the
contribution of CFC and HCFC refrigerants to ozone depletion and that of HFC refrigerants to
climate change.

History of Refrigerants

Table1 summarizes the different refrigerants used in the last 150 years. Many of the refrigerants
used during the early periods

Period Refrigerants

1800–1900 Ethylalcohol,methylamine,ethylamine,methylchloride,ethylchloride,
sulphurdioxide, carbondioxide, ammonia
1900–1930 Ethylbromide,carbontetrachloride,water,propane,isobutene,gasoline,
methylene chloride
1931–1990 Chlorofluorocarbons, hydro chlorofluorocarbons, ammonia, water
1990–2010 Hydro fluorocarbons, ammonia ,isobutene, propane, carbon dioxide,
water
Immediate future Hydrofluorooelifins,hydrofluorocarbons,hydrocarbons,carbondioxid
e,water

The Global Warming Effect

The earth and its atmosphere get heated as they continuously receive sun’s energy in the form of
high frequency radiation. A major part of this heat is returned as infrared radiation. Thus a
delicate balance exists between the energy received and that returned to the outer space. The
temperature of the earth depends on this. Many gases such as CO 2, methane (CH4), nitrous
oxide (N2O), various hydrocarbons, CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs, etc., are released by mankind due
to various agricultural and industrial activities. These gases, called ‘green-house gases
(GHG)’, act as a screen, blocking out part of the infrared radiation of the earth towards outer
space. Water vapour is also a powerful greenhouse gas but is not harmful as it is condensable
and cannot build up in the atmosphere. This is the reason that HFCs, even though are safe
10
from the ozone depletion point of view, are increasingly being blamed for contributing to the
global warming.

In fact, man and animals emit significant amounts of GHGs due to their metabolic activity.
Methane is a potent green house gas produced by ruminant animals, such as dairy cows.
Animal agriculture is responsible for more green house gas (18%) than all of transportation
(13%) according to a 2006 report of the UN-FAO. On AlGore’s website
www.climatecrisis.org, he notes: “Eat less meat. Methane is the second most significant GHG,
and cattle are the greatest methane emitters. Their grassy diet and multiple stomachs cause
them to produce methane, which they exhale with every breath.” By being vegetarian, we
grow plants which not only produce food but also act as carbon sinks because they consume
CO2.

11
No. Refrigerant Boiling Point Freezing Critical Critical
@1atm(K) Point(K) Temp(K) Pr(bar) ODP GWP
CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons)
R113 Trichlorotrifluroethane 320.73 238.16 487.3 34.4 0.9 5200
R11 Trichlorofluromethane 296.98 162.05 471.2 44.1 1 4000
R114 Dichlorotetrafluroethane 276.94 179.27 418.9 32.6 0.7 16600
R12 Dichlorodifluromethane 243.37 115.38 385.2 41.2 1 12200
R115 Chloropentafluroethane 233.83 167.05 353.1 31.5 0.6 39200
HCFCs (Hydrochlorofluorocarbons)
R141b Dichlorofluroethane 305.16 – 483.35 46.4 0.15 600
R123 Dichlrotrifluroethane 301.03 166.01 457.15 36.76 0.02 80
R22 Chlorodifluromethane 232.40 113.16 363.15 49.78 0.05 1480
HFCs (Hydrofluorocarbons)
R245fa Pentafluropropane 288.44 166.49 383.4 31.5 0 790
R134a Tetrafluroethane 247.00 176.55 374.25 40.67 0 1160
R507 Azeotrope-Blend 226.05 255.38 344.05 37.92 0 1400
R125 Pentafluroethane 224.59 170.01 339.25 36.2 0 3360
R32 Difluromethane 221.44 137.05 351.4 58.08 0 440
R23 Trifluromethane 191.10 118.16 298.75 48.37 0 24000
HFOs (Hydrofluorooellifins)
R1234yf2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene 244.15 220.00 367.85 33.82 0 4
FCs/PFCs (Fluorocarbons/Perfluorocarbons)
R218 Octofluropropane 241.66 113.16 344.95 26.8 0 9300
R14 Tetrafluromethane 145.22 89.27 227.65 37.43 0 6500
Hydrocarbons
R600 Butane 272.66 134.66 425.12 37.7 0 0
R290 Propane 231.07 85.49 369.83 42.1 0 0
R170 Ethane184.35 90.38 305.32 48.5 0 0
R1150 Ethylene 169.44 104.27 282.34 50.3 0 0
R50 Methane 111.66 90.94 190.56 45.9 0 0
Inorganic Compounds
R718 Water 373.16 273.16 647.13 219.4 0 0
R717 Ammonia 239.83 195.44 405.65 113.0 0 0
R744 Carbon dioxide 194.72 216.55 304.21 73.9 0 1
R728 Nitrogen 77.38 63.16 126.2 33.9 0 0
R702n Hydrogen 20.38 13.99 33.19 13.2 0 0
R704 Helium 4.22 _ 5.2 2.3 0 0
HFEs (Hydrofluoroethers)
HFE-7100 Methoxynonafluorobutane 334.16 138.16 468.45 22.3 0 320
HFE-7200 Ethoxynonafluorobutane 349.16 135.16 482.0 19.8 0 55
HFE-7000 Methooxyheptafluropropane 307.6 150.38 438.15 24.8 0 400

12
Types of Air Conditioners CHAPTER-4

Mini-split and multi-split systems

Evaporator, indoor unit, or terminal, side of a ductless split-type air conditioner Ductless systems
(often mini-split, though there are now ducted mini split) typically supply conditioned and heated
air to a single or a few rooms of a building, without ducts and in a decentralized manner.[34]
Multi-zone or multi-split systems are a common application of ductless systems and allow up to
eight rooms (zones or locations) to be conditioned independently from each other, each with its
own indoor unit and simultaneously from a single outdoor unit. The main problem with multi-split
systems is the length of the refrigerant lines for connecting the external unit to the internal ones.
[citation needed] Though the same challenge exists for central ACs.

The first mini-split systems were sold in 1954–1968 by Mitsubishi Electric and Toshiba in Japan,
where its development was motivated by the small size of homes. Multi-zone ductless systems
were invented by Daikin in 1973, and variable refrigerant flow systems (which can be thought of
as larger multi-split systems) were also invented by Daikin in 1982. Both were first sold in Japan.
[38] Variable refrigerant flow systems when compared with central plant cooling from an air
handler, eliminate the need for large cool air ducts, air handlers, and chillers; instead cool
refrigerant is transported through much smaller pipes to the indoor units in the spaces to be
conditioned, thus allowing for less space above dropped ceilings and a lower structural impact,
while also allowing for more individual and independent temperature control of spaces, and the
outdoor and indoor units can be spread across the building. Variable refrigerant flow indoor units
can also be turned off individually in unused spaces.

13
Ducted Central Systems

Split-system central air conditioners consist of two heat exchangers, an outside unit (the
condenser) from which heat is rejected to the environment and an internal heat exchanger (the fan
coil unit, air handling unit, or evaporator) with the piped refrigerant being circulated between the
two. The FCU is then connected to the spaces to be cooled by ventilation ducts.

Central Plant Cooling

Cooling towers used in a central chilled water plant using liquid-cooled chillers Large central
cooling plants may use intermediate coolant such as chilled water pumped into air handlers or fan
coil units near or in the spaces to be cooled which then duct or deliver cold air into the spaces to be
conditioned, rather than ducting cold air directly to these spaces from the plant, which is not done
due to the low density and heat capacity of air which would require impractically large ducts. The
chilled water is cooled by chillers in the plant, which use a refrigeration cycle to cool water, often
transferring its heat to the atmosphere even in liquid-cooled chillers through the use of cooling
towers. Chillers may be air or liquid-cooled.

14
Portable units

A portable system has an indoor unit on wheels connected to an outdoor unit via flexible pipes,
similar to a permanently fixed installed unit (such as a central air conditioner). [citation
needed] .Hose systems, which can be mono block or air-to-air, are vented to the outside via air
ducts. The mono block type collects the water in a bucket or tray and stops when full. The air-to-
air type re-evaporates the water and discharges it through the ducted hose and can run
continuously. Such portable units draw indoor air and expel it outdoors through a single duct.
[citation needed]Many portable air conditioners come with heat as well as dehumidification
function.

Window Unit and Packaged Terminal

The packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC), through-the-wall, and window air conditioners are
similar. PTAC systems may be adapted to provide heating in cold weather, either directly by using
an electric strip, gas, or other heaters, or by reversing the refrigerant flow to heat the interior and
draw heat from the exterior air, converting the air conditioner into a heat pump. They may be
installed in a wall opening with the help of a special sleeve on the wall and a custom grill that is
flush with the wall and window air conditioners can also be installed in a window, but without a
custom grill.

15
Packaged Air Conditioner

Packaged air conditioners (also known as self-contained units) are central systems that integrate
into a single housing all the components of a split central system, and deliver air, possibly through
ducts, to the spaces to be cooled. Depending on their construction they may be outdoors or indoors,
on roofs (rooftop units), draw the air to be conditioned from inside or outside a building and be
water, refrigerator air-cooled. Often, outdoor units are air-cooled while indoor units are liquid-
cooled using a cooling tower

16
AIR CONDITIONER PARTS & FUNCTIONS CHAPTER-5

 Blower: Air flowing from supply registers is the work of the blower. This component,
which also works with your furnace, circulates cooled air into your home and pulls room-
temperature air back for re-cooling.

 Evaporator coil: This indoor component, located near the blower, is responsible for
extracting heat and humidity from the air. This is possible thanks to the refrigerant running
through the coil.

 Compressor: Once it has absorbed heat, the refrigerant is in a gaseous state. It passes
through the compressor, where the gas is pressurized and heated even more. This important
step prepares the refrigerant to give up its heat.

 Condensing coil: This is the outdoor equivalent to the evaporator coil. As refrigerant
travels from the compressor to the condenser, it expels the heat collected from indoors to
the outside. Once the refrigerant is cooled to a liquid, it circulates back inside to collect
more heat in the evaporator coil.
17
 Fan: The outdoor condensing unit becomes very hot with all that overheated refrigerant
running through it. A fan and fins that act as heat syncs draw the heat away so the unit
doesn’t overheat.

 Air filter: While an air conditioner can function without the air filter, dust and dirt in the
air would quickly collect on A/C components and possibly damage them without the filter
in place. Install an efficient enough filter and you can even improve indoor air quality
while the air conditioner operates.

 Thermostat: This is the control center of the entire air conditioning process, reading the
indoor temperature and telling the air conditioner when to turn on and off. You change
temperature settings here based on your needs. The higher you set the thermostat, the lower
your cooling bills will be.

18
  It’s easy to take our refrigerators and air conditioners for granted. But once upon a time,
they were a luxury reserved for the rich. Now, around 97% of homes in the South and
65% of homes in the western United States have a cooling system. But, how exactly do
air conditioners work?

 In order to understand how an air conditioner functions, it’s important to know about its
five main parts and what they do.

An Air Conditioner has 5 Main Parts:

1. Refrigerant

Refrigerant (also known as coolant or by its brand name Freon®) is a special fluid that is vital
to cooling and freezing technology. It operates on a closed loop and carries heat from the inside
of your building to the outside. You can think of the refrigerant as the messenger/traveler. We
use refrigerant because it changes states from liquid to vapor at convenient temperatures for the
refrigeration cycle.

Refrigerant moves through an air conditioners cooling tubes and copper coils, connecting the
inside unit to the outside unit. It absorbs heat from your indoor air, changing states from gas to
liquid. After absorbing heat from the inside air, the refrigerant travels to the outdoor unit where
19
the heat is pushed outdoors. Once the refrigerant has dispersed its heat outdoors, it changes
back to its gaseous state and travels back indoors. After the refrigerant gets cold again, an
indoor fan blows air over the cold coils and then circulates cold air through the home. This
cycle repeats every time your air conditioner is on.

