Intrinsic vs Extrinsic

An intrinsic semiconductor is formed from a highly pure semiconductor material thus also known as pure
semiconductors. These are basically undoped semiconductors that do not have doped impurity in it. At room
temperature, intrinsic semiconductors exhibit almost negligible conductivity. As no any other type of element is
present in its crystalline structure.

Extrinsic Semiconductors are those that are the result of adding an impurity to a pure semiconductor. These are
basically termed as an impure form of semiconductors.

Factors Intrinsic Extrinsic

Form of Pure form of semiconductor. Impure form of semiconductor.

semiconductor

Conductivity It exhibits poor conductivity. It possesses comparatively better

conductivity than intrinsic semiconductor.

Band gap The band gap between conduction The energy gap is higher than intrinsic
and valence band is small. semiconductor.

Fermi level It is present in the middle of The presence of fermi level varies according
forbidden energy gap. to the type of extrinsic semiconductor.

Dependency The conduction relies on The conduction depends on the

temperature. concentration of doped impurity and
temperature.

Carrier concentration Equal amount of electron and holes The majority presence of electrons and holes
are present in conduction and depends on the type of extrinsic
valence band. semiconductor.

Type It is not further classified. It is classified as p type and n type

semiconductor.

Example Si, Ge etc. GaAs, GaP etc.

Forward Biasing
In forward biasing the external voltage is applied across the PN-junction diode. This voltage cancels the potential
barrier and provides the low resistance path to the flow of current. The forward bias means the positive region is
connected to the p-terminal of the supply and the negative region is connected to the n-type of the device.
The potential barrier voltage is very small (nearly 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium junction) hence very few
amount of voltage is required for the complete elimination of the barrier. The complete elimination of the barrier
constitutes the low resistance path for the flow of current. Thus, the current starts flowing through the junction. This
current is called forward current.

Definition of Reverse Biasing

In reversed bias the negative region is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the positive region is
connected to the negative terminal. The reverse potential increases the strength of the potential barrier. The potential
barrier resists the flow of charge carrier across the junction. It creates a high resistive path in which no current flows
through the circuit.

Full wave rectifier

In a full wave rectifier circuit, we use two diodes, one for each half of the wave. A multiple winding transformer is used
whose secondary winding is split equally into two halves with a common center tapped connection. Configuration
results in each diode conducting in turn when its anode terminal is positive with respect to the transformer center
point C produces an output during both half-cycles. Full rectifier advantages are flexible compared to that of half wave
rectifier.

he full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load resistance (RL) with each diode
taking it in turn to supply current to the load resistor. When point A of the transformer is positive with respect to point
A, diode D1 conducts in the forward direction as indicated by the arrows. When point B is positive in the negative half
of the cycle with respect to C point, the diode D2 conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing through
resistor R is in the same direction for both half-cycles of the wave.

The output voltage across the resistor R is the phasor sum of the two waveforms, it is also known as a bi-phase circuit.
The spaces between each half-wave developed by each diode is now being filled in by the other. The average DC output
voltage across the load resistor is now double that of the single half-wave rectifier circuit and is about 0.637Vmax of
the peak voltage by assuming no losses. VMAX is the maximum peak value in one half of the secondary winding and
VRMS is the rms value.
Transistor as a Switch
When used as an AC signal amplifier, the transistors Base biasing voltage is applied in such a way that it always
operates within its “active” region, that is the linear part of the output characteristics curves are used.
However, both the NPN & PNP type bipolar transistors can be made to operate as “ON/OFF” type solid state switch by
biasing the transistors Base terminal differently to that for a signal amplifier.

Solid state switches are one of the main applications for the use of transistor to switch a DC output “ON” or “OFF”.
Some output devices, such as LED’s only require a few milliamps at logic level DC voltages and can therefore be driven
directly by the output of a logic gate. However, high power devices such as motors, solenoids or lamps, often require
more power than that supplied by an ordinary logic gate so transistor switches are used.
If the circuit uses the Bipolar Transistor as a Switch, then the biasing of the transistor, either NPN or PNP is arranged
to operate the transistor at both sides of the “ I-V ” characteristics curves

A Negative-feedback amplifier

A Negative-feedback amplifier (or feedback amplifier) is an electronic amplifier that subtracts a fraction of its output
from its input, so that negative feedback opposes the original signal. The applied negative feedback can improve its
performance (gain stability, linearity, frequency response, step response) and reduces sensitivity to parameter
variations due to manufacturing or environment. Because of these advantages, many amplifiers and control systems
use negative feedback.

