UNIT 5 NORMAL SUBGROUPS

Structure
5.1 Introduction 5
Objectives
5.2 Normal Subgroups 5
5.3 Quotient Groups 9
5.4 Summary a 12
5.5 Solutions/Answers 12

5.1 INTRODUCTION

In Block 1 you studied subgroups and cosets. We start this unit by discussing a special class of
subgroups, call'ed normal subgroups. You will see that the cosets of such a subgroup form a
group with respect to a suitably defined operation. Thes: groups are called quotient groups. .
We will discuss them in some detail in Sec. 5.3.
Once you are comfortable with normal subgroups and quotient groups, you will find it easier
to understand the concepts and results that are presented in the next unit. So, make sure that
you have met the following objectives before going to the next unit.

Objectives
After reading this unit, you should be able to
Q verify whetlier a subgroup is normal or not,
@ obtain a quotient group corresponding to a given normal subgroup.

5.2 ,NORMALSUBGROUPS

In E 1 of Unit 4 you saw that a left coset of a subgroup H, aH, need not be the same as the
right coset Ha. But, there are ceitain subgroups for which the right aad left cosets represented
by the same element coincide. This type of subgroup is very important in group theory, and
we give it a special name.

Definition : A subgroup N of a group G is called a normal subgroup of 6 if

Nx = xN V x E G, and we write this as N 416.
For example, any grbup G lias two normal subgroups, namely, {ejand G itself. Can you see
why? Well, {e)x = {x) = x{e), for any x E 6 , and Gx = G = xG, for any x E G.
Let us consider another example.
Example 1 : Show that every 'subgroup of Z is normal in Z.
Solution : From Example 4 of Unit 3, you know that if H is a subgroup of Z, then H = mZ,
for some m E Z. Now, for any z E Z,
H + z = { ..., - 3 m + z , - 2 m + z , - m + z , z , m + z , 2 m + z ,...I
- + + +
- {...,z - 3m, z 2m, z m, z, z m, z 2m, .;.I (since is commutative)
-

Example 1 is a special case of the fact that every subgroup of a commutative group is a
normal subgroup. We will prove this fact later (in Theorem 2).
Try the following exercise now.

E 1) Show that A3 L\ S, (seeaxample 3 of Unit 4).

Some More Group Theory Let us now prove a result that gives equivalent conditions for a subgroup to be normal.
Theorem 1 : Let H be a subgroup of a group G.The following statements are equivalent.

a) H is normal in G.

= (g-'hg I h E H) b) g - l ~ gC H v g E G .

-
g-' Hg

P r o o f : W e will show that (a) =3 (b) (c) =3 (a). This will show that the three
statements are equivalent.
(a) *(b) : Since (a) is true, Hg = gH V g E G . We want to prove (b). For this, consider
g'IHg for g E G. Let g-'hg E g-1~4g.
Since hg E Hg = gH, 3 hl E H such that hg = gh I .

.'. (b) holds.

(b) =t. (c) : Now, we know that (b) holds, i.e., for g E G, g - l ~ g H. W e want to show
that H C g-'kIg. Let h E H. Then
h = ehe = (g-'g) h (g-'g)
= 9-' (ghg-') g
= g-I { (g-')-l hg-I ) g E g-'Hg, since (g-')-lhg-l E (g-')-' ~ ( g - ' C
) H.
.'. H C g - ' ~ g .
.'. g-IHg = H'v' g E G.
Ha = Hb- Hac = I-Ibcfor any (c) =+ (a) : For any g E G, we know that = H.
a, b,c EmG.
.'. g ( g - I ~ g )= gH, that a, Hg = gH. .
:. HA
- G , that is, (a) holds.
W e would like to make the following remark about Theorem 1.
Remark : Theorem 1 says that H 4 G e g - ' ~ g= H'v' g E G. This d o e s not mean that
g 'hg= h Y h E H a n d g E G .
For example, in E 1 you have shown that A3 4 S3. Therefore, by Theorem 1,
(1 2)-' A1(l 2) = A,. But, (1 2)-'(1 3 2) (I 2) # (1 3 2). In fact, it is (I 2 3).
Try the following exercise now.

E 2) Consider the subgroup SLz(R) = ( A E GL2(R) 1 det (A) = 1 ) of GL2(R) (see

Examplc 5 of Unit 2). Using the facts that
f d a (AB) = det (A) det ( 8 ) and det (A-I) =
1
m,
prove that SL:(R) 4 GLI(R). , ,

W e now prove a simple result that we stated after Example 1. It is actually a corollary to
Theorem 1.
Theorem 2 : Every subgroup of a commutative group is normal.
Proor : Let G be an abelian group, and H IG. For any g E G and h € H,
g 'hg = (g-'g)h = h EH. :. g - ' ~ gCH. Thus, H 4 ,G.