2. Compressor

The job of the compressor is to pressurize the refrigerant, thus raising its temperature. Due to
the combined gas law (a combination of Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law, and Gay-Lussac’s Law),
which states that if pressure increases so does its temperature, when you compress the
refrigerant, it will heat up. It does this by squeezing the gas very tightly together.

We heat up the refrigerant in order to get its temperature higher than the outdoor temperature.
Since heat naturally flows from a hotter to colder bodies, in order to dispense heat outdoors,
the refrigerant must be hotter than the air outdoors. This is why we need the compressor to
increase its pressure and thus its temperature.

3. Condenser Coil

The condenser coil is in the outdoor air conditioning unit. It receives the high pressure, high
temperature refrigerant from the compressor. You can think of it as the opposite of the
evaporator coil. Whereas the evaporator coils contain cold refrigerant, the condenser coils
contain hot refrigerant.

The condenser coils are designed to facilitate heat transfer to the outdoor air. The refrigerant
releases heat energy with the aid of the condenser fan, which blows air over the coils. As the
20
heat leaves the refrigerant to the outside environment, it turns back into a liquid where it then
flows to the expansion valve, which depressurizes the refrigerant and cools it down.

4. Expansion Valve

When the refrigerant leaves the condenser in its liquid state, it has dispersed heat, but it is still
too hot to enter the evaporator coils. Before the refrigerant passes to the evaporator coils, it
must be cooled down. This is where the expansion valve (also known as a metering device)
comes in, normally a thermostatic expansion valve. Again using the principles behind the
combined gas law, this states that when pressure decreases so does its temperature, the
expansion valve depressurizes the refrigerant and cools it down.

An expansion valve removes pressure from liquid refrigerant allowing for the refrigerant to
change from a liquid to a vapor/gas in the evaporator. It also controls the amount of
refrigerant/voltage flow entering the evaporator.

5. Evaporator Coil

Evaporator coils are very important to an air conditioner. It’s where the air conditioner actually
picks up the heat from inside your home.
The copper tubes receive the depressurized, liquid refrigerant from the expansion valve. When
your indoor air blows over the cold coils, the heat from inside the home gets absorbed. This is
because of the 2nd law of thermodynamics which states that heat flows naturally from hot to
cold. Just like the condenser coils need the help of the condenser fan to facilitate heat transfer,
the evaporator coils rely on the indoor air handler’s fan to blow air over the coils.

21
COMPRESSORS CHAPTER-6

Introduction

A compressor acts as the “heart” of a refrigerant-based mechanical cooling system. Its

functions include drawing in the cool vaporized refrigerant that carries the heat energy from
the evaporator coils, compressing it from a low pressure and temperature to a high pressure
and temperature, and pushing it around the refrigeration loop for the purpose of heat rejection.

Compressors are sometimes described by the following characteristics:

 Drive speed (constant speed or variable speed)

 Number of stages(single-stage, two-stage, or multi-stage)
 Drive types (motor, engine, belt, or chain, etc.)
 Structure (open type, semi-hermetic and hermetically sealed)
 Cooling method and medium (air-cooled, water-cooled, or oil-cooled)
 Lubricating method (splash lubricated, forced lubricated, or oil-free)

Compressor Types:

Compressor Types

Positive Displacement Dynamic

Reciprocating Rotary AxialCentrifugal

Single-ActingDouble-ActingDiaphragmVaneLobeScrollLiquid RingScrew

22
Positive Displacement

Positive displacement means that the cool vapor refrigerant is compressed to a high
pressure and temperature via a chamber whose volume can change. For example, the
motion of a piston in a cylinder chamber, or the rotation of a vane in a cylinder chamber,
or the rotation of two matching helical screws inside of a casing, etc.

Dynamic

Dynamic means that the cool vapour refrigerant is compressed to a high pressure and
temperature by adding kinetic energy via a rotating component. For example, a spinning
impeller, or a rotating blade, etc.

Reciprocating Compressor

Reciprocating compressor is also called a piston compressor which adopts the back and
forth piston motion in a cylinder synchronized with suction and discharge valves to
compress the vaporized refrigerant from a low pressure and temperature to a high pressure
and temperature. The motion of the piston is achieved via a crankshaft which converts
motor rotations top is ton reciprocations.

Piston
Suction pipe
Discharge pipe

Cylinder
Motor stator

Casing
Compression part
Motor rotor

Crank shaft

Each operation cycle includes three actions: suction, compression and discharge. Each
crankshaft rotation can achieve these three actions in sequence; as a result, the gas
displacement is discontinuous which causes vibration. The total theoretical gas
displacement depends on the size of each cylinder, cylinder quantity, and the rotating
speed of the crank shaft. However, the actual gas displacement is also determined by the

23
 volume efficiency which depends on clearance volume resistance of suction and discharge
valves, leakage between the piston and cylinder, etc.

Depending on the location of the working fluid, the reciprocating compressor can be sub-
classified as single-acting or double-acting. Single-acting means that the refrigerant acts
only on one side of the piston while double-acting means the working fluid acts on two
sides of the piston.

Applications
Based on the characteristics of the reciprocating compressor, it can be used in the
following applications:

 House hold refrigerator and freezer with welded hermetic type

 Residentialandcommercialairconditioningandrefrigerationapplications(open,semi-
hermeticandweldedhermetic)

Rotary-Vane Compressor

A rotary-vane compressor is also known as a rotary piston compressor because the

function of the vane is similar to that of a piston. The fixed casing is known as a cylinder.
The vane splits the space between the cylinder and the rolling piston into two sections
(suction and discharge).As the rolling piston rotates; these two volumes are increased and
decreased to achieve gas suction, compression and discharge. This compressor type can
also be sub-classified by the drive speed (constant and variable) and number of vanes.
Each operation cycle includes five actions: start, suction, compression, discharge and end.
Each crank shaft rotation can achieve these five actions by average. The capacity can be
adjusted through cylinder unloading or inverter drive.

Discharge pipe
Suction pipe Cylinder
Crankshaft
Rotor
Rolling
Accumulator Stator piston
Sealing vane
Main bearing Muffler

Sub bearing Compression part

Applications

 Appliances such as house hold refrigerators and freezers

 Residential air conditioning and heat pump products below 5 tons (17.6kW)

24
 Rotary-Scroll Compressor

Compared with rotary-vane compressor, a rotary-scroll compressor is used to compress

larger volumes of gaseous refrigerant to a higher pressure and temperature via a fixed and
orbital scroll. The cool vapor refrigerant is drawn in from outside the fixed scroll, and then
compressed in between the fixed and the orbital scroll, and finally the compressed
refrigerant is discharged from the center of the fixed scroll with a continuous
displacement. The rotary-scroll compressor can be sub-classified by the drives speed
(constant and variable).

Each operation cycle includes three actions: suction, compression, and discharge.
However, some constant speed compressor designs adjust their cooling capacity by lifting
or separating one of the scrolls intermittently for normal operating position based on the
amount of thermal load to adjust its cooling capacity. The less load, the more time the
scrolls remain separated, preventing refrigerant compression. This method is not a variable
speed compressor, but a variable capacity compressor, which is less efficient than the real
variable speed compressor. A common industry term used to describe this type of
compressor is digital scroll compressor.

Discharge pipe Orbital Fixed

Upper bearing scroll scroll

Rotor Crank shaft Compression part

Stator Suction
Suction pipe
Lower bearing Compression

Oil pump Discharge

Applications
 This compressor type is normally used for commercial air conditioning
and refrigeration applications which require compressor capacity from 5 to
10 ton

25
Rotary-Screw Compressor

A rotary-screw compressor uses rotors to compress larger volumes of gaseous refrigerant

to a high pressure and temperature. The compression is performed by male and female
rotors that reduce the refrigerant gas volume as they rotate. Cool vapor refrigerant enters
from the suction port, is forced by the meshing rotors through the threads as the screws
rotate, and exits at the discharge port with high pressure and temperature. The rotary-screw
compressor can be sub-classified by the quantity of screws (single, twin and multi). The
capacity can be adjusted through an inverter drive.
Suction Port
Female
Rotor
Casing

Compression part
Male Rotor
Oil injection

Male Rotor

Female Rotor Discharge Port

Mechanical
Seal Input
Shaft

Applications
Screw compressors have been developed to compete with large reciprocating and small
centrifugal compressors in both air conditioning and refrigeration markets. It is used for
commercial and industrial air conditioning and refrigeration applications with a capacity range
from 20 to 750 tons (70-2,637 kW).

26
 Centrifugal Compressor

A centrifugal compressor is also called a turbo or a radial compressor which compresses

refrigerant to a high pressure and temperature by adding kinetic energy to the cool vapor
refrigerant via rotating impellers. The cool vapor refrigerant is forced to pass into and
through the impeller and the impeller forces the fluid to spin faster and faster. The high-
speed refrigerant gas is then forced to pass through the diffuser where the refrigerant gas
volume expands as its speed decreases. This process converts the kinetic energy of the
high-speed low-pressure gas to a low-speed higher-pressure gas. The higher the impeller
speed, the higher the pressure. Unlike the reciprocating piston compressor that has
different actions for every stroke (i.e. suction, compression, discharge) centrifugal
compressors perform the sections continuously and concurrently. The capacity can be
adjusted through an inverter drive and inlet guide vane.

Second-stage Stator
Impeller

Inlet guide vane

Discharge

Rotor
Impeller

Diffuser
First-stage
Impeller
Volute
Discharge

Applications

 A centrifugal compressor is best suited for large cooling applications above 200
tons (700kW), and is the most popular compressor type for commercial and
industrial air conditioning and refrigeration systems. It competes with screw
compressors and large reciprocating compressors.

27
Centrifugal Compressor

The centrifugal compressor uses the principle of dynamic compression, which involves
converting energy from one form to another, to increase the pressure and temperature of the
refrigerant. It converts kinetic energy (velocity) to static energy (pressure).The core component
of a centrifugal compressor is the rotating impeller The center, or eye, of the impeller is fitted
with blades that draw refrigerant vapor into radial passages that are internal to the impeller
body.

CentrifugalCompressor
volute

diffuser
passages

radial
impeller
passages

blades impeller

The center, or eye, of the impeller is fitted with blades that draw refrigerant vapor into radial
passages that are internal to the impeller body. The rotation of the impeller causes the
refrigerant vapor to accelerate within these passages, increasing its velocity and kinetic energy.
The accelerated refrigerant vapor leaves the impeller and enters the diffuser passages. These
passages start out small and become larger as the refrigerant travels through them. As the size
of the diffuser passage increases, the velocity, and therefore the kinetic energy, of the
refrigerant decreases. The first law of thermodynamics states that energy is not destroyed only
converted from one form to another. The volute also becomes larger as the refrigerant travels
through it. Again, as the size of the volume increases, the kinetic energy is converted to static
pressure.

Applications
 They are seen mainly in high-volume applications such as commercial refrigeration
units in the 100+ hp ranges and in large processing plants where they can get as large as
20,000 hp and deliver volumes in the 200,000 cfm range.

28
HEAT EXCHANGERS CHAPTER-7

A heat exchanger is a system used to transfer heat between two or more fluids. Heat exchangers
are used in both cooling and heating processes. The fluids may be separated by a solid wall to
prevent mixing or they may be in direct contact. They are widely used in space heating,
refrigeration, air conditioning, power stations, chemical plants, petrochemical plants, petroleum
refineries, natural-gas processing, and sewage treatment. The classic example of a heat
exchanger is found in an internal combustion engine in which a circulating fluid known as
engine coolant flows through radiator coils and air flows past the coils, which cools the coolant
and heats the incoming air. Another example is the heat sink, which is a passive heat exchanger
that transfers the heat generated by an electronic or a mechanical device to a fluid medium,
often air or a liquid coolant.

TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS:

Heat exchangers
EVAPORATI
Air WATER
Tube and VE
Shell and Condens
finned
tube type er
type
Tube and
plate
type

Tube and Finned Type Heat Exchanger:

The usage of fins in a tube-based heat exchanger is common when one of the working fluids is
a low-pressure gas, and is typical for heat exchangers that operate using ambient air, such as
automotive radiators and HVAC air condensers. Fins dramatically increase the surface area
with which heat can be exchanged, which improves the efficiency of conducting heat to a fluid
with very low thermal conductivity, such as air. The fins are typically made from aluminum or
copper since they must conduct heat from the tube along the length of the fins, which are
usually very thin.

29
Applications:

 Diesel Charge Air Coolers

 Oil Coolers
 Hydrogen Coolers
 Waste Heat Recovery
 Driers
 Air Conditioning
 Air Heaters
 Steam Condensers

Plate and Fin Type Heat Exchanger:

A plate-fin heat exchanger is a type of heat exchanger design that uses plates and finned
chambers to transfer heat between fluids. It is often categorized as a compact heat exchanger to
emphasise its relatively high heat transfer surface area to volume ratio. The plate-fin heat
exchanger is widely used in many industries, including the aerospace industry for its compact
size and lightweight properties, as well as in cryogenics where its ability to facilitate heat
transfer with small temperature differences is utilized. Aluminum alloy plate fin heat
exchangers, often referred to as Brazed Aluminum Heat Exchangers, have been used in the
aircraft industry for more than 60 years and adopted into the cryogenic air separation industry
around the time of the second world war and shortly afterwards into cryogenic processes in
chemical plants such as Natural Gas Processing. They are also used in railway engines and
motor cars.[citation needed] Stainless steel plate fins have been used in aircraft for 30 years and
are now becoming established in chemical plant.

Applications:
 Natural gas liquefaction.
 Cryogenic air separation.
 Ammonia production.
 Offshore processing.
 Air conditioning.
 Syngas production.
 Aircraft cooling of bleed air and cabin air.

30
Shell and Tube Type Heat Exchanger (Water Cooling):

Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of a series of tubes which contain fluid that must be
either heated or cooled. A second fluid runs over the tubes that are being heated or cooled so
that it can either provide the heat or absorb the heat required. A set of tubes is called the tube
bundle and can be made up of several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc. Shell and
tube heat exchangers are typically used for high-pressure applications (with pressures greater
than 30 bar and temperatures greater than 260 °C).This is because the shell and tube heat
exchangers are robust due to their shape. Several thermal design features must be considered
when designing the tubes in the shell and tube heat exchangers: There can be many variations
on the shell and tube design. Typically, the ends of each tube are connected to plenums
(sometimes called water boxes) through holes in tube sheets. The tubes may be straight or bent
in the shape of a U, called U-tubes.

Application:

 Removal of process heat and feed water preheating.

 Cooling of hydraulic and lube oil.
 Cooling of turbine, compressor, and engine.
 Condensing process vapor or steam.
 Evaporating process liquid or steam
 Package air conditioning.
 Chillers

31
EXPANSION VALVE CHAPTER-8

The expansion valve removes pressure from the liquid refrigerant to allow expansion or change
of state from a liquid to a vapor in the evaporator. The liquid refrigerant leaving the expansion
valve is quite cold. The orifice within the valve does not remove heat, but only reduces
pressure.

TYPES OF EXPANSION VALVES:

 Thermal Expansion Valves (TEVs)

 Capillary Tubes
 Automatic Valves
 Electronic Expansion Valves

Thermal Expansion Valve:

A thermal expansion valve or thermostatic expansion valve (often abbreviated as TEV, TXV,
or TX valve) is a component in vapor-compression refrigeration and air conditioning systems
that controls the amount of refrigerant released into the evaporator and is intended to regulate
the superheat of the refrigerant that flows out of the evaporator to a steady value. Although
often described as a "thermostatic" valve, an expansion valve isn't able to regulate the
evaporator's temperature to a precise value. The evaporator's temperature will only vary with
the evaporating pressure, which will have to be regulated through other means (such as by
adjusting the compressor's capacity).Thermal expansion valves are often referred to generically
as "metering devices", although this may also refer to any other device that releases liquid
refrigerant into the low-pressure section but does not react to temperature, such as a capillary
tube or a pressure-controlled valve.

32
Capillary Tubes:

Although this system controls the flow of refrigerant, but it works in different way. A thermal
expansion valve can respond to the environment by increasing or decreasing the flow of
refrigerant as necessary, while a capillary tube is a fixed system that does not fluctuate with
heat load changes. When the refrigerant leaves the condenser and enters the capillary tube, its
pressure drops down suddenly due to the very small diameter of the capillary. In the capillary,
the fall in pressure of the refrigerant takes place due to the small opening of the capillary.

Automatic Expansion Valve:

One of the dry system uses an automatic expansion valve (AEV) refrigerant flow control,. This
valve can only be used at a temperature of-wheel motor control. As the pressure falls on the
low side, the expansion valve opens and liquid refrigerant enters the evaporator. It absorbs heat,
and then evaporating under low pressure. Valve maintains constant pressure in the evaporator
in a running system. This system operates independently from the quantity of refrigerant in the
system. In AEV is a division point between the high-pressure and low-pressure sides of the
system. Automatic expansion valve, can be adjusted to the correct pressure in the evaporator.
Accordingly, spinning clockwise increases the speed of the flow, thereby increasing the low-
pressure side. The speed of the refrigerant flow through the AEV is controlled by the
evaporator. Refrigerant will not flow through the valve while the compressor is running.
Evaporator should also be under low pressure refrigerant flow. Remember, lowering the
pressure in the evaporator, lowers the temperature in which the refrigerant evaporates.

33
Electronic Expansion Valves:

The electronic expansion valve (EEV) operates with a much more sophisticated design.
These types of expansion valves control the flow of refrigerant entering a direct expansion
evaporator. They do this in response to signals sent to them by an electronic controller. A small
motor is used to open and close the valve port that is called a step or a stepper motor. Step
motors do not rotate continuously; they are controlled by an electronic controller and rotate a
fraction of a revolution for each signal sent to them by the electronic controller. The step motor
is driven by a gear train, which positions a pin in a port in which refrigerant flows.

34
BLOWER MOTORS/ FAN MOTORS
Air conditioner blower or fan is one of the key components that are needed as part of the air
conditioning system. The function of the blower is to produce air movement to the space that is
being conditioned. There are basically four types of fan that are commonly used in the HVAC
equipment. They are the propeller fan, centrifugal fan, vane-axial fan and tube-axial fan.

Centrifugal Fan:

The major types of centrifugal fan are: radial forward curved and backward curved Radial fans
are industrial workhorses because of their high static pressures (up to 1400 mm WC) and
ability to handle heavily contaminated airstreams. Because of their simple design, radial fans
are well suited for high temperatures and medium blade tip speeds. Forward-curved fans are
used in clean environments and operate at lower temperatures. They are well suited for low tip
speed and high-airflow work - they are best suited for moving large volumes of air against
relatively low pressures. Backward-inclined fans are more efficient than forward-curved fans.
Backward-inclined fans reach their peak power consumption and then power demand drops off
well within their useable airflow range. Backward-inclined fans are known as "non-
overloading" because changes in static pressure do not overload the motor.
Paddle Blade(Radial blade) Forward Curved(Multi-Vane) Back ward Curved

Types of Centrifugal Fans

Axial Flow Fan:

The major types of axial flow fans are: tube axial, vane axial and propeller Tube axial fans
have a wheel inside a cylindrical housing, with close clearance between blade and housing to
improve airflow efficiency. The wheel turns faster than propeller fans, enabling operation
under high-pressures 250–400mm WC. The efficiency is up to 65%. Vane axial fans are similar
to tube axial, but with addition of guide vanes that improve efficiency by directing and
straightening the flow. As a result, they have a higher static pressure with less dependence on
the duct static pressure. Such fans are used generally for pressures up to 500 mm WC

35
Tube Axial Vane Axial Propeller

Types of Axial Fans

36
 TYPESOFFANS,CHARACTERISTICS,ANDTYPICALAPPLICATIONS

Centrifugal Fans Axial-flow Fans

Type Characteristics Typical Type Characteristics Typical
Applications Application
s
Radial High pressure, Various Propeller Low pressure, Air
medium flow, industrial high flow, low circulation
efficiency close to applications, efficiency, peak ,
tube-axial fans, suitable for efficiency close to ventilatio
power increases dust laden, point of free air n, exhaust
continuously moist air/gases delivery (zero
static pressure)
Forwar Medium pressure, Low pressure Tube-axial Medium pressure, HVAC,
d- high flow, dip in HVAC, high flow, higher dry in
curved pressure curve, Packaged units, efficiency than governs,
blades efficiency higher suitable for propeller type, dip exhaust
than radial fans, clean and dust in pressure-flow systems
power rises laden air /gases curve before peak
continuously pressure point.
Back High pressure, HVAC, Vane-axial High pressure, High
ward high flow, high Various medium flow, pressure
curved efficiency, power industrial dip in pressure- applicati
blades reduces as flow applications flow curve, use ons
increases beyond forced draft of guide vanes including
point of highest fans, etc. improves HVAC
efficiency efficiency systems,
exhausts
Air Same as back ward Same as back
foil curved type, ward curved,
type highest efficiency but for clean air
applications

37
 CHAPTER-9
INSTALLATION OF THE SPLIT AIR CONDITIONERS:

Installation of the Split Air Conditioners: Deciding the Location of Indoor

and Outdoor Units:

Introduction

By now we have seen the different parts of the split air conditioners, now let us the installation
of these Ac’s. The installation of the split air conditioners is the most important and crucial
part. If it is done properly your air conditioner will give you optimum performance, but if it is
not done properly you won’t get the desired cooling effect and there may be frequent
maintenance problems of which the most prominent can be the gas or refrigerant leakage. The
installation of the split air conditioner should be done by an expert air conditioning technician
and the task should not be left to a novice person who is experimenting with your AC. It
requires lots of practice to become an expert split AC installation and erection technician.
Various factors have to consider during the installation of any split air conditioner, here we are
going to consider how to do the installation of wall mounted split air conditioner. In other
articles we would consider installation of other types of split air conditioners also.

Location of Indoor and Outdoor Units

The first step in the installation of split AC is deciding the location of the indoor and the
outdoor units, only then the next important steps of the installation can be initiated. Let us the
see the factors to be considered when deciding the location of these unit (see the images
below):

1. Indoor Unit:

Here are the important suggestions when deciding the location of indoor unit inside the
room:

a) The indoor unit is located inside the room at the location from where the air can be
distributed evenly throughout the room.

b) As far as possible the indoor should be installed above the bed so that the maximum cooling
effect can be obtained. It should be located directly above the bed. If one has to avoid the direct
flow of chilled air on the body, one can always change the direction of the louvers. The indoor
unit can also be installed on wall towards your feet though it can be installed on other side
walls also.
38
c) The wall mounted indoor unit should be located at the height of about 8 to 10 feet from the
floor so that that most of the chilled air is used for cooling the room and not merely for cooling
the hot roof.
d) The indoor unit should be accessible easily so that one can conveniently clean the filter
every fortnight and the whole unit and also that one can manually change the position of the
louvers easily.

e) If the indoor unit is installed above certain window, make sure that it is in symmetry with the
window; else the unit will look shabby. The indoor unit is meant to add to the aesthetics of the
room and not destroy it.