An idealized negative-feedback amplifier as shown in the diagram is a system of three elements (see Figure 1):
 an amplifier with gain AOL,
 a feedback network β, which senses the output signal and possibly transforms it in some way (for example by
attenuating or filtering it),
 a summing circuit that acts as a subtractor (the circle in the figure), which combines the input and the
transformed output.

All electronic devices that provide power gain are nonlinear. Negative feedback trades gain for higher linearity
(reducing distortion) and can provide other benefits. If not designed correctly, amplifiers with negative feedback can
under some circumstances become unstable due to the feedback becoming positive, resulting in unwanted behavior
such as oscillation. The Nyquist stability criterion developed by Harry Nyquist of Bell Laboratories is used to study the
stability of feedback amplifiers.

LED

A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode that emits light when
activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons can recombine with electron holes within the
device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.

Working principle of LED:

 The material used in LEDs is basically aluminum-gallium-arsenide (AlGaAs). In its original state, the atoms of
this material are strongly bonded. Without free electrons, conduction of electricity becomes impossible here.
 By adding an impurity, which is known as doping, extra atoms are introduced, effectively disturbing the
balance of the material.
 These impurities in the form of additional atoms are able either to provide free electrons (N-type) into the
system or suck out some of the already existing electrons from the atoms (P-Type) creating “holes” in the atomic
orbits. In both ways the material is rendered more conductive. Thus in the influence of an electric current in N-type of
material, the electrons are able to travel from anode (positive) to the cathode (negative) and vice versa in the P-type of
material. Due to the virtue of the semiconductor property, current will never travel in opposite directions in the
respective cases.
 From the above explanation, it’s clear that the intensity of light emitted from a source (LED in this case) will
depend on the energy level of the emitted photons which in turn will depend on the energy released by the electrons
jumping in between the atomic orbits of the semiconductor material.
 We know that to make an electron shoot from lower orbital to higher orbital its energy level is required to be
lifted. Conversely, if the electrons are made to fall from the higher to the lower orbitals, logically energy should be
released in the process.
 In LEDs, the above phenomena is well exploited. In response to the P-type of doping, electrons in LEDs move
by falling from the higher orbitals to the lower ones releasing energy in the form of photons i.e. light. The farther these
orbitals are apart from each other, the greater the intensity of the emitted light.

Semiconductor
A semiconductor is a substance whose resistivity lies between the conductors and insulators. The property of
resistivity is not the only one that decides a material as a semiconductor, but it has few properties.
Semiconductors have the resistivity which is less than insulators and more than conductors.
Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient. The resistance in semiconductors, increases with the decrease
in temperature and vice versa.
The Conducting properties of a Semiconductor changes, when a suitable metallic impurity is added to it, which is a
very important property.
Semiconductor devices are extensively used in the field of electronics. The transistor has replaced the bulky vacuum
tubes, from which the size and cost of the devices got decreased and this revolution has kept on increasing its pace
leading to the new inventions like integrated electronics. The following illustration shows the classification of
semiconductors.

Conduction in Semiconductors
After having some knowledge on the electrons, we came to know that the outermost shell has the valence electrons
which are loosely attached to the nucleus. Such an atom, having valence electrons when brought close to the other
atom, the valence electrons of both these atoms combine to form “Electron pairs”. This bonding is not so very strong
and hence it is a Covalent bond.
For example, a germanium atom has 32 electrons. 2 electrons in first orbit, 8 in second orbit, 18 in third orbit, while 4
in last orbit. These 4 electrons are valence electrons of germanium atom. These electrons tend to combine with valence
electrons of adjoining atoms, to form the electron pairs.

Intrinsic Semiconductors
A Semiconductor in its extremely pure form is said to be an intrinsic semiconductor. The properties of this pure
semiconductor are as follows −
 The electrons and holes are solely created by thermal excitation.
 The number of free electrons is equal to the number of holes.
 The conduction capability is small at room temperature.
In order to increase the conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor, it is better to add some impurities. This
process of adding impurities is called as Doping. Now, this doped intrinsic semiconductor is called as an Extrinsic
Semiconductor.