Theorem 2 says that if G is abelian, then all its subgroups are normal. Unfortunately, the
converse of this is not true. hit is, there are non-commutative groups whose~subgroupsare all
normal. W e will give you an example after doing Theorem 3. Let us first look at another
example of a normal subgroup.
Example 2 : Consider the Klein 4-group, K4, given in Example 7 of Unit 3. Show that both i
subgroups < a > and < b > are normal.
 Solution : Consider the table of the operation given in Example 7 of Unit 3. Note that a and b Normal Subgraups
are of order 2. Therefore, a = a-I and b = b-'. Also note that ba = ab.
Now, let H = < a > = {e,a). We will check that H 4 K4,that is, .g-'hg E H V g E K4and
h EH.
Now, g-leg = e E H V g E K4.

Further, e-lae = a € H, a-laa = a E H, b-lab = bab = a E H and (ab)-' a(ab)

= b-I (a-'aa)b = bab = a E H.

By a similar proof we can show that < b > 4 K4.

In Example 2, both < a > and < b > are of index 2 in K4. We have the following result
about such subgroups.
Theorem 3 : Every subgroup of a group G of index 2 is normal in G.
Proof : Let N 5 G such that IG : N( = 2. Let the two right cosets of N be N and Nx, and the
two left cosets be N and yN.
Now, G = N U yN, and x E G . .'. x E N or x E yN.
Since N n Nx = 4, x @N. :. x EyN. :. xN = yN.
To show that N 4 G , we need to show that Nx = xN.
Now, for any n E N, nx E C = N U xN. Therefore, nx E N or nx E xN.
But nx @ N, since x @ N. :. nx E xN.
Thus, Nx C xN.
By a similar argument we can show that xN C Nx.

:. Nx = xN, and N 4 G.
We will use this theorem in Unit 7 to show that, for any n 1 2, the alternating group A, is a
normal subgroup of S,.
In fact, if you go back b the end of Sec. 4.3, you can see that A4 4 S4, since Lagrange's
theorem implies that .

Now let us look at an example to show that the converse of Theorem 2 is not true.
Consider the quaternion group Qe, which we discussed in Example 4 of Unit 4. It has the
following 6 subgroups:

Ho = (I}, H I = [I, - I], HZ= (I, - I, A, - A), H3 = (I, - I, B, - B),

H4 = {I, - I, C, - C), Hs = Qe.
You know that Ho and H5are normal in Qe. Using Theorem 3, you can see that Hz, H3 and
H4 are normal in Qe.
By actual multiplication you can see that

Therefore, all the subgroups of Q8 are normal.

But, you know that Qe is non-abelian (for instance, AB = - BA).
So far we'have given examples of normal subgroups. Let us look at an example of a subgroup
that isn't normal.
Example 3 : Show that the subgroup < (1 2) > of S3 is not normal.
Solution : We have to find g E S3 such that g-'(1 2)g @ < (1 2) > .
Some More Group l'hmf~ Let us try g = (1 2 3).
Then, g-'(l 2)g = (3 2 1) (1 2) (1 2 3)
=(321)(23)=(13)$!<(12)>
Therefore, < (1 2) > is not normal in S3.
Try the following exercises now.

E 3) Cdnsider the group of all 2 X 2 diagonal matrices over R*, with respect to
multiplicatia. How many of its subgroups are normal?

E 4) Show that Z(G), the centre of G, is normal in G. (Remember that

Z(G) = { X E G I xg = ~ x Y ~ E G ) . )

E 5) Show that < (2 3) > is not normal in S3.

InUnit 3 we proved that if H I G and K IH,then K I G. That is, ' I' is a transitive
relation. But '4' is not a transitive relation. That is, if H 4 N and N 4 G, it is not necessary
that H 4 G. We211 give you an example in Unit 7. But, corresponding to the property of
subgroups given in Theorem 4 of Unit 3, we have the following result.
Theorem 4 : Let H and K be normal subgroups of a group G. Then H n K A G:
Proof : From Theorem 4 of Unit 3, you know that H i7
' K 5 G. We have to show that
g-lxg E H n K Y x E H n K a n d g E G .
Now,let x E H n K a n d g E G . T h e n x E H a n d H AG. : . g - ' x g € ~ .
Similarly, g - l ~ g E K. .'. g - ' ~ gE H f l K. .
T ~ U SH, n K 4 c;.
In the following exercise we ask you to prove an important property of normal subgroups.