2. Outdoor Unit:
Here are some points to consider when deciding the location of the outdoor unit:

a) The outdoor unit should be located in the open space preferably on the terrace so that the air
can flow freely over the compressor and the condenser. If the terrace is not available it can be
kept on the awning above the wall or it can be hanged on the external wall supported by the
angles.

b) The location of outdoor unit should be such that it is easily accessible for carrying out the
maintenance works of the compressor, condenser, and other devices. The installation and gas
charging also should be convenient.

c) There should not be any hindrances in front of the outdoor that would block the passage of
fan air from passing to the open space. Any blockages will seriously affect the performance of
the AC and can also lead to the burning of hermetically sealed compressor coil.

d) The surface on which the outdoor unit is to be installed should be rigid enough to avoid its
vibration. The vibration of the outdoor unit will raise excessive noise and also lead to the
breaking of the copper tubing and leakage of the refrigerant. It is always advisable to keep the
outdoor unit at the height above the indoor unit. If the outdoor unit is kept at level below the
indoor, some of the compressor power is used in pumping the refrigerant against the gravity,
thus reducing the overall performance of the compressor. Most of the outdoor units are quite
silent so one does not have to worry about their noise. The internal parts of the outdoor unit are
shielded against the rain and sun rays, so one can rest assured about their safety in different
climatic conditions. The refrigerant at very low temperature flows inside the tubing between
indoor and the outdoor unit, and there is always some loss of refrigerant effect to the
atmosphere from these tubing, hence the distance between the indoor and the outdoor unit
should be kept as minimum as possible to reduce the loss of the cooling effect. The maximum
distance between the indoor and the outdoor units can be about 15 meters.

39
Installation of the Wall Mounted Indoor Unit of the Split Air Conditioners:
Once the location of the indoor unit is decided its installation can be started. As such the
installation of the indoor unit is quite easy, but only for those who have mastered the technique.
The newbie may find the process quite a bit complicated and it requires some extra efforts to
actually install the unit. The wall mounted indoor unit can be installed on the wall of the room
or the partition at the height of about 8-10 feet’s from the floor. Here are the steps for
installation of the indoor unit

1. Make the markings as per the wall hook bracket:

40
 The installation of indoor unit is made easier by the wall hook bracket. It is a sort of the
aluminum template with all the necessary holes and the attachments. All one has to do it
make the holes in the wall as per the template and then fit the template with screws. For
this the air conditioning technician makes the marking of the wall hook bracket on the
wall coinciding with the holes on the bracket. When making the markings for the holes,
make sure that the bracket is given slight tilt angle, so that the indoor unit, when fitted is
also at a slight angle to enable unhindered flow of the dew water from the drain pipe.

2. Fit the bracket:

After making the markings for the holes, remove the wall hook bracket and make the
holes in the wall with drilling machine at these markings. Thereafter, keep the bracket in
place again on the wall and fit it with the screws in the drilled holes.

3. Make a hole in the wall or partition:

Make a small hole of about 3 inches near the bracket across the wall or partition. Through
this hole the refrigerant tubing connecting the indoor and the outdoor will pass. These
tubing are insulated hence they need hole of large diameter. The drain pipe though which
the dew water is drained also passes through this whole. Through this hole the power
supply cable and electric cable connecting the indoor and the outdoor unit also pass.

4. The indoor unit:

Now, the indoor unit is ready to be fitted on the bracket. Just lift up the unit, it is usually
not too heavy, and fit it on the wall hook brake bracket. There are some male extensions
on the bracket on which the female counterpart of the indoor unit can be fitted. When
fitting the indoor unit the copper tubing extending from the unit has to be passed through
the hole and to outside the room for connecting it do the outdoor unit. The drain pipe is
connected to one end of the indoor unit; it is passed through the hole and left free in the
open space where the water can be drained. The power supply cable connecting the
indoor and outdoor unit and to the main supply is also passed through the hole.

5. Tilting the indoor unit:

The indoor unit is given slight tilt of about 2-3 degree towards the drain pipe. This
enables unhindered flow of dew water towards the water space where drain water is
collected and drain pipe is connected for removal of water. This angle should be just
sufficient to enable flow of water without disturbing the looks of the indoor unit due to
high angle of tilt.

Installation of Outdoor Unit of Ductless Split Air Conditioners (ACs)

41
In the previous article we saw the installation of the indoor unit of split AC, now let us
see the installation of the outdoor unit. While the indoor unit is light in weight, the
outdoor unit is quite heavy since it comprises of the heavy components like the
compressor, condenser, and fan motor with fan etc. In most of the cases the outdoor unit
of split AC has to be installed at certain height so lifting the unit can be a tough task
requiring about three to four people.

Location of the Outdoor Unit of Split AC

We have seen some important points regarding the location of the indoor and the outdoor
unit, here we have summarized these points for the outdoor units and have added a few
more.

1) Install the outdoor unit on flat rigid surface: The outdoor unit should be installed on
the flat rigid or concrete base since it is quite heavy. The unit will vibrate excessively if it
is installed on some loose, vibrating or hanging base. If the unit vibrates due to weak
base, the compressor and condenser coil will also vibrate, which can lead to the breakage
of the copper tubing over certain period of time and leakage of the refrigerant. Inside the
vibrating compressor the shaft may get unbalanced leading to its unsymmetrical
movement and ultimately burning of the electric coil. Further, the vibrating unit makes
lots of noise which could disturb not only your room but also the neighbors.

2) Free flow of air: The outdoor unit should be installed in the open space on the terrace,
above the awning of the window or any other convenient location where there is free flow
of air. There should not be any hindrance to the flow of air around the outdoor unit. There
should not be any blockage to the flow of air in front of the outdoor from where the heat
is dissipated by hot air. The unit should be easily accessible for installation, wiring, and
carrying out any maintenance works in future. As far as possible the outdoor unit should
not be exposed directly to the sun, however, if this cannot be avoided, one can make
sunshade to protect it from direct sunlight.

3) No water should collect around outdoor unit: The location of the outdoor unit
should be such that during rains, water is not collected around the unit. The large pond of
water can drown the parts of the unit and destroy them. Even the small level of water
collected around outdoor unit for long time can corrode its body and eventually the
internal parts.

4) Don’t install the outdoor unit on the tilted surface: One should avoid installing the
outdoor units on the tilted surfaces. The outdoor unit is quite heavy and if it placed in
angular position, there will be unbalanced forces that would increase the vibrations of the
unit, which may eventually result in total uprooting of the unit.

5) Installing the outdoor unit on the external wall: The outdoor unit can also be
hanged on the external wall on some angle supports. The angles can be fitted on the wall

42
 by using special bolts called anchor bolts. On these angles the outdoor unit can be fitted
easily and can be accessible conveniently. Make sure that the wall on which the outdoor
unit is being fitted is strong enough to bear its weight and vibrations. Installing the
outdoor unit on the wall is one of the best available options.

Steps for the Installation of the Outdoor Unit of Ductless Split AC

1. First of all, bring the outdoor unit to the location where it has to be installed. This unit is
quite heavy, so it should be handled carefully and there should be about two to three
people for moving it.

2. Lift the unit to the place where it has to be installed. If the outdoor unit has to be installed
on the angles fitted on the wall, make sure that the angles have been fitted properly. Since
the unit is too heavy, about three to five people may be needed for lifting it and it should
be lifted carefully with proper coordination.

3. Next, the outdoor unit can be fitted at the suitable location. It is can be placed on the
rubber bushing and fitted with the anchor bolts to avoid vibrations or it can also be placed
directly on the flat rigid surface (since it is quite heavy the chances of its vibrations are
very less). The outdoor unit to be fitted on the wall can be fitted directly on the angles by
nut and bolts.

4. With this the installation of the outdoor unit is done. In the next article we shall see the
installation of refrigerant tubing and gas charging.

43
44
Air Conditioner, Nitrogen Charging CHAPTER-10

Finding holes in AC/R systems can be a challenge. Frozen units are often malfunctioning due
to a loss of refrigerant, and finding all leaks in the system is an essential part of making lasting
repairs. From the age-old soap bubble test to modern electronic leak detectors, there are plenty
of methods that one can use to detect leaks in HVAC units.

Nitrogen Test
One method of finding holes in a system is to use compressed nitrogen gas. In this test, an
AC/R professional will remove all refrigerant from the unit, replace the gas with compressed
nitrogen, and listen for any sounds. Because nitrogen is held under greater pressure than the
coolant, leaks create an audible hissing or whooshing sound as it exits the system. While some
folks prefer this method, it can be expensive. Also, many technicians prefer to use an external
air conditioner UV dye in addition to this method.

Vacuumization

Air conditioning vacuum pump is used to remove unwanted air and water vapor from the air
conditioning system when it is under service. The evacuation process is the next step in which
the vacuum pump is used to remove the air and moisture from the refrigerant system.
It is important to vacuum an air-conditioning system to remove any air or moisture that may
damage the system in the long run. Moisture in the AC system is a serious problem, because
moisture reduces the performance of the AC system and condensation of water can cause the
AC system to freeze.

45
Evacuation or vacuumization procedures for Air-Condition:

 Firstly we need to ensure the unit already switches off before we start evacuation
procedure. Connect manifold gauge to the system. The low pressure hose (blue hose)
connect to service port 3 way valve and service hose (yellow hose) connect to vacuum
pump.

 Switch on the vacuum pump and open the valve for low side of manifold gauge. We
can see the needle at pressure gauge move from 0 psi ( 0 cmHg ) to -14.5 psi ( -76
cmHg ).This process continue around 10 until 20 minute.

 After that, close the low side valve of manifold gauge first the switch off the vacuum
pump. Now the system in the vacuum pressure.

 Make sure the needle of low pressure gauge not move after approximately 10 minute.
This procedure is to check refrigerant system from leaking.

 After completed the leak tested, disconnected the manifold gauge hoses from vacuum
pump.
 Charges or refill the system with refrigerant (refer name plate for types of refrigerant,
e.g.: R22, R134a, R407c) until 43 psi. This process is to fill the system with 50% of
refrigerant before we charge with full capacity.

46
 Gas Charging in Split Air Conditioners:
In the previous articles we was the factors affecting the location of indoor and outdoor units of
split AC, the installation of the indoor unit, the outdoor unit and the refrigerant tubing. In this
article we shall see the final step of installation of split air conditioner, the gas charging.

In the previous articles we was the factors affecting the location of the indoor and outdoor units
of split AC, the installation of the indoor unit, the outdoor unitand the refrigerant tubing. In this
article we shall see the final step of the installation of split air conditioner, the gas charging.

If the installation of the indoor unit, outdoor unit and the refrigerant tubing is done properly,
the process of gas charging in the new split air conditioner is very simple. In fact in the new
split air conditioners no process like gas charging is involved. In the new units, the indoor and
the outdoor units are prefilled with the gas.

When indoor unit is connected to the outdoor unit via refrigerant tubing, the tip of tubing
originally attached to the indoor unit has to be opened, which leads to the leakage of refrigerant
that comes with the unit prefilled from the factory. Thus this gas cannot be used in the split air
conditioner for the cooling purposes.

 Gas Charging from the Outdoor Unit:

The outdoor unit is also prefilled with the refrigerant or the gas from the factory. Most of the
gas is filled in the condenser coil at very high pressure. Since the gas is filled at high pressure
sufficiently large quantity of gas can be filled in the condenser, which is good enough to
produce the desired cooling effect in the room.

Since the refrigerant is already present in the air conditioning system, we don’t have charge the
extra gas; however, if the distance between the indoor and the outdoor units is large, some
external gas charging may be necessary. The gas present within the outdoor unit has to be
released to the whole system including the refrigerant tubing and the indoor unit. Thus in the
new split unit there is no actual gas charging in real sense, it is only distributing the gas
compressed in the outdoor unit to the whole air conditioning system.

