1.

Diode Circuits and Applications

2. Bipolar Junction Transistor
1. Applications of Zener Diodes

➢ Voltage regulation in power supplies.

➢ Overvoltage protection for sensitive electronic
components.
➢ Voltage reference circuits.
➢ Signal limiting and clipping circuits.
1. Voltage Regulation
➢ A regulator is a combination of elements designed to
ensure that the output voltage of a supply remains fairly
constant.
➢ For positive applied voltages less than the Zener
potential of the diode, the diode will be in its
approximate open-circuit state.
➢ Once the voltage across the Zener diode reaches the
Zener potential, the diode will turn on and the voltage
across the system will lock in at the VZ.
➢ Further increases in the applied voltage will simply
appear across the series resistor with the voltage across
the system and the forward-biased diode remaining fixed
at VZ and 0.7 V, respectively
1. Voltage Regulation
1. Voltage Regulation

➢ RS is to limit the Zener current, IZ , so that it is

less than the maximum current, IZM (to prevent
the Zener diode from breaking).
➢ Zener current will increase or decrease directly
with voltage input changes.
➢ The Zener current will increase or decrease
inversely with varying loads.
➢ Percentage voltage regulation
𝑉𝑛𝑜−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 − 𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
% 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
1. Zener Diodes Operating Conditions

➢ Vi and R fixed:
𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑍 = 𝑉𝐿 =
𝑅 + 𝑅𝐿
➢Fixed Vi, Variable RL
𝑅𝑉𝑍
𝑉𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑍
➢Fixed RL, Variable Vi
(𝑅𝐿 +𝑅)𝑉𝑍
𝑉𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅𝐿
1. Waveshaping Circuit

➢ Waveshapping is the process by which non-sinusoidal

waveforms are altered.
➢ Waveshaping is used to:
▪ generate one wave from another
▪ limit the voltage level to a preset value by suppressing
all other voltage levels outside the value.
▪ cut off the positive and negative portions of the input
waveform.
▪ hold the waveform in a DC level
➢ Waveshaping circuits are classified as linear or non-linear
1. Waveshaping Circuit
1. Waveshaping Circuit

➢ Linear waveshaping circuits use linear elements

like resistors, inductors, and capacitors.
➢ They are used in performing differentiation and
integration functions.
➢ Nonlinear waveshaping circuits use nonlinear
elements like diode and transistors in addition to
linear components.
➢ They are used to perform amplitude limiting
clipping and clamping
1. Clipping Circuit

➢ Clippers are networks that employ diodes to

“clip” or remove a portion of an input signal
above or below a certain level without distorting
the remaining part of the applied waveform.
➢ Depending on the orientation of the diode, the
positive or negative region of the applied signal is
“clipped” off.
➢ There are series (the diode is in series with the
load)and parallel (the diode is parallel to the
load) clippers.
1. Clipping Circuits

➢ Clippers are networks that employ diodes to

“clip” or remove a portion of an input signal
above or below a certain level without distorting
the remaining part of the applied waveform.
➢ Depending on the orientation of the diode, the
positive or negative region of the applied signal is
“clipped” off.
➢ There are series (the diode is in series with the
load)and parallel (the diode is parallel to the
load) clippers.
1. Series Clipping Circuits
1. Series Clipping Circuits

➢ In the positive half-cycle, the diode is forward

bias, acting like a closed switch.
➢ In the negative half-cycle, the diode is reverse
bias, acting like an open switch.
➢ For a series clipper with a bias voltage VB, the
voltage level is clipped to a preset value.
➢ The clipping level can be adjusted by varying VB
1. Series Clipping Circuits
1. Parallel/Shunt Clipping Circuit
1. Parallel/Shunt Clipping Circuit
1. Clamping Circuits

➢ Clampers are networks of a diode, a resistor, and a

capacitor that shifts a waveform to a different DC level
without changing the appearance of the applied signal.
➢ It places either the positive or negative peak of a signal at
a desired level
➢ Clamping networks have a capacitor connected directly
from input to output with a resistive element parallel to
the output signal.
➢ The diode is also in parallel with the output signal.
1. Clamping Circuits
1. Clamping Circuits

➢ In the positive half cycle, the capacitor charges to

Vm (the peak positive voltage) through the
forward bias diode.
➢ In the negative half cycle, the diode is ‘off’.
➢ Thus Vo=Vi+Vm
➢ This shifts the entire waveform downwards, so
that the positive peak is clamped to 0V
1. Applications of Clipping and Clamping Circuits

➢ Clippers are used in signal limiting, protection

against overvoltage
➢ Clampers are used in DC level shifting,
restoring lost DC components in AC-coupled
amplifiers.
2. Bipolar Junction Transistor

➢ A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal

semiconductor device.
➢ Its operation depends on the interaction of both majority
and minority carriers and hence, the name bipolar.
➢ NPN BJT consists of two n- and one p-type layers of
material while PNP BJT has two p- and one n-type layers
of material.
➢ They are used in amplifier and oscillator circuits, and as a
switch in digital circuits, in computers, satellites and
other modern communication systems.
2. Bipolar Junction Transistor
2. Bipolar Junction Transistor