E 6 ) a) Prove that if H 4 G and K 5 G, then HK 5 G.

(Hint : Use Theorem 5 of Unit 3.)
b) Prove that if H 4 G, K 4 G, then HK 4 G.

.
Now consider an important group which is the product of two subgroups, of which only one is
normal.
Example 4 : Let G be the group generated by
{x, y 1 x = e, y4 = e, xy = y ' x )
2

LetH=<x>andK=<y>.
I
' # *' denotes'is not a normal Then show that K 4 G, H 4( G and G = HK. 1
subgroup of. 1
Solution : Note that the elements of G are,of the form xi$, where i = 0, 1 and j = 0, 1,2,3 1
.: G = le, x, xy, XY2, x$, Y, y2, y31.
.'. IG : = 2. Thus, by Theorem 3, K A- G.
Note that we can't apply Theorem 2, since G is non-abelian (as xy = y-lx and y # y'l).
1
Now let us see if H 4 G. I
Consider y-'xy. Now y-lxy = xy2, because y-lx = xy.
If xy2 E H, then xy2 = e or xY2= X. (Remember o(x) = 2, so that x-I = x.) i
Now,xy2 = e A'$ = x7' = x I
3y3 = xy = y-'x
==3y4=X I

* e = x, a contradiction..
Again xy2 = x $ = e, a contradiction.
Y - ' ~ Y = xY2 @ H,and hence, H 4( G.
Finally, from the definition of G you see that G = HK.
I
 The group G is of order 8 and is called the dihedral group, De. It is thegroup of symmetries of Normsl Subgroups
a square, that is, its elements represent the different ways in which two copies of a square can
be placed so that one covers the other. A geometric interpretation of its generators is the
following (see Fig. 1) :
Take y to be a rotation of the Euclidean plane about the origin through
It 3 and x the reflection about the vertical axis.
2

Fig. 1 : Geometric representation of the generators of DI

We can generalise Ds to the dihedral group
DZn= < (x, y I x2 = e, yn = e, xy = Y-'x}>, for n > 2.
Try the following exercise now.
- --

E 7) Describe Dg and give its geometric interpretation.

Let us now utilise norm2 subgroups to form new algebraic structures.

5.3 QUOTIENT GROUPS

In this.section we will use a property of normal subgroups to create a new group. This group
is analogous to the concept of quotient spaces given in the Linear Algebra course.
Let H be a normal subgroup of a group G. Then gH = Hg for every g E G. Consider the
collection of all cosets of H in G. (Note that since H 4 G, we need not write 'left coset' or
'right coset; simply 'coset' is enough.) We denote this set by G/H. Now, for x, y E H, we have
(Hx) (Hy) = H(xH)y, using associativity,
= HHxy, using normality of H,
= Hxy, since HH = H because H is a subgroup.
Now, we define the product of two cosets Hx and Hy and G/H by
(Hx)(Hy) = Hxy for all x, y in G.
Our definition seems to dependon the way in which we represent a coset. Let us explain this.
Suppose CI and Cz are two cosets, say C l = Hx and C2 = Hy. Then C ' I C ~= Hxy. But CI
and C2 can be written in the form Hx and Hy in several ways. So, you may ask : Does CICZ
depend on the particular way of writing CI and Cz?

fn other words, if CI = Hx = H X Iand C2 = Hy = Hyl, then is C I C = ~ Hxy or is

ClCz = H X ~ YActually,
I? we will show you that Hxy = HXIYI, that is, the product of
cosets Is well-defined.
Since Hx = HXIand Hy = Hy,, XXI-I E H, yy I-' E H.

.'. (XY)(XI yl)-l = (xy) (yl-'xl-l) = x (yyl-l) xl-I

= x (Y~I-!.)x-' (xxl-I) E H, since xx 1 E H and H A
-G
i.e:, (xy) (XIYI)-'E H.
:. Hxy = HxlyI.
Some More Group neory So, we have shown you that multiplication is a well-defined binary operation on G/H.

W e will now show that (G/H,.) is s group.

Theorem 5 : Let H be a normal subgroup of a group G and G/H denote the set of all cosets
of H in G. Then G/H becomes a group under multiplication defined by Hx.Hy = Hxy, x, y EG,
The coset H = He is the identity of G/H and the invase of Hx is the coset HX-!
Proof : W e have already observed that the product of two cosets is a coset.
This multiplication is also associative, since
((Hx) (Hy)) (Hz) = ( H ~ Y(Hz))
= Hxyz, as the product in G is associative,
= H x (yz)
= (Hx)( H Y ~
= (Hx)((Hy) (Hz)) for x, y, z E G.