There are two valves located at the lower end of the outdoor unit, one for supplying the
compressed gas from the outdoor unit to the indoor unit and other one for receiving the return
gas from the indoor unit. Initially, both the valves are closed. During gas charging both the
valves are opened slowly. With this the refrigerant gets distributed in the whole
air conditioning system including the indoor unit, the outdoor unit and the refrigerant tubing.

47
Checking for the Gas Leakages:
The gas charged into the system is like the life blood for the whole unit. Even slight leakages of
the gas can hamper the performance of the system and it continuous leakage can render the unit
useless. Further, even the cost of the gas is very high, so its leakage will not only lead to the
breakdown of the air conditioning system, but also high costs of repairing. Hence it is vital to
check right at the installation of the system that there are no leakages of the gas.

The leakages have to be mostly checked at the joints of the refrigerant tubing. There are four
joints in the split air conditioner: two at the indoor unit and two at the outdoor unit, connecting
the refrigerant tubing and the indoor and the outdoor units. Since the gas is now present in the
air conditioning system, it is at high pressure.

To check for the leakages soap solution is applied to the joints. If there are any leakages, you
will see the gas leaking in the form of the bubbles and if there are no leakages the soap solution
remains stable.

If there is some gas leakage the connections have to be tightened. If the leakage doesn’t stops,
the leakage point may have to be dismantled and reinstalled.

 Starting the Air Conditioning System

Once the gas has been charged in the air conditioning system and it has been checked for the
leakages, the system can now be started. It is assumed here that everything is goes well with the
installation. When the system is started you can feel the cool air coming from the indoor unit
within a minute or two.

You can adjust the position of the louvers of the indoor unit to evenly distribute the cool air
inside the room or you can keep them at fix position to divert the cool air in particular
direction. You can also adjust the speed of the fan. If you don’t need the cooling effect, you can
keep the AC on fan mode. Most of the settings can be done from the remote control.

48
 Servicing and Maintenance: CHAPTER-11

1. Troubles and Solutions

If any the following abnormal conditions occur, turn off the power supply immediately. Please
contact our dealer.
TROUBLES Indicator lamps flash rapidly, after your disconnecting and connecting the
unit, the situation is the same.
Fuse or circuit breaker work frequently.
Foreign matter or water has fallen into the unit.
Remote controller is disabled or the switch is out of hand.
Any other unusual conditioner is observed.

If any of the following conditions occur, check your unit and resolve corresponding problems
referring to given remediation. If the trouble can't be settled contact our dealer.
Trouble Cause Solutions
Unit does not start Power failure. Wait for the comeback of power
Power switch his open. Switch on the power
Fuse of power switch may have blown. Replace the fuse
Batteries of remote controller are Replace the batteries
exhausted.
The time is not start-up time you have Wait or cancel the time set.
set.
Air flowing Temperature is not set correctly. Set the temperature properly.
normally with low Door or window is open. Close door and window.
cooling (heating) Air filter is blocked with dust or Clean the air filter.
effect dirtiness.
Inlet/outlet of indoor/outdoor units are Clear all blockages.
blocked.
Inlet/outlet of indoor/outdoor units are Clear the blockage, then restart
blocked. your Operation.
Being 3 minutes protection of Wait
compressor

49
 2. Troubles and solutions concerning the remote controller
Please make the following check before asking for repair or maintenance.

Trouble Cause Solutions

Cannot change the fan Check if the mode is play on The indoor Unit will select fan
speed setting the LCD is AUTO speed automatically when AUTO
mode is selected.
Check if the mode is play on The indoor Unit will select fan
the LCD is DRY speed
Automatically when the unit is
on DRY mode.

The transmission symbol does not flash

Symptom Checking items Cause
Press ON/OFF button, the Check if the remote When the battery was out,
remote Controlling signals cannot controller has run out of transmission signals cannot be
be transmitted power sent

Temperature display disappear

Symptom Checking items Cause
Temperature Display does not Check if the mode is play on You cannot set the temperature
light. The LCD is FAN ONLY when the unit is on FAN ONLY
mode.

The Display Goes Off

Symptom Checking items Cause
The indication on the Check whether the timer The air conditioner operations tops
display disappears after a lapse operation has come to an since the set time elapsed.
of time. end when the OFF
TIMER is Indicated on
the display.
The ON TIMER indicators go Check whether the timer When the time set to start the air
off after a lapse of certain operations started when conditioner is reached, the air
time. the ON TIMER is conditioners will automatically start
indicated on the display. and the appropriate indicator will go
off.

50
 The Signal Receiving Tone does Not Sound
Symptom Checking items Cause
No receiving tone sounds Check whether the signal Direct the signal transmitter of the
from the indoor unit even transmitter of the remote remote controller to the receiver of
when the ON/OFF button controller is properly directed the indoor unit, and then repeatly
is pushed. to the receiver of the indoor push the ON/OFF button twice.
unit when the ON/OFF
button is pushed.
Buttons on the remote Press Reset button.
controller don't work.

3. Clean

CAUTION: Please turn off your air conditioner and disconnect power supply before
cleaning.
CLEANING INDOOR UNIT Use a dry to wipe the indoor unit.
A cloth dampened with cold water may be used if the indoor unit is too dirty.
It is allowed to remove the front panel of indoor unit and clean it with water, and ensure
to wipe it up with a dry rag.
Note: Do not use a chemically treated duster for wiping or leave such materials near the
unit for long.
Do not use benzene, thinner, polishing powder, or similar solvents for cleaning.
CLEANING AIR FILTER
The air filter in unit can filter dust and other granules in air. It may reduce the cooling
effect that the air filter is covered with dust. So clean the air filter often.

51
Maintenance
A well-planned maintenance program avoids unnecessary downtime, prolongs the life
of the unit, and reduces the possibility of costly equipment failure. It is recommended
that a maintenance log be maintained for recording the maintenance activities. This
action provides a valuable guide and aids in obtaining extended length of service from
the unit.
This section describes specific maintenance procedures, which must be performed as a
part of the maintenance program of the unit. Use and follow the manufacturer’s manual
for the unit undergoing maintenance. When specific directions or requirements are
furnished, follow them. Before performing any of these operations, ensure that the
power to the unit is disconnected, unless otherwise instructed.

WARNING

When maintenance checks and procedures must be completed with the electrical power
on, care must be taken to avoid contact with energized components or moving parts.
Failure to exercise caution when working with electrically powered equipment may
result in serious injury or death.

Coil Cleaning

Refrigerant coils must be cleaned at least once a year or more frequently if the unit is
located in a dirty environment. This action helps maintain unit operating efficiency and
reliability. The relationship between regular coil maintenance and efficient/reliable
unit operation is as follows:

 Clean condenser coils minimize compressor head pressure and amperage draw,
which promote system efficiency.
 Clean evaporator coils minimize water carry over and help eliminate frosting
and/or compressor flood-back problems.
 Clean coils minimize required fan brake horsepower and maximize efficiency by
keeping coil static pressure loss at a minimum.
 Clean coils keep the motor temperature and system pressure within safe operating
limits for good reliability.

WARNING

Open the unit disconnect switch. Failure to disconnect the unit from the electrical
power source may result in severe electrical shock and possible injury or death.
 Remove enough panels from the unit to gain access to the coil.

52
 Protect all electrical devices, such as motors and controllers, from dust
and spray.
 Straighten coil fins with a fin rake, if necessary.
 Use as of brush to remove loose dirt and debris from both sides of the coil.
 Mix the detergent with water according to the manufacturer's instructions.
The detergent and water solution may be heated to a maximum of 150°F to
improve its cleaning ability.

53
Refrigerator CHAPTER-1

A refrigerator is a machine used for keeping things cold. It is sometimes called a

fridge or an icebox. It is normally maintained at 4-5 degree Celsius for household use. People
put food and drinks in it, to keep those items cold or good (unspoiled) for a longer time. A
refrigerator has a heat pump which takes heat away from the air inside the fridge. The heat is
moved to the air outside. The heat pump is usually driven by an electric motor.

There are also ice boxes available that do not use electricity because they are filled with ice to
provide the colder temperature. The ice can keep things cold until the ice melts. Ice boxes can
be taken on camping trips. Sometimes they are called coolers. Refrigerator-sized iceboxes were
used before electricity was available.

Most modern refrigerators are available in a variety of colors, although most are white. Smaller
versions of the popular refrigerator are also used. They are mainly used in hotels and college
dorm rooms

TYPES OF REFRIGERATOR:
 Defrost
 Frost Free

54
Defrost:
A defrosting procedure is generally performed periodically on refrigerators and freezers to
maintain their operating efficiency. Over time, as the door is opened and closed, letting in new
air, water vapor from the air condenses on the cooling elements within the cabinet.

Types of frost (in various environments) include crystalline frost (hoar frost or radiation frost)
from deposition of water vapor from air of low humidity, white frost in humid conditions,
window frost on glass surfaces, advection frost from cold wind over cold surfaces, black frost
without visible ice at low temperatures and very low humidity, and rime under super cooled
wet conditions.

The resulting ice inhibits heat transfer out of the cabinet increasing running costs. Furthermore,
as the ice builds up it takes increasing space from within the cabinet - reducing the space
available for food storage.

Many newer units employ automatic defrosting (often called "frost-free" or "no frost") and do
not require manual defrosting in normal use. Although, in some cases, users of Frost Free
fridge/freezers have noted ice blocking the vent that allows air into the refrigerator
compartment.

55
Frost Free:

Frost free refrigerators, as the name implies, do not require any kind of manual defrosting. A
small element is placed inside the unit that actually melts accumulating ice. This is done
without interfering with the natural cooling cycle that is required to continuously refrigerate
food.

The primary advantage of having a frost-free freezer is you won't need to defrost the unit,
which saves you time and physical effort. To keep a traditional freezer model in good working
order, you must allow the unit to thaw out and drain at least once a year or whenever the frost
layer reaches 1/4-inch thick.

These refrigerators usually have a pan underneath where water from the melted frost in the
refrigerator section evaporates. Freezers with automatic defrosting and combined
refrigerator/freezer units which also apply self defrosting to their freezer compartment are
called "frost free".

56
Vacuumization and Refrigerant charging of a refrigerator:

Wiring checking for a refrigerator:

57
WELDING CHAPTER-13

Introduction to Welding
 A weld is made when separate pieces of material to be joined combine and form
onepiecewhenheatedtoatemperaturehighenoughtocausesofteningormelting.Fillermaterial
is typically added to strengthen the joint.

 Welding is a dependable, efficient and economic method for permanently joining

similar metals. In other words, you can weld steel to steel or aluminum to aluminum,
but you cannot weld steel to aluminum using traditional welding processes.

 Welding is used extensively in all sectors or manufacturing, from earth moving

equipment to the aerospace industry.

 Welding Processes

 The number of different welding processes has grown in recent years. These processes
differ greatly in the manner in which heat and pressure (when used) are applied, and in
the type of equipment used. There are currently over 50 different types of welding
processes; we’ll focus on 3 examples of electric arc welding, which is the most common
form of welding.

 The most popular processes are shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) and gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW).

 All of these methods employ an electric power supply to create an arc which melts the
base metal (s) to form a molten pool. The filler wire is the neither added automatically
(GMAW) or manually (SMAW & GTAW) and the molten pool is allowed to cool.

 Finally, all of these methods use some type of flux or gas to create an inert environment
in which the molten pool can solidify without oxidizing.

