Electrical and Electronics Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Subject Name: Electrical and Electronics Engineering Subject Code:MET35

Prepared by:
Dr. S. Thamizharasan, Associate Professor / EEE
Mr. P. Sivaprakasam, Assistant Professor / EEE
Mr.A. Janagiraman, Assistant Professor/ EEE

Verified by: Approved by:

4. ELECTRONCS
Op.Amp. – Characteristics – Inverting amplifier - Non-inverting amplifier -differentiation

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integration I/V converter - V/I converter - Instrumentation amplifier – adder – subtractor – First
order low pass filter and High pass filter using op. Amp
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Part –A (2 Marks)
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1. List out the ideal characteristics of OPAMP.(APRIL/2013)(APRIL/2014)(NOV/2014)
 An ideal op amp draws no current in both the input terminals. Therefore its impedance
is infinite. Any source can drive it and there is no loading on the driver stage.
 The gain of an ideal op-amp is infinite, hence the differential input Vd= (V1-V2) is
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essentially zero for the infinite output voltage.

 The output voltage V0 is independent of the current drawn from the output terminals.
Thus its output impedance is zero and hence output can drive an infinite number of
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other circuits.
2. Mention some of the applications of OPAMP (NOV/2014)
 Instrumentation amplifier
 V to I converter
 I to V converter
 comparator
3. What do you mean by inverting amplifier?( APRIL/2012/2014)
The output of such an amplifier is inverted as compared to the input signal. The
inverted output signal means having a phase shift of 180° as compared to the input signal. So,
am amplifier which provides a phase shift of 180° between input and output is called
inverting amplifier.
4. What is an operational amplifier (