Extrinsic Semiconductor
An impure semiconductor, which is formed by doping a pure semiconductor is called as an extrinsic semiconductor.
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors depending upon the type of impurity added. They are N-type extrinsic
semiconductor and P-Type extrinsic semiconductor.
Zener diode

A Zener diode is a silicon semiconductor device that permits current to flow in either a forward or reverse direction.
The diode consists of a special, heavily doped p-n junction, designed to conduct in the reverse direction when a certain
specified voltage is reached.

The Zener diode has a well-defined reverse-breakdown voltage, at which it starts conducting current, and continues
operating continuously in the reverse-bias mode without getting damaged. Additionally, the voltage drop across the
diode remains constant over a wide range of voltages, a feature that makes Zener diodes suitable for use in voltage
regulation.

Zener diode operation

The Zener diode operates just like the normal diode when in the forward-bias mode, and has a turn-on voltage of
between 0.3 and 0.7 V. However, when connected in the reverse mode, which is usual in most of its applications, a
small leakage current may flow. As the reverse voltage increases to the predetermined breakdown voltage (Vz), a
current starts flowing through the diode. The current increases to a maximum, which is determined by the series
resistor, after which it stabilizes and remains constant over a wide range of applied voltage.

Zener breakdown

The breakdown is either due to the Zener breakdown effect that occurs below 5.5 V, or impact ionization that occurs
above 5.5 V. Both mechanisms result in the same behavior and do not require different circuitry; however, each
mechanism has a different temperature coefficient.

The Zener effect has a negative temperature coefficient while the impact effect experiences a positive coefficient. The
two temperature effects are almost equal at 5.5 V and cancel out each other to make the Zener diodes rated at around
5.5 V the most stable over a wide range of temperature conditions.
Zener diode specifications

Zener diodes vary in specifications such as nominal working voltage, power dissipation, maximum reverse current,
and packaging. Some commonly used specifications include:

Voltage Vz: The Zener voltage refers to the reverse breakdown voltage—2.4 V to about 200 V; can go up to 1 kV while
the maximum for the surface-mounted device (SMD) is about 47 V).
Current Iz (max.): Maximum current at the rated Zener voltage Vz—200 uA to 200 A).
Current Iz (min.): Minimum current required for the diode to break down—5 mA and 10 mA.
Power rating: The maximum power the Zener diode can dissipate; given by the product of voltage across the diode and
the current flowing through. Typical values are 400 mW, 500 mW, 1 W, and 5 W; for surface mounted, 200 mW, 350
mW, 500 mW, and 1 W are typical.
Voltage tolerance: Typically ±5%.
Temperature stability: Diodes around 5 V have the best stability.
Package: Leaded devices and the surface mount either as discrete devices or within integrated circuits.
Zener resistance (Rz): The diode exhibits some resistance as evident from the IV characteristics.

Zener diode applications

Zener diodes are used for voltage regulation, as reference elements, surge suppressors, and in switching applications
and clipper circuits.

Voltage regulator

The load voltage equals breakdown voltage VZ of the diode. The series resistor limits the current through the diode
and drops the excess voltage when the diode is conducting.

Zener diode in overvoltage protection

If the input voltage increases to a value higher than the Zener breakdown voltage, current flows through the diode and
create a voltage drop across the resistor; this triggers the SCR and creates a short circuit to the ground. The short
circuit opens up the fuse and disconnects the load from the supply.

Zener Diode Clipping Circuits

Zener diodes are used to modify or shape AC waveform clipping circuits. The clipping circuit limits or clips off parts of
one or both of the half cycles of an AC waveform to shape the waveform or provide protection.

phototransistor

The phototransistor is a semiconductor device that is able to sense light levels and alter the current flowing between
emitter and collector according to the level of light it receives.

Phototransistors and photodiodes can both be used for sensing light, but the phototransistor is more sensitive in view
of the gain provided by the fact that it is a bipolar transistor. This makes phototransistors more suitable in a number of
applications.

The idea of the phototransistor has been known for many years. William Shockley first proposed the idea in 1951, not
long after the ordinary bipolar transistor had been discovered. It was then only two years before the photo-transistor
was demonstrated. Since then phototransistors have been used in a variety of applications, and their development has
continued ever since.

Phototransistors are widely available and can easily be obtained quite cheaply from electronic component distributors
- in view of their use in many electronic circuits and applications, they are available as part of the standard
semiconductor device inventory.

Phototransistor applications

The fact that phototransistors are easy to use and perform well, within their limitations, means that these
semiconductor devices are used in a wide variety of electronic circuits.