➢ The transistor consists of two pn junctions, the

emitter-base junction (EBJ) and the collector-
base junction (CBJ).
➢ The direction of the arrow always points from
the positive P-type region to the negative N-
type region for both transistor types.
➢ The emitter layer is heavily doped, with the
base and collector only lightly doped.
➢ The potential of the EB barrier is lower, which
allows majority carriers.
2. PNP Transistor Operation
2. Transistor Configurations

➢ The common-base configuration: the base is

common to both the input and output sides of
the configuration i.e. the base is the terminal
closest to, or at, ground potential.
➢ Active mode (forward active mode):emitter
junction is forward biased and the collector
junction is reverse biased.
➢ Cutoff mode: both emitter and collector junctions
are reverse-biased.
➢ Saturation mode: both emitter and collector
junctions are forward-biased.
2. Transistor Configurations

➢ With EBJ forward bias, the depletion region has been

reduced in width due to the applied bias, resulting in
a heavy flow of majority carriers from the p- to the n-
type material.
➢ With CBJ reverse bias, the flow of majority carriers is
zero, resulting in only a minority-carrier flow
➢ Majority carriers will diffuse across the forward-
biased p–n junction into the n-type material.

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵
2. Transistor Configurations
2. Transistor Configurations
2. Transistor Configurations
2. Transistor Configurations

➢ The large signal current gain (∝) of a common base

transistor is defined as the ratio of the negative of the
collector-current increment to the emitter-current
change from cut-off (IE = 0) to IE
𝐼𝐶
∝𝑑𝑐 =
𝐼𝐸
➢ Since alpha is defined solely for the majority carriers:
𝐼𝐶 = ∝ 𝐼𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂
➢ The common-base, short-circuit, amplification factor:

∆𝐼𝐶
∝𝑎𝑐 = ฬ
∆𝐼𝐸 𝑉𝐶𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
=
2. Transistor Configurations

➢ The common emitter configuration: the

emitter is common to both the input and output
terminals.
➢ Active mode (forward active mode): the base-
emitter junction is forward-biased, whereas the
collector-base junction is reverse-biased.
➢ Cutoff mode: a condition when the collector
current is equal to the reverse saturation
current and the emitter current is zero.
➢ Saturation mode: base–emitter and collector–
base junctions are forward-biased.
2. Transistor Configurations
2. Transistor Configurations
2. Transistor Configurations
2. Transistor Configurations
𝐼𝐵 = −(𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐸 )
➢ Signal current gain (𝛽) of a common emitter transistor
the ratio of the change in collector current (IC) to the
change in base current (IB), while the emitter current
(IE) remains relatively constant
𝐼𝐶
𝛽𝑑𝑐 =
𝐼𝐵
𝐼𝐶 = 1 + 𝛽 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 + 𝛽𝐼𝐵
➢ The common-emmiter, short-circuit, amplification factor:
∆𝐼𝐶
𝛽𝑎𝑐 = ฬ
∆𝐼𝐵 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
=

∝
𝛽 =
1 −∝
2. Transistor Configurations
2. Transistor Configurations
2. Transistor Configurations
2. Transistor Configurations

➢ The common collector configuration: the

collector is common to both the input and
output terminals.
➢ Active mode (forward active mode): the base-
emitter junction is forward-biased, whereas the
collector-base junction is reverse-biased.
➢ Cutoff mode: no significant current flows
through the transistor, i.e. the transistor acts
like an open switch.
➢ Saturation mode: base–emitter and collector–
base junctions are forward-biased.
2. Transistor Configurations

➢ It is used primarily for impedance-matching purposes

since it has a high input impedance and low output
impedance, opposite to that of the common-base and
common-emitter configurations.
➢ The voltage gain of an emitter follower is typically
slightly less than 1. This means the output voltage is
almost equal to the input voltage.
𝐼𝐸
𝛾=
𝐼𝐵
1
𝛾=
1 −∝
𝛾 = 𝛽+1
2. Transistor Configurations
 Exercises
1. Design a voltage regulator that will maintain an output
voltage of 20 V across a 1-k load with an input that will vary
between 30 V and 50 V. That is, determine the proper value
of RS and the maximum current IZM. Sketch a figure for the
majority- and minority-carrier flow of an NPN transistor.
Describe the resulting carrier motion.
2. A transistor has IB = 100 A and IC = 2 A. Find (a) 𝛽 of the
transistor, (b) ∝ of the transistor, (c) emitter current IE, (d) if
IB changes by + 25 A and IC changes by + 0.6 mA, find the
new value of 𝛽.
3. Given that ∝dc = 0.980, determine the corresponding value
of 𝛽dc.
b. Given 𝛽dc = 120, determine the corresponding value of ∝.
c. Given that 𝛽dc = 120 and IC 2.0 mA, find IE and IB.
Exercises
 Recommended Text

1. Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory by Robert L.

Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky. Prentice Hall
Publications.
2. Electronic Devices, Circuits, and Applications by
Christopher Siu. Springer Nature Switzerland