Now, if e is the identity of G, then Hx, He = Hxe = H x and He.Hx = Hex = H x for every
x E G. Thus, He = H is the identity element of G/H.
Also, for any x E G , Hx HX-' ' He = Hx-lx = HX-'.Hx.
=~xx-=
Thus, the inverse of H x is FIX-'.
So, we have proved that G/H, the set of all cosets of a normal subgroup H in G, forms a
group with respect to the multiplicalion defined by Hx.Hy = Hxy. Phis group is called the
quotient group (or factor group) of G by H.
Note that the order of the quotient group Ci/H is the index of H in G . Thus, by Lagrange's
theorem you know that if G is a finite group, then

+
Also note that if (G, ) is an abelian group and H 5 G, then )I 4 G . Further, the operation
+ +
on G/H is defined by (H x) (H -t y) = H (x y). + +
Let us look at a few examples of quotient groups.
Example 5 : Obtain the group G/H, where G = S3 and H = A1 = {I, (1 2 31, (1 3 211.

Solutiol~: Firstly, note bat A3 4 Sj, since ISs: A31 = 2.

From Example 3 of C',.it 4 ;rl .a know that G/H is a group of order 2 whose elements are H
and (1 2) H.
Example 6 : Show that the kz?rlpZ/nZ is of order n.
Solution : The elements of Z ~ areZ of h e form a -I nZ :- {a -I kc ! k E Z).
Thus, the elements of ~ / n Z a r eprecisely the congruence classes modulo n, that is, the
elements of Z,, (see Sec. 2.5.1).
---
Thus, Z/nZ = (0,I, 2, ..., n
"-
- i 1.
.'. o(Z/nZ) = n.

Note that addition in Z/nZis given 6+ b = a + b ,

Try these simple exercises now.

E 8) For my group G, determine the quotient groups corresponding to {e} and G.

E 9) Show that the quotient group,of a cyclic group is cyclic.
(Hint : If G = < x >, then show that G/H = < H x >.)
- - - --- - --

Now, do G and G/H always have the same algebraic properties?

'
011solving the Following exercises you will see that if G is abelian, then so is G/H; but the Nor~nslSubgroups
converse need not be true. That is, if G/H is abelian, G may not be so. Thlis, G and G/H
need not have the same algebraic properties.

E 10) Show that if a group G is commutative, then.so is G/H, for any H A- G.

E 11) Take the group Ds of Example 4. Show that Ds/K is abelian, even though DRis
non-abelian.

You may be surprised to know that given a group G, we can always define a normal subgroup
H,such that G/H is abelian. This subgroup is the-commutator subgroup.
Definition : Let G be a group and x, y E G. Then x-'y-I xy is called the commutator of x
and y. It is denoted by [x, y].
The subgroup of G generated by the set of all commutators is called the commutator
subgroup of G. It is denoted by [G, 61.
For example, if G is a commutative group, then
x-ly-'xy = x-'xy-'y = e V x, y E G . :. [G, GI = {e).
Try this exercise now.

E 12) Obtain [G, GI, where G is cyclic.

Now, let us prove the commutativity of the factor group corresponding to the commutator
subgroup.
Theorem 6 : Let G be a group. Then [G, GI is a noranal subgroup of G. Furtlicr, G/[G, G ] is
comniutative.
Proof: We must show that, for any commutator x 'y-'xy and for any g C. G,
g-I (~-'~''xy)gE [G,GI.

NOW g-'(~-'y-'xy)g ig-'xg)-' (g-lyg)-' (g-'xg) (g"Iyg) E [G, GI.

.: [G, G] 4 G.
For the rest of the proof let us denote [G, GI by H, for convenience.
Now, for x, y E G,

HxHY = H y H x e Hxy = Hyx<=> (xy) (yx)-I E H

Thus, since xy x-I y-l E H ff: x, y E G, HxHy = HyHxV x, y E G. That is, G/H is abelian.
4
Note that we have defmed the quotient group G/Honly if H 4 G. But if H G we can still
clctine G/H to be the set of all left (or right) cosets of H in G. But, in this case G/H will not be
a group. The following exercise will give you an example.