Often the applications are where a light beam is interrupted, but sometimes they can be used for light level detection.

 Encoders where a rotating disc with light and dark stripes rotates - this gives speed and direction or rotation.
 Card readers.
 Security systems
 Infra-red detectors.
 Lighting control.
 Opto-couplers
 Counting systems - a light or IR beam is interrupted for each item counted.
 Lighting control.

The photo-transistor operates because light striking the semiconductor frees electronics / holes and causes current to
flow in the base region.

Photo-transistors are operated in their active regime, although the base connection is generally left open circuit or
disconnected because it is often not required. The base of the photo transistor would only be used to bias the transistor
so that additional collector current was flowing and this would mask any current flowing as a result of the photo-
action. For operation the bias conditions are quite simple. The collector of an NPN transistor is made positive with
respect to the emitter or negative for a PNP transistor.

The light enters the base region where it causes hole electron pairs to be generated. This generation mainly occurs in
the reverse biased base-collector junction. The hole-electron pairs move under the influence of the electric field and
provide the base current, causing electrons to be injected into the emitter. As a result the photodiode current is
multiplied by the current gain β of the transistor.
Phototransistor circuit symbol

The phototransistor symbol consists of the basic bipolar transistor symbol with two arrows pointing towards the
junction of the bipolar transistor. This diagrammatically represents the operation of the phototransistor.

Phototransistor advantages

Have a relatively high gain and therefore they are relatively sensitive.
These electronic components are relatively cheap as they are effectively a transistor that is open to light.
They can be incorporated into an integrated circuit.
Offer a reasonable speed.

Phototransistor disadvantages

These devices cannot handle the high voltages of other semiconductor devices like photo-thyristors and triacs.
In applications where they are exposed to transient voltage spikes and surges, they are open to damage
Not as fast as other light sensitive electronic components like photo-diodes.

Signals

Signals are classified into the following categories:

Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals

Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals

Even and Odd Signals

Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

Energy and Power Signals

Real and Imaginary Signals

Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals

A signal is said to be continuous when it is defined for all instants of time.

A signal is said to be discrete when it is defined at only discrete instants of time/

Deterministic and Non-

deterministic Signals

A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no uncertainty with respect to its value at any instant of time. Or, signals
which can be defined exactly by a mathematical formula are known as deterministic signals.
Deterministic signal.

A signal is said to be non-deterministic if there is uncertainty with respect to its value at some instant of time. Non-
deterministic signals are random in nature hence they are called random signals. Random signals cannot be described
by a mathematical equation. They are modelled in probabilistic terms.

Even and Odd Signals

A signal is said to be even when it satisfies the condition x(t) = x(-t)

Example 1: t2, t4… cost etc.
Let x(t) = t2

x(-t) = (-t)2 = t2 = x(t)

...,
t2 is even function

Example 2: As shown in the following diagram, rectangle function x(t) = x(-t) so it is also even function.
Even and odd signals

A signal is said to be odd when it satisfies the

condition x(t) = -x(-t)
Example: t, t3 ... And sin t

Let x(t) = sin t

x(-t) = sin(-t) = -sin t = -x(t)

…, sin t is odd function.

Any function ƒ(t) can be expressed as the sum of its even function ƒe(t) and odd function ƒo(t).

ƒ(t ) = ƒe(t ) + ƒ0(t )

where

ƒe(t ) = ½[ƒ(t ) +ƒ(-t )]

Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

A signal is said to be periodic if it satisfies the condition x(t) = x(t + T) or x(n) = x(n + N).

Where

T = fundamental time period,

1/T = f = fundamental frequency.

The above signal will repeat for every time interval T0 hence it is periodic with period T0.
Energy and Power Signals

A signal is said to be energy signal when it has finite energy.

EnergyE=∫∞−∞x2(t)dt

A signal is said to be power signal when it has finite power.

PowerP=limT→∞12T∫T−Tx2(t)dt

NOTE:A signal cannot be both, energy and power simultaneously. Also, a signal may be neither energy nor power
signal.
Power of energy signal = 0

Energy of power signal = ∞

Real and Imaginary Signals

A signal is said to be real when it satisfies the condition x(t) = x*(t)

A signal is said to be odd when it satisfies the condition x(t) = -x*(t)

Example:

If x(t)= 3 then x*(t)=3*=3 here x(t) is a real signal.

If x(t)= 3j then x*(t)=3j* = -3j = -x(t) hence x(t) is a odd signal.