Nama Kelompok :
1. Bryan Anggiat Gulo 16120001
2. Elisabet Hutabarat 16120011
A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS ON HILLARY CLINTON’S SPEECH
“AMERICAN FOR MARRIAGE EQUALITY”
A. Previous Research
In purpose to develop and complete this research about Critical Discourse Analysis,
here are several related previous researches:
The first one “A Critical Discourse Analysis of Barack Obama’s Speeches”4 by
Junling Wang was researches that use M.A.K Halliday‟s Systemic Functional Grammar in
terms three meta-functions: ideational function, interpersonal function and textual function, in
order to find out the formal features of Barack Obama‟s speech. By using Halliday‟s theory
Junling Wang aims to explore the relationship among language, ideology and power to find
out the power of speech to persuade the public to accept and support their (presidential
candidate).
The second previous research “Ideology and Political Discourse: A Critical Discourse
Analysis of Erdogan’s Political Speech”5 by Fatih Baryam was a research that aims todiscuss
the realization of powerby means of language use in apolitical environment, specifically
focusing on the Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan and his walk-out from a
debate in theWorld Economic
Forum in Davos in January 2009. This research was grounded by Norman
Fairclough‟s Critical Discourse Analysis. The aim is to examine the realization of power in
Mr.Erdogan‟s language use and its ideological component through a linguistic analysisbased
on Norman Fairclough‟sCDA.
The third previous research was conducted by Bahram Kazemian and Somayyeh
Hashemi from Department of English, Tabriz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran
in 2014. Entitled “Critical Discourse Analysis of Barack Obama’s 2012 speeches: Views
from Systemic Functional Linguistics and Rhetoric.6 The methodologies of this research is
concerning to Ideational Grammatical Methapor (IGM) proposed by Halliday. It aims to
reveal the implicit meaning in Obama‟s speeches in term of nominalization, passivization,
modality and rhetorical devices and to disclose the secret message behind Mr. Obama‟s
speech.
The fourth previous research was done by D. Jupriono from Universitas 17 Agustus
(Untag Surabaya) in 2010. Entitled: Critical Discourse Analysis: Historical Background
President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s Speech. In this research focused on two things
namely: (1) Objective descriptions of historical facts are made explicit. (2) Critical
interpretation of implicit facts in President SBY‟s speech. Van Dijk CDA theory used in this
research.
The fifth “A Critical Discourse Analysis on the Jakarta Post Text”. This research was
conducted by Mudofar, a student of State Islamic University of Syarif Hidayatullah, in 2009.
the purpose of the research is develop a research between socio-linguistic science with mass
communication in critical discourse analysis which based on discourse theory about social
problem (Chinese discrimination) news in mass media which is especially laded in Jakarta
Post text. Van Dijk Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) applied in this research.
Generally, after review the previous research, the difference of this research is mostly
on the purposes of the research. The purposes of this research are: Describing the structure
text (macrostructure, superstructure and microstructure) and representation of ideology in
Hillary‟s speech text. Although, Junling Wang’s research also aims to find out the ideology
but the theory is different. Junling Wang was applied Halliday‟s theory. Meanwhile, the
theory that used in this research was developed by Van Dijk.
B. Discourse
Discourse usually mean of communication in the medium of language. In linguistics,
discourse is language units larger than a sentence which is a reaction of the form of formal
linguistic units that concern to the words, phrases, or sentences looking at the relationship
between these elements10, either written or spoken delivered. “Written or spoken
communication or debate” or “a formal discussion or debate.”11 Discourse is sequence of
harmonious sentences which is connecting proposition with other propositions, sentence with
other sentence, forming a unity. Hawthorn (1992: 189): Discourse is linguistic
communication seen as a transaction between speaker and hearer, as an interpersonal activity
whose form is determined by its social purpose. Text is linguistic communication (either
spoken or written) seen simply as a message coded in its auditory or visual medium.