E 13) For G = Sg and H = < (1 2) >, show that the product of right cosets in G/H is not
well defined.
(Hint : Show that H(l 2 3) = H(2 3) and H(l 3 2) = H(l 3), but
, H(l 2 3) (1 3 2) # H(2 3) (1 3) )

E I3 leads us to the following remark.

Remark : If H is a subgroup of G, then the product of cosets of H is defined only when
H G. This is because, if HxHy = Hxy tS x, y € G, then, in particular,
Some More Croup Theory Thererore, tor gny h E H, x-'hx = ex-'hx E HX-~HX
= H.
That is, X-'HX H for any x E G.
:. H 4 G .
Let us now summarise what we have done in this unit.

5.4 SUMMARY
In this unit we have brought out the following points.
1. The definition and examples of a normal subgroup.
2. Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal.
3. Every subgroup of index 2 is normal.
4. If H and K are normal subgroups of a group G, then so is H r
l K.
5. The product of two normal subgroups is a normal subgroup.
6. If H 4 N and N 4 G, then H need not be normal in G .
7. The definition and examples of it quotient group.
5. If G is abelian, then every quotient group of G is kbelian. The converse is not true.
9. The quotient group corresponding to the commutator subgroup is commutative.
10. The set of left (or right) cosets of H in G is a group if and only if H 4 G.

El) S3= 2),(13),(23),(123)Y(l32)1

A3 = {I, (1 2 31, (1 3 2))
You can check that
A31 = A3 = IA3, A3(1 2) = (1 2) Aa and so on.
:. A3 4 S3.
"
E 2) For any A G. 674SW) and B E SLz (R),
det(~-'BA).= det(~-I)det(R) det(A)
1:
-
-- det(A), since det(B) = 1
det(A)
=I
.'. A-'BA E SLa(R).
.'a SLz(R) 4 GL2(R).

E 3) All, since this group is abelian,

E 4) ' Let g EG and x E Z(G). Then

g-'xg, = gIgx, since x E Z(G)
= x E Z(G)
:. g - ' z ( ~ ) gC Z(G) V g E G.
:. Z(G) L\ G

E 5) Since (1 2 3)-' (2 3 ) ( 1 2 3 ) = ( 1 2) @ < (2 3) > , < (2 3 ) > 4 S3.

E 6) ' a) Take any element hk E HK. Since H 4 G, k-'hk E H. Let k7'hk = hl. Then
hk = khl E KH. . .
:. h k E K H V h k E H K . H K C K H .
Again, for any kh E KM, khk-' 6 H. Let klk-' = hz. Then kh = hzk E HK. '
:. kh E H K V kh € m. '

12 :. KH C HK.
 Normal Subgroups
Thus, we have shown that HK = KH.
:. HK 5 G.
b) From (a) we know that HK 5 G. To show that HK 4 G, consider g E G and
hk E HK. Then
, g-lhkg = g-'h(gg-')kg = (g-'hg)(g-'kg) E HK,since H 5 G, K 4 G.
.: g - ' ~ C~ HK
g %' g E G.
.: HK a G.
E 7) D6is generated by x and y, where xZ= e, y3 = e and xy = y-'x.
.'. D6 = {e, X, y, y2, xy, xy2). ,

This is the group of symmetries of an equilateral triangle. Its generators are x and y,
where x corresponds to the reflection ahout the altitude through a fixed vertex and y
corresponds to a rotation about the centroid through 120° (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 : Gelterntors of D6

E8) G/{e)=({e)glg~G)={{g)lgEGl
G / G = { G ~ )g E G ) = { G j , s i n c e G g = G Q g E G .
So G/G consists of only one element, namely, the identity.
E 9) Let G = < x > and G/H be a quotient group of G. Any element of G/H is of the
form Hx" (Hx)", since any element of G is of the form x" G/H = < Hx >.
::.

E 10) For any two elements Hx and Hy in G/H,

(Hx) (Hy) = Hxy = Hyx, since G is abelian
= (HY) (Hx).
:. G/H is abelian.
E 11) Ds/K = {K, Kxj. You can check that this is abelian. You have already seen that
xy # yx. :. De is not abelian.
E 12) Since G is cyclic, it is abelian. .'.[G, G]' = {ej
E 13) Now, (1 2 3) (1 3 2) = I, (2 3) (1 3) = (1 2 3),
:. H(1.2 3) (1 3 2) = HI = H = {I, (1 2)j, and
H(2 3) (1 3) = H(l 2 3) = {(I 2 3), (2 3)).
So, H(1 2 5) = H(2 3) and H (1 3 2) = H(l 3), but H(1 2 3) (1 3 2) # H (2 3) (1 3).