58
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

SMAW is a welding process that uses a flux

covered metal electrode to carry an electrical
current. The current forms an arc that jumps a gap
from the end of the electrode to the work. The
electric arc creates enough heat to melt both the
electrode and the base material (s). Molten metal
from the electrode travels across the arc to the
molten pool of base metal where they mix
together. As the arc moves away, the mixture of
molten metals solidifies and becomes one piece.
The molten pool of metal is surrounded and
protected by a fume cloud and a covering of slag
produced as the coating of the electrode burns or
vaporizes. Due to the appearance of the
electrodes, SMAW is commonly known as ‘stick’
welding.
SMAW is one of the oldest and most popular methods of joining metal. Moderate quality welds
can be made at low speed with good uniformity. SMAW is used primarily because of its low
cost, flexibility, portability and versatility. Both the equipment and electrodes are low in cost
and very simple. SMAW is very flexible in terms of the material thicknesses that can be welded
(materials from 1/16” thick to several inches thick can be welded with the same machine and
different settings).It is a very portable process because all that’s required is a portable power
supply (i.e. generator). Finally, it’s quite versatile because it can weld many different types of
metals, including cast iron, steel, nickel & aluminum.

Some of the biggest drawbacks to SMAW are:

(1) That it produces a lot of smoke &sparks,

(2) There is a lot of post-weld clean up needed if the welded are as are to look presentable,
(3) It is a fairly slow welding process and
(4) It requires a lot of operators kill to produce consistent quality welds.

59
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
In the GTAW process, an arc is established
between a tungsten electrode and the base
metal(s). Under the correct conditions, the
electrode does not melt, although the work
does at the point where the arc contacts and
produces a weld pool. The filler metal is thin
wire that’s fed manually into the pool where
it melts. Since tungsten is sensitive to oxygen
in the air, good shielding with oxygen-free
gas is required. The same inert gas provides a
stable, inert environment to protect the weld
pool as it solidifies Consequently, GTAW is
commonly known as TIG (tungsten inert gas)
welding. Because fluxes are not used (like
SMAW), the welds produced are sound, free
of contaminants

Gas Tungsten Arc welding (GTAW)

and slag, and as corrosion-resistant as the parent metal. Tungsten’s extremely high melting
temperature and good electrical conductivity makes it the best choice for a non-consumable
electrode. The arc temperature is typically around 11,000° F. Typical shielding gasses are Ar,
He, N, or a mixture of the two. As with GMAW, the filler material usually is the same
composition as the base metal.

GTAW is easily performed on a variety of materials, from steel and its alloys to aluminum,
magnesium, copper, brass, nickel, titanium, etc. Virtually any metal that is conductive lends
itself to being welded using GTAW. Its clean, high-quality welds often require little or no post-
weld finishing. This method produces the finest, strongest welds out of all the welding
processes. However, it’s also one of the slower methods of arc welding.

60
 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW):

In the GMAW process, an arc is established between a

continuous wire electrode (which is always being
consumed) and the base metal. Under the correct
conditions, the wire is fed at a constant rate to the arc,
matching the rate at which the arc melts it. The filler
metal is the thin wire that’s fed automatically into the
pool where it melts. Since molten metal is sensitive to
oxygen in the air, good shielding with oxygen-free gases
is required. This shield in gas provides a stable, inert
environment to protect the weld pool as it solidifies.
Consequently, GMAW is commonly known as MIG
(metal inert gas) welding. Since fluxes are not used
(like SMAW), the welds produced are sound, free of
contaminants, and as corrosion-resistant as the parent
metal. The filler material is usually the same composition

(or alloy) as the base metal. GMAW is extremely fast

and economical. This process is easily used for welding on thin-gauge metal as well as on
heavy plate. It is most commonly performed on steel (and its alloys), aluminum and magnesium,
but can be used with other metals as well. It also requires a lower level of operator skill than the
other two methods of electric arc welding discussed in these notes. The high welding rate and
reduced post-weld clean up are making GMAW the fastest growing welding process.

61
Gas Welding
Gas welding is a type of liquid state welding process, in which fuel gas burns to generate heat.
This heat is used to melt interface surfaces of welding plates which are held together to form a
joint.

In this welding process, mostly oxy-acetylene gas is used as working fuel gas. This process can be
done with or without the help of filler material.

Equipment of Gas Welding:

These are the equipment which needed to perform gas welding:

 Cylinders
 Oxygen cylinders
 Acetylene cylinders
 Pressure regulator
 Torches
 Goggles

Cylinders:
Oxygen and acetylene are stored under pressure in a steel cylinder. They are seized by the amount
of oxygen or acetylene that they hold. Cylinders should always be secured and used in the upright
position. When a cylinder is not being used the valve cap should always be in place.

Oxygen Cylinders:
These cylinders are made of steel and are usually painted green. They contain compressed oxygen
at presses that can beashighas2200PSI. All cylinders have valves and are fitted with a screw-on
steel cap that protects the cylinder valve when the cylinder is not in use.

Acetylene Cylinders:
These cylinders contain acetylene under pressure are painted black made of steel and have
cylinder valves. The cylinders contain porous filler material, which is fitted with acetone that
allows the acetylene to be safely be contained in the cylinder at 250 PSI. Acetylene should never
be used at a pressure that exceeds 15 PSI as it becomes highly unstable which depending upon the
condition could cause it to decompose and explode.
62
Pressure Regulator:
Both oxygen and fuel gases are filled in the cylinder at high pressure. These gases cannot use at
this high pressure for welding works, so a pressure regulator is used between the flow. It supplies
oxygen at a pressure of about 70 – 130 Kn/m2 and gas at 7 – 103 Kn/m2 to the welding torch.

Torches:
The torch assembly consists of the handle Oxygen and fuel gas valves and the mixing chamber
Welding tips or cutting attachments with the handles can be used, for welding, heating, and
cutting operations. Oxygen and fuel gas flow through tubes inside the handle which blend in the
mixing chamber or tip. It is at the tip that the mixed gas is ignited.

Oxygen Cylinders:
These cylinders are made of steel and are usually painted green. They contain compressed
oxygenat presses that can be as high as 2200 PSI. All cylinders have valves and are fitted with a
screw-on steel cap that protects the cylinder valve when the cylinder is not in use.

Pressure Regulator:
Both oxygen and fuel gases are filled in the cylinder at high pressure. These gases cannot use at
this high pressure for welding works, so a pressure regulator is used between the flow. It supplies
oxygen at a pressure of about 70 – 130 Kn/m2 and gas at 7 – 103 Kn/m2 to the welding torch.

Torches:
The torch assembly consists of the handle Oxygen and fuel gas valves and the mixing chamber.
Welding tips or cutting attachments with the handles can be used, for welding, heating, and
cutting operations. Oxygen and fuel gas flow through tubes inside the handle which blend in the
mixing chamber tip. It is at the tip that the mixed gas is ignited.

Goggles and Gloves:

These two Goggles and Gloves are used for safety purposes. Goggles protect the eyes and Gloves
protect the hand from radiation and flame of fire.

Types of Flames Used in Gas Welding:

Generally, there are three types of flames used in Gas Welding, and those are:

 Neutral Flame
 Oxidizing Flame
 Carburizing or Reducing flame

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Neutral flame:
Welding is generally carried out using the neutral flames it ting which has equal quantities of
oxygen and acetylene.

Oxidizing Flame:
The oxidizing flame is obtained by just increasing the oxygen flow rate.

Carburizing or Reducing Flame:

The carburizing or reducing flame is achieved by increasing acetylene flow with oxygen low.
Because steel melts at a temperature of 1500 degrees centigrade the mixture of Oxygen and
acetylene is used as it is the only gas combination with enough heat to weld Steel.

Working Principle of Gas Welding with Diagram:

 A regulate pressure of gas and oxygen supplied to the torch where they properly
mixed.

 The flame is ignited by a striker. Take care the tip of a torch is pointing down
ward.

 Now the flame is controlled through valves situated in the welding torch.

 The flame is set at the natural flame or carburizing flame or oxidizing flame
according to
the welding condition.

 Now, the welding torch moved along the line where the joint was to be created.

 This will melt the inter face part and join them permanently.

Types of Techniques Used in Gas welding:

There are three types of techniques used in gas welding:

1. Leftward Technique
2. Rightward Technique
3. All positional rightward Technique

Leftward Technique:
The left ward technique is used almost exclusively and is ideally suited for welding butt, fillet,
and lap joints in sheet thickness up to approximately5mm.

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All Positional Rightward Technique:
This is a modification of the rightward technique and it is ideally suited for welding the steel plate
and in particular, pipe work where positional welding (vertical and overhead) has to be carried
out. Types of Gas Welding:
These are the types of gas welding:

1 Oxy fuel Gas

2 Oxy-acetylene
3 Oxy-hydrogen
4 Pressure gas welding
5 OWA
6 OHW
7 PGW

Advantages of Gas Welding:

Gas Welding has the following advantages:

 Less is versatile
 Adapted too many different jobs
 Equipment is relative to low cost
 Portable
 Self-sufficient
 Independent from the availability of external energy sources

Disadvantages of Gas Welding:

Here are some disadvantages of Gas Welding:

 Welders skill required in manipulating the torch, the flame, and the filler rod.
 The flux required for most materials compared to low carbon steel.
 Reactive or refractory metals are unsuited to gas welding.
 Slow metal joining rate.

Applications of Gas Welding:

Gas welding used for:

 For joining thin materials.

 Joining most ferrous and non ferrous materials.
 Used in automatic and aircraft industries and sheet metal fabrication.

Selection of the welding process

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The selection of the joining process for a particular job depends upon many factors. There is no
one specific rule governing the type of welding process to be selected for a certain job. A few of
the factors that must be considered when choosing a welding process are:

 Availability of equipment
 Repetitiveness of the operation
 Quality requirements (base metal penetration, consistency, etc.)
 Location of work
 Materials to be joined
 Appearance of the finished product
 Size of the parts to be joined
 Time available for work
 Skill experience of workers
 Cost of materials
 Code or specification requirements

General guidelines for selecting one process over another

When selecting one process over the others, it is often useful to examine the principal pros/cons
of each type of welding covered in this lecture:

Welding Process Advantages Disadvantages

SMAW Cheap Major post-weld cleaning

Portable (no gas required) Relatively ‘dirty’ method of
welding (sparks/fumes)
Versatile (can weld various Requires moderate skill
metals & thicknesses)

GMAW Faster to fall3 processes Requires shielding gas

Versatile (can weld various Minor post-weld cleaning
metals & thicknesses)

GTAW Highest quality welds Requires shield in gags

No post-weld cleaning Slowest of all 3 processes
Versatile (can weld various Requires high degree of
metals & thicknesses) operator skill

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Examples of welds CHAPTER-14

67
Weld Ideographs

The ideograph is the symbol that denotes the type of weld desired, and it generally depicts the
cross section representation of the weld. The following figure shows the ideographs used most
commonly.

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69
Welding Safety Rules to Follow CHAPTER-15

1. Study...and Study Some More

The most successful welders know safety procedures like the back of their hand. They take
the time to educate themselves on safety guidelines set in place by both national organizations
and the company they work for, which helps to ensure safe, productive works pace for all.

It’s also important for welders to review manufacturer instructions before operating
equipment. Welders should never assume they know how to use a piece of equipment before
they’ve read and under stood the manufacturer’s guide lines for safe operation.

2. Protect Yourself From Fumes and Gases

Exposure to fumes and gases can be controlled by providing adequate ventilation in the work
area. Some employers will provide a fan, an exhaust system or exhaust hoods to remove
fumes and gases from the area welders are working in.

When necessary, welders should wear a respirator to protect themselves from breathing in harmful
substances. If you ever feel as though your breathing is inhibited, express your concerns to as
upper visor immediately.

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Take Precautions against Electrocution

Electric shock is one of the most important topics for welders to be educated in, as it can pose
an immediate and serious risk.
To avoid electrocution, welders must always inspect the electrode holder for damage before
starting their weld. They also must ensure their gloves are dry and in good condition, never
touch the metal parts of the electrode holder with skin or wet clothing, and keep dry
insulation between their body and the ground or metal being welded.