The word stems from the Medieval Latin word „discurrere‟¸ which means „to
circulate‟. Literally, it means „to run to from‟ or „to run on.‟12 Discourse was then
appointed as linguistic terms. The terminology of discourse has the distinction of meaning
due to the differences in disciplines that use it. Lull defines discourse as communication is
not only linearly one way. Discourse can be discussed. It produced comprehend response and
is widespread, in which there could be many encounters.13So that, the meaning of discourse
is the most complete language unit of the phoneme, morpheme and clauses, sentences with
coherence and high cohesion and sustainable, which is able to have a real beginning and end
both spoken and in written. Discourse studies relates to the understanding of human actions
performed by language (verbal) and not nonverbal language. This suggests, that in order to
understand discourse, takes sufficient knowledge of linguistics, and not linguistic (general).
There is a common ground between those definitions about discourse. It has relation to
linguistics study / language used but there are some distinction points of view.
There are three linguistic paradigms in discourse analysis. According Hikam, the first
paradigm is represented by positivism-empiric. The central point is based on grammatically
correct or not, cohesion and coherent. Cohesion is the grammatical relationship between parts
of a sentence for its interpretation. Meanwhile, coherence is the order of statements relates
one another by sense. The second is called constructivism- paradigm. Constructivism
considered the object as a central factor in a discourse and also the social relation. Every
statement basically means creation, which is the act of self-formation as well as the
disclosure of the identity of the speaker.14Discourse attempts to reveal the hidden purpose of
the disclosure of the subject that raises a statement. And the last is critical paradigm;
discourse analysis in this part is concern in constellation of power that happened in the
process of production and reproduction of meaning. Language in critical paradigm is known
as representation that functions to establish particular object, particular discourse themes, and
strategies inside discourse. Therefore, discourse analysis is used to dismantle the power of
process in every linguistic text.
The dimensions of discourse are: text structure, social cognition, and social context.
According to Van Dijk discourse has various parts of level, and each of these levels is
interrelated.
1. Text Analysis
There are three elements in discourse analysis: Macrostructure, superstructure,
microstructure. First, macrostructure, it is global or general meaning from a text that more
emphasize on the meaning which can be observed by looking at the topic and themes from a
text. Second, superstructure, it is how a discourse framework being organized by
conventional schemata. How texts parts are arranged into the whole news. Last,
microstructure, concern on local meaning of the discourse, by observing the semantics,
syntax, stylistic and rhetoric aspects.
a. Macrostructure
A macrostructure is global meaning of discourse,16 macrostructure are formed using
three macrorules.
i. Deletion rule: A given sequences of proposition, eliminates those propositions that are not
relevant for the interpretation of other propositions in discourse.
Example (0.1): Aman in the black car is a robber.
i. A man is a robber
ii. He was driving a car
iii. The car is black
We can eliminate (ii) and (iii), leaving only (i) as a proposition. The deletion rule is
eliminate irrelevant proposition.17
ii. Generalization rule: convert those specific propositions into more general proposition.
Example (02):
Tika was doing her homework, Zein was writing his paper, and Mark was learning math
with his sister.
i. The children were studying.
The rule does not just eliminate irrelevant detail. Specifically predicates and arguments
in a series propositions are replaced by more general terms so that one proposition may
suffice.
iii. Construction rule: one propositions can be constructed from a number of propositions.
substituting all propositions by a proposition that denotes a global fact.
Example (03) :
Xave opened the door. he sat on a chair. he began to feel guilty
when his teacher asked him why he had just arrived in the classroom, and promised to come
early tomorrow.
Xave late to school.
The general proposition is simply constructed, but it contain all the purposes of the text.
b. Superstructure
Superstructure is the schematic form that organizes the global meaning of a text. In
the other words, macrostructures deal with content and superstructures deal with form.
Superstructure refers to the framework of a discourse or schemata, such as theprevalence of a
conversation or writing that starts from the introduction, followed by the main contents,
followed by conclusion, and ended with the closing. Which part comes first, and which parts
hidden, will be regulated in the interest of making discourse.
c. Microstructure
Microstructure of a discourse structure that can be observed by analyzing the words,
sentences, propositions, clauses, paraphrasing. microstructure also contains four important
aspects. Such as, syntax, semantic, stylistic, and rethoric.
a. Thematic
Thematic is trying to identify meaningful categories or themes in a body of data by
looking at the text. Thematic element is general description. It also called as main idea,
summary, or the main point from a text. Topic shows dominant concept, central, and the
most important of news. Because of that, it also called theme or topic. Topic describes what
is the idea or main idea of person when respond an issue
Text 1: Jakarta post article
Student protest greets SBY in Bandung
Dozens of students from various universities staged a rally in Bandung, West Java, on
Thursday to express their disappointment over what had been achieved by the government of
President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.