3. Check Your Equipment

A good welder always checks to ensure their equipment is functioning properly and is fully
grounded before using it. Even the most experienced welders should regularly check their
equipment for common wear and tear, such as a frayed wires or leaking hoses, as this can
increase the chances of an accident occurring.

If a piece of equipment was running perfectly the day before, don’t assume that it’s still in the
same condition. Always do a full inspection before using it again—you can never be too sure!

4. Avoid Clutter

A cluttered works pace is one of the most common causes of welding fires and explosions.
Sparks from the welding arc can fly up to 35 feet in distance, so it’s important to keep your
works pace clear, especially of any flammable materials.

As a general rule, always stay organized and keep everything in its place. Your workspace
should only contain the tools and equipment you’re using for that specific project.

5. Know Your Environment

Before starting a weld, take inventory of your environment. Knowing where tools and
equipment are located not only increases your efficiency, but it’s vital for your safety. For
example, it’s important to know the location of fire alarms, emergency exits, fire
extinguishers, sand buckets or other equipment you would need to put out flames in the event
of afire.

6. Dress for the Job

Wearing the proper attire is critical for welders. Any exposed skin is vulnerable to the
harmful effects of infrared and ultra violet rays, so welders must always ensure they are fully
covered. Additionally, pant cuffs, pockets or any loose items of clothing can catch flying
sparks, so it’s important to keep them secured.

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So what should you wear? Welders must wear flame-resistant clothing with the proper PPE,
which brings us to your next point.

7. Wear the Right PPE

Selecting the proper PPE for the job is one of the most important decisions you can make to
protect yourself as a welder. Here’s a quick look at the types of PPE welders should wear:

 Ear protection: If readings of noise average above 85 dB for eight continuous

hours, you are required to use hearing protection at all times.
 Eye and face protection: This includes safety glasses, face shields and depending
on the project, helmets.
 Heat and radiation protection: In order to protect themselves from heat and
radiation, welders must wear flame-resistant outerwear, gloves to protect hands and
lower parts of the arms, and welding hoods and goggles.
 Fume protection: Fume extraction systems and respirators can help to protect
welders from exposure to harmful fumes.
 Electrical shock protection: In addition to taking the safety precautions out lined
in tip #3, welders must wear insulated clothing to protect themselves from electrocution.
 Foot protection: Leather shoes that are spark and heat resistant with coverage
above the ankle are best for foot protection. Pant legs should goover the shoes.

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8. Avoid Stress Injuries

Welding is a hands-on career that can lead to injuries without following the right precautions.
In order to protect yourself, always practice safe lifting techniques and be sure to break up
your day to stretch and allow your body to rest. This can help to avoid repetitive stress
injuries, which some welders are prone to.

9. Enforce Safety Procedures

As a welder, it’s important to hold yourself and those around you accountable when it comes
to following safety guidelines. If you see a safety violation, report it’ sin the best interest for
you and those you share a workspace with! Additionally, if you ever feel unsafe in your work
area, don’t be afraid to speak up.

10. Keep Learning

The welding industry is constantly changing and evolving due to technology. As
manufacturers release new equipment and new techniques are adopted, it’s important to
continuously educate yourself on best practices for both yours kill and safety!

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Welding Defects CHAPTER-16
According to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), causes of welding
defects can be broken down as follows: 41% poor process conditions, 32% operator error, 12%
wrong technique, 10% incorrect consumables and 5% bad weld groove
Types

Cracks

Arc strikes
An Arc Strike is a discontinuity resulting from an arc, consisting of any localized remelted
metal, heat affected metal, or change in the surface profile of any metal object. Arc Strikes
result in localized base metal heating and very rapid cooling. When located outside the
intended weld area, they may result on hardening or localized cracking, and may serve as
potential sites for initiating fracture. In Statically Loaded Structures, arc strikes need not be
removed, unless such removal is required in contract documents. However, in Cyclically
Loaded Structures, arc strikes may result in stress concentrations that would be detrimental
to the serviceability of such structures and should be ground smooth and visually inspected
for cracks.

Cold cracking
Residual stresses can reduce the strength of the base material, and can lead to catastrophic
failure through cold cracking. Cold cracking is limited to steels and is associated with the
formation of marten site as the weld cools. The cracking occurs in the heat-affected zone of the
base material. To reduce the amount of distortion and residual stresses, the amount of heat
input should be limited, and the welding sequence used should not be from one end directly
to the other, but rather in segments.
Cold cracking only occurs when all the following preconditions are melting

74
  Susceptible micro structure
 hydrogen present in the micro structure
 Service temperature environment (normal atmospheric pressure):-100to+100°F
 High restraint
Eliminating any one of these will eliminate this condition.

Crater crack
Crater cracks occur when a welding arc is broken a crater will form fad equate molten Metal
is available to fill the arc cavity.

Hat cracks get their name from the shape of the cross-section of the weld, because the weld
flares out at the face of the weld. The crack starts at the fusion line and extends up
through the weld. They are usually caused by too much voltage or not enough speed.

Hot cracking
Hot cracking, also known as solidification cracking, can occur with all metals, and happens in
the fusion zone of a weld. To diminish the probability of this type of cracking, excess
material restraint should be avoided, and a proper filler material should be utilized. Other
causes include too high welding current, poor joint design that does not diffuse heat,
impurities (such as sulphur and phosphorus), preheating, speed is too fast, and long arcs.

Undead crack
An under bead crack, also known as a heat-affected zone (HAZ) crack, is a crack that forms a
short distance away from the fusion line; it occurs in low alloy and high alloy steel. The exact
causes of this type of crack are not completely under stood, but it is known that dissolved
hydrogen must be present. The other factor that affects this type of crack is internal stresses
resulting from: unequal contraction between the base metal and the weld metal, restraint of
the base metal, stresses from the formation of marten site, and stresses from the
precipitation of hydrogen

Longitudinal crack
Longitudinal cracks run along the length of a weld bead. There are three types: check cracks,
root cracks, and full centerline cracks. Check cracks are visible from the surface and extend
75
partially into the weld. They are usually caused by high shrinkage stresses especially on final
passes, or by a hot cracking mechanism. Root cracks start at the root and extent part way into
the weld. They are the most common type of longitudinal crack because of the small size of
the first weld bead. If this type of crack is not addressed then it will usually propagate into
subsequent weld passes, which is how full cracks (a crack from the root to the surface)
usually form.

Reheat cracking
Reheat cracking is a type of cracking that occurs in HSLA steels, particularly chromium,
molybdenum and vanadium steels, during post heating. The phenomenon has also been
observed in austenitic stainless steels. It is caused by the poor creep ductility of the heat
affected zone. Any existing defects or notches aggravate crack formation. Things that help
prevent reheat cracking include heat treating first with a low temperature soak and then with a
rapid heating to high temperatures, grinding or penning the weld toes, and using a two layer
welding technique tore fine the HAZ grain structure.
Root and toe cracks
A root crack is the crack formed by the short bead at the root (of edge preparation) beginning
of the welding, low current at the beginning and due to improper filler material used for
welding. The major reason for these types of cracks is hydrogen embrittlement. These types of
defects can be eliminated using high current at the starting and proper filler material. Toe
crack occurs due to moisture content present in the welded area, it is a part of the surface
crack so can be easily detected. Preheating and proper joint formation is a must for
eliminating these types of defects.

Transverse crack
Transverse cracks are perpendicular to the direction of the weld. These are generally the result
of longitudinal shrinkage stresses acting on weld metal of low ductility. Crater cracks occur in
the crater when the welding arc is terminated prematurely. Crater cracks are normally shallow,
hot cracks usually forming single or star cracks. These cracks usually start at a crater pipe and
extend longitudinal in the crater. However, they may propagate into longitudinal weld cracks
interest of the weld.

Distortion
Welding methods that involve the melting of metal at the site of the joint necessarily are
prone to shrinkage as the heated metal cools. Shrinkage then introduces residual stresses and
distortion. Distortion can pose a major problem, since the final product is not the desired
shape. To alleviate certain types of distortion the work pieces can be offset so that after
welding the product is the correct shape. The following pictures describe various types of
welding distortion.

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Gas inclusion
Gas inclusions is a wide variety of defects that includes porosity, blow holes, and pipes (or
wormholes).The under lying cause for gas inclusions is the entrapment of gas within the
solidified weld. Gas formation can be from any of the following causes- high sulphur content
in the work piece or electrode, excessive moisture from the electrode or work piece, too short
of an arc, or wrong welding current or polarity.

Inclusions
There are two types of inclusions: linear inclusions and rounded inclusions. Inclusions
can be either isolated or cumulative. Linear inclusions occur when there is slag or flux in the
weld. Slag forms from the use of a flux, which is why this type of defect usually occurs in
welding processes that use flux, such as shielded metal arc welding, flux-cored arc welding,
and submerged arc welding, but it can also occur in gas metal arc welding. This defect usually
occurs in welds that require multiple passes and there is poor overlap between the welds. The
poor over lap does not allow the slag from the previous weld to melt out
andrisetothetopofthenewweldbead.Itcanalsooccurifthepreviousweldleft an undercut or an
uneven surface profile. To prevent slag inclusions the slag should be cleaned from the weld
bead between passes via grinding, wire brushing, or chipping.

Lack of fusion and incomplete penetration

Lack of fusion is the poor adhesion of the weld bead to the base metal; incomplete penetration
is a weld bead that does not start at the root of the weld groove. Incomplete penetration forms
channels and crevices in the root of the weld which can cause serious issues in pipes because
corrosive substances can settle in these areas. These types of defects occur when the welding
procedures are not adhered to; possible causes include the current setting, arc length,
electrode angle, and electrode manipulation. Defects can be varied and classified as critical or
noncritical.Porosity(bubbles)intheweldareusuallyacceptabletoacertaindegree. Slag inclusions,
undercut, and cracks are usually unacceptable. Some porosity, cracks, and slag inclusions are
visible and may not need further inspection to require their removal. Small defects such as
these can be verified by Liquid Penetrate Testing (Dye check). Slag inclusions and cracks just
below the surface can be discovered by Magnetic Particle Inspection. Deeper defects can be
detected using the Radiographic (X-rays) and/or Ultrasound (sound waves) testing
techniques.

Lamellar tearing
Lamellar tearing is a type of welding defect that occurs in rolled steel plates that
have been welded together due to shrinkage forces perpendicular to the faces of the plates.
Since the1970s, changes in manufacturing practices limiting the amount of sulfur used have
greatly reduced the incidence of this problem. Lamellar tearing is caused mainly by sulfurous
inclusions in the material. Other causes include an excess of hydrogen in the alloy. This
defect can be mitigated by keeping the amount of sulphur in the steel alloy below0.005%.
Adding rare earth elements, zirconium, or calcium to the alloy to control the configuration of
77
sulfur inclusions throughout the metal lattice can also mitigate the problem. Modifying the
construction process to use cast or forged parts in place of welded parts can eliminate this
problem, as Lamellar tearing only occurs in welded parts.

Undercutting
Under cutting is when the weld reduces the cross-sectional thickness of the base metal and which
reduces the strength of the weld and work pieces. One reason for this type of defect is excessive
current, causing the edges of the joint to melt and drain into the weld; this leaves a drain like
impression along the length of the weld. Another reason is if a poor technique is used that does not
deposit enough filler metal along the edges of the weld. A third reason is using an incorrect filler
metal, because it will create temperature gradients between the centre of the weld and the edges.

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 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
CHAPTER-17

Objective
To gain experience with and understanding of the types, advantages and applications of various
NDT methods. To be able to choose the best NDT method for a given part.