The rally was held to greet the arrival of Yudhoyono and First Lady Ani Yudhoyono
to open a meeting of palm oil associations at the Trans Studio Hotel on Jl. Gatot Subroto.
In the protest, which was tightly guarded by the police, the students vented their anger
by burning tires, thereby causing traffic jams.
"During the two terms of SBY's leadership, we have not felt comfortable. We feel victimized.
Our actions are part of our struggle against the SBY regime," an unidentified protester said
as quoted by kompas.com.
The students tried to expand their protest, but their efforts were prevented by the police. The
students then directed their anger at the police, saying: "Police, police you're so cruel. You
hit the students, but protect the corrupt."
The student protest ended at 11 a.m.
For the example: macrorules can be applied to determine thematic element of text 1
above. The following are the steps determine the theme: the deletion rule and generalization
apply to 1st sentence of text 1. The information about number of the students, where are the
students come from, and when the protest in held can be eliminated. The description of
President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (SBY) governance can be generalized to “the
government”. The message about “student disappointment” is relevant for the interpretation
of 4th sentence. “Uncomfortable”, “victimized”, and “two term of SBY regime” are possible
to eliminate. The following discourse can be generalized to “disappointed” and
“government”. On the basis of 2nd and 3rd sentences, the same point is the way the student
protest to the president. The “greet arrival” and “burning tires” is the primary importance. It
is possible to construct and combine the two sentences. The 5th and 6th sentence provides are
the information about cause and effect action of the main subject. It can be constructed to
become “Because the protest expanded is failed the student angry to the police.” And
following sentences are the
macrostructures of text: 1.
1. The students disappointed over two term SBY‟s governance (from 1, 4 by generalization)
2. The student burning tires to greet SBY arrival (from 2,3 by deletion)
3. Because the protest expanded is failed the students angry to police. (from 5,6 by deletion)
4. The student protest ended at 11 a.m , The text: 1 also possible to summarize as follows.
5. Student protest greets the presidentgreets the president.
b. Schemata
Schemata, on the other hand, is used to describe the overall form of a discourse, the
schema shows how the parts of the text is arranged to form unity of meaning. Schemata
shows which parts were emphasized and which part were hidden, as a part of important
strategy. This concealment is performed by placing the part to be hidden at the end of text.So
that, it indicates to the reader which information in the text is most “important” or prominent.
The part 1 describes the background of the students protest. The next part describes
the way of the students‟ protest that becomes anarchist. And, the last part also describes the
anger of the students who failed to expand their protest and vent the anger to police.
From the analysis above, the text attempts to marginalize the students because it
mostly explains the student protest becomes anarchist. These schemata tends to explain the
bad description for the students.
c. Syntax
Syntactic aspects of a discourse are related to how phrases or sentences are arranged and
presented, including forms of sentences (associated with a logical way of thinking that
explains the proposition in a series of sentences), coherence (relation between word and
sentence), and the selection a number of pronouns.
Example:
The students tried to expand their protest, but their efforts were prevented by the police.
Text 1, Sentence 6
That sentence using „but‟ as the conjunction. It is shows there is contradiction
between students and police action that the writer wants to describe
d. Semantic
Semantic is related to meaning or significance of language. In this case, the meaning
that will be found on the text is derived from the relationship between sentences and
propositions that build a particular meaning in the text building. Semantic strategies are
intended to describe that the writer or the own group is right and marginalize other group,
thus producing the opposite meaning. Positive values of selfdescribed with great detail,
explicit, direct and clearly. On the contrary, when describing the positive value of the other
group, it is presented with a short detail, implicit and vague.Semantics has elements of
discourse: detail, background, and intention. Detail is related to information control which is
delivered by the author. Communicator will show excessive information that is worth for
himself, and it aims to create good image and vice versa.The author will show a little
information if it is detrimental to his position. Detail element is the author‟s way to express
his opinon implicitly.
Example analyze detail element:
The protesters halted the operation of TransJakarta buses serving the Kuningan-Ragunan
route. The rallies caused massive traffic jams, forcing office workers to seek alternative
routes home. Nine cars were damaged during the protests, including one that was completely
burned out.
Text 2 :
From the sentence above, the anarchist acts of the students are explained in detail. The text
above only describes the student anarchist protest, but does not explain the cause why the
protest becomes to anarchist. It makesthe students as a blamed group. Background is part of
the text that affects the meaning that will be delivered.Background generally rose at the
beginning before the author‟s opinion with the aim of influencing and giving the impression
that the opinion of the authors reasoned.Background is chosen determines which way the
views of readers want to be directed.Background is containing author's intention. The main
purpose sometimes presented implicitly. By looking at how the background is described and
presented, we can analyze the intention and purpose of the author.
Example analyze background element:
Police used water cannons on the protesters, who responded by pelting the officers with
stones.
Text 3 :
The sentence above explains the student anarchist act by pelting police with stone,
prompting police to use water cannons.The sentence gives the impression that the police act
is right to defense from the anarchist protester. Intention element is almost similar to detail
element.Favorable information for communicators will be described explicitly and clearly.
And, otherwise, the adverse information will be described in disguised, implicit and hidden.
The eventual public goal only presents the information that favorable communicator.
e. Stylistic
Stylistic is the study of style.It is related to how diction and figure of speech used in a
text.The style of language is used to select and arrange words and sentences that are
considered the most express a theme, idea, emotion, and the experience of the speaker /
writer. Stylistics is used to create particular image/ meaning. The element of stylistic is
lexicon. At least 1,000 students gathered at the gates of the House of Representatives
building, demanding they be allowed to take part in a plenary session being held to discuss
the government's fuel price policy.
Text: 4
Underlined word above shows that the writer assumes the students are group that can only
force their desires. Because the word „demanding‟ according Oxford English dictionary the
meaning of that word is an activity that making other work hard like a boss. That will impress
negative image on the students.
f. Rhetoric
Strategy in rethoric level is style that is expressed when a person speaks or writes.
How the speaker or author deliver the messages which will be delivered to public or
audience. Rethoric has persuassive function.Rhetoric also appearsinto interaction
formwhether formal or informal interaction that creates an impression of how presenting
himself in front of audience. The elements of rhetoric are graphics and metaphor. Graphics is
form of writing, whether capital letter, lowercase, big size or small size, italic, bold,
underline, number, colored or not. Those writing form is used to reveal which parts of the
text are highlighted or prioritized and which parts are marginalized. In conversation form of
discourse the emphasized delivered by using intonation from the speaker. The second
element of rhetoric element is metaphor. It is sentence to support the main idea. In a
discourse, the author delivers not only main idea by text, but also proverb, expression and
metaphor intended as ornament from a discourse. Metaphor that the author used has function
as basis of reasoning, justification for the opinion or particular idea to audience. The author
used common sense, expression, colloquialisms, proverbs, religious advice, ancient words, or
even Al-qur‟an verses. It is used to reinforce the author‟s opinion.
Example of graphics element:
At least 1,000 students gathered at the gates of the House of Representatives building,
demanding they be allowed to take part in a plenary session being held to discuss the
government's fuel price policy.
In the text 3, the aouthor put the number of demonstators. This strategy is used to convince
the public that there are many numbers of people involved.
D. Ideologies
There are many definition related to “ideologies”. Ideologies in general meaning is
any group ideals, basic value. Literally, ideologies are set of beliefs characteristic of a social
group or individual. According to Van Dijk, Ideologies are basic belief that is owned by a
group and nternalized by all members of the group.26Ideologies are symbolizing the
principles underlying social cognition. Therefore, forms the basis of knowledge, attitude and
more specifically the belief that is shared by a group. Raymound William classified the
ideologies in 3 domains.27 First, ideologies are not unique system that produced empirically,
but ideologies are determined by society around a person, social-position, etc. Second,
ideologies are set of categories that were made and fake consciousness in which the ruling or
dominant groups to dominate. Ideologies here work with making social relations seem real,
reasonable, and natural and make someone or particular social group accepts as truth. The
third, the ideologies are the term that used to describe meaning production. In this term,
capital power is considered and regarded as the greatest role in society.