Introduction
Up to this point we have learnt various testing methods that somehow destruct the test
specimens. These were, tensile testing, hardness testing, etc. In certain applications, the
evaluation of engineering materials or structures without impairing their properties is very
important, such as the quality control of the products, failure analysis or prevention of the
engineered systems in service. This kind of evaluations can be carried out with Non destructive
test (NDT) methods. It is possible to inspect and/or measure the materials or structures without
destroying their surface texture, product integrity and future usefulness. The field of NDT is a
very broad, inter disciplinary field that plays a critical role in inspecting that structural
component and systems perform their function in are liable fashion. Certain standards has been
also implemented to assure their liability of the NDT test sand prevent certain errors due to
either the fault in the equipment used, the miss-application of the methods or the skill and the
knowledge of the inspectors. Successful NDT test allow locating and characterizing material
conditions and flaws that might otherwise cause planes to crash, reactors to fail, trains to derail,
pipelines to burst, and variety of less visible, but equally troubling events. However, these
techniques generally require considerable operator skill and interpreting test results accurately
may be difficult because the results can be subjective.
These methods can be performed on metals, plastics, ceramics, composites, cermets, and
coatings in order to detect cracks, internal voids, surface cavities, delaminating, incomplete
defective welds and any type of flaw that could lead to premature failure. Commonly used NDT
test methods can be seen in table 1. These are universal NDT methods; however, very special
tests have been developed for specific applications.
Table1Commonly used NDT techniques
Technique Capabilities Limitations
Visual Macroscopic surface Small flaws are difficult to detect, no sub surface flaws.
Inspection flaws
Microscopy Small surface flaws Not applicable to larger structures; no sub surface flaws.
Radiography Sub surface flaws Smallest defect detectable is 2% of the thickness;
radiation protection. No subsurface flaws not for porous
materials
Dye penetrate Surface flaws No subsurface flaws not for porous materials
Ultrasonic Subsurface flaws Material must be good conduct or of sound.
Magnetic Surface/near surface and Limited subsurface capability, only for ferromagnetic
Particle layer flaws materials.
Eddy Current Surface and near Difficult to interpret in some applications; only for metals.
Surface flaws
Acoustic Can analyze entire Difficult to interpret, expensive equipments.
79
mission structure

80
 Liquid (Dye) penetrant method:

Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) is one of the

most widely used non destructive evaluation
(NDE) methods. Its popularity can be attributed to
two main factors, which are its relative ease of use
and its flexibility. The technique is based on the
ability of a liquid to be drawn into a "clean"
surface breaking flaw by capillary action. This
method is an inexpensive and convenient
technique for surface defect inspection. The
limitations of the liquid penetrant technique
include the inability to inspect subsurface flaws
and a loss of resolution on porous materials. Liquid penetrant testing is largely used on non
magnetic materials for which magnetic particle inspection is not possible.
Materials that are commonly inspected using LPI include the following; metals (aluminum,
copper, steel, titanium, etc.), glass, many ceramic materials, rubber, plastics. Liquid
penetrant inspection is used to inspect of flaws that break the surface of the sample. Some of
these flaws are listed below; fatigue cracks, quench cracks grinding cracks, overload and
impact fractures, porosity, laps seams, pin holes in welds, lack of fusion or braising along
the edge of the bond line.

Procedure

Liquid penetrant method:

In this method the surfaces to be inspected should be free from any coatings, paint, grease.
Dirt, dust, etc., therefore, should be cleaned with an appropriate way. Special care should be
taken not to give additional damage to the surface to be inspected during the cleaning process.
Otherwise, the original nature of surface could be disturbed and the results could be erroneous
with the additional interferences of the surface features formed during the cleaning process.
Surface cleaning can be performed with alcohol. Special chemicals like cleaner-remover can
also be applied if needed. In the experiment, only cleaner-remover will be sufficient.
Subsequent to surface cleaning, the surface is left to dry for 2 minutes. Commercially
available cans of liquid penetrant dyes with different colors are used to reveal the surface
defects.

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Steps used in the experiment:

1. Clean the surface with alcohol and let surface dry for 5 min.

2. Apply the liquid penetrant spray (red can) to the surface and brush for further penetration.
Then, wait for 20min.

3. Wipe the surface with a clean textile and subsequently apply remover spray (blue can) to
remove excess residues on the surface and wait for a few min.

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4. Apply the developer spray (yellow can) at a distance of about 30cm from the surface. The
developer will absorb the penetrant that in filtrated to the surface features such as cracks, splits,
etc., and then reacted with it to form a geometric shape which is the negative of the geometry of
the surface features from which the penetrant is sucked.

Magnetic particles:
Magnetic particle inspection is one of the simple, fast and traditional non destructive testing
methods widely used because of its convenience and low cost. This method uses magnetic fields
and small magnetic particles, such as iron filings to detect flaws in components. The only
requirement from an inspect ability standpoint is that the component being inspected must be
made of a ferromagnetic material such iron, nickel, cobalt, or some of their alloys, since these
materials are materials that can be magnetized to a level that will allow the inspection to be
effective. On the other hand, an enormous volume of structural steels used in engineering is
magnetic. In its simplest application, an electromagnet yoke is placed on the surface of the part
to be examined, a kerosene-iron filling suspension is poured on the surface and the
electromagnet is energized. Surface of the part, magnetic flux will be broken and a new south
and north pole will format each edge of the discontinuity. Then just like if iron particles are
scattered on a cracked magnet, the particles will be attracted to and cluster at the pole ends of
the magnet, the iron particles will also be attracted at the edges of the crack behaving poles of
the magnet. This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and this is the
basis for magnetic particle inspection. For the best sensitivity, the lines of magnetic force should
be perpendicular to the defect surface of the part, magnetic flux will be broken and a new south
and north pole will form at each edge of the discontinuity. Then just like if iron particles are
scattered on a cracked magnet, the particles will be attracted to and cluster at the pole ends of
the magnet, the iron particles will also be attracted at the edges of the crack behaving poles of
the magnet. This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and this is the

83
basis for magnetic particle inspection. For the best sensitivity, the lines of magnetic force should
be perpendicular to the defect.

Magnetic particle:
In this experiment, commercially available magnetic powder manufactured for NDT inspection
will be used. A strong U shape magnet will be used to provide the necessary magnetic field at
the inspected area.

The following steps are applied during the experiment:

1. The surface of the specimen will be roughly

cleaned wiping with a piece of textile.

2. The fluorescent magnetic spray will be applied

on the surface being inspected

3. Magnetic field will be applied with a strong

magnet to the location of interest.

4. The spots where the fluorescent magnetic particles accumulated will be inspected under
UV light.

Radiographic Testing:
Radiographic Testing or Radiographic Examination is a non-destructive testing (NDT) method
for examining the internal structure of any component to identify its integrity. Radiographic
Testing or RT uses x-rays and gamma-rays to produce a radiograph of the test specimen that
shows changes in thickness, defects or flaws, and assembly details to ensure optimum quality.
Radiographic testing of welds to ensure the weld quality is a widely used industry practice.
Radiographic testing in welding is a highly dependable way to detect weld defects like cracks,
porosity, inclusions, voids, lack of fusion, etc. in weld interiors. Because of its aerospace,
transport, military, automotive, manufacturing, offshore, petrochemical, marine and power
generation industries.

In Radiography Testing, the part to be tested is placed between the radiation source and a piece
of sensitive film or detector. Once the x-ray or gamma-ray radiation is started, the high
dependability, radiographic testing is widely used in the oil & gas, test part will hinder some of
the radiation by its material density and thickness. Thicker and more dense material will allow
less radiation to pass through the specimen. The film (or an electronic device) records the
amount of radiation (known as radiograph) that reaches the film through the test specimen. By
studying the radiograph data, defects can easily be recognized. If the material is sound without
any defect, entire rays will evenly pass through the material. But for materials containing flaws,
rays passing through the flaws will get abs or bed to a small extent due to the change in the
density.

84
 A defect in parent metal reduces its density and hence they transmit radiation much better than
the sound metal. Hence the radiograph film appears to be darker at the area exposed by the
defects.
The penetration power of rays is dependent on the energy of the radiation. Radiation having
higher energy can penetrate thicker and denser materials. As high energy x-ray and gamma-ray
are highly radioactive, local rules must be strictly followed.

In radiographic testing, defects are detected dusing thickness variation. So, larger the variation,
the easier the defect is to detect. But when the path of rays is not parallel to a crack, the thickness
variation is less and thus crack may not be visible. That’s why it is always suggested to perform
radiographic testing by sending rays at various angles.

 Step 1- Surface Preparation: Surface irregularities must be removed so that they cannot
mask or confuse the image as defect. The finished surface of all butt welded joints should be
flushed with the base material.

 Step 2- Selecting the right radiation source and radiographic film: Depending on
radiographic sensitivity and material thickness radiation source (x-ray or gamma-ray) must be
decided. Fine grain high definition radiographic films can be used.

 Step 3- Selection of penetrameter: As per SE 142 or SE 1025 (for whole type) and SE-
747 (for wire type), ASMEV & ASME Sec VIII DivI, whole type or wire type penetrameter need
to be selected.

 Step4-Radiographic testing technique: Single or Double wall exposure technique is

used. Source to object and object to source distance must be established beforehand.

 Step5-Defect inspection and removal: The radiograph to be studied for probable defects
and repaired if defect is observed.

 Step6-Recording: All data need to be properly recorded.

Acceptance criteria for Radiographic Testing

 For process Piping: The acceptance criteria for radiographic testing shall be as per table
341.3.2 A of ASME B 31.3 for normal fluid service, with the exception of piping class E

 For structural steel: The acceptance criteria for non-tubular structure shall be in
accordance with the requirement section6.12.1ofAWSD1.1and for tubular joints section 6.12.3 of
AWS D1.1

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Advantages of Radiographic Testing
The main advantages of radiographic testing are

 Assembled components can easily be inspected.

 Surface preparation requirement is minimal.
 Both surface and sub surface flaws can be detected.

Disadvantages of Radiographic Testing

The main disadvantages of radiographic testing are

 Highly hazardous, so proper care must be exercised.

 High degree of skills and experience required.
 Costly affair.
 Slow process.
 Two sided access of component required.

ULTRAVIOLET

Ultra violet is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wave length from 10 nm (with a
corresponding frequency around 30 PHz) to 400 nm (750 THz),shorter than that of visible light,
but longer than X-rays. UV radiation is present in sunlight, and constitutes about 10% of the total
electromagnetic radiation output from the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized
lights, such as mercury-vapor lamps, tanning lamps, and black lights. Although long-wave length
ultra violet is not considered an ionizing radiation because its photons lack the energy to ionize
atoms, it can cause chemical reactions and causes many substances to glow or fluoresce.
Consequently, the chemical and biological effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects,
and many practical applications of UV radiation derive from its interactions with organic
molecules.
Short-wave ultraviolet light damages DNA and sterilizes surfaces with which it comes into
contact. For humans, suntan and sunburn are familiar effects of exposure of the skin to UV light,
along with an increased risk of skin cancer. The amount of UV light produced by the Sun means
that the Earth would not be able to sustain life on dry land if most of that light were not filtered
out by the atmosphere. More energetic, shorter-wavelength "extreme" UV below 121
nmionizesairsostronglythatitisabsorbedbeforeitreachestheground.However, ultraviolet light
(specifically, UVB) is also responsible for the formation of vitamin D in most land vertebrates,
including humans. The UV spectrum, thus, has effects both beneficial and harmful to life.

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The following steps are applied during the experiments

1. The surface of the specimen will be roughly cleaned wiping with a piece of textile.
2. The fluorescent magnetic spray will be applied on the surface being inspected.
3. Magnetic field will be applied with a strong magnet to the location of interest.
4. The spots where the fluorescent magnetic particles accumulated will being suspected under
UV light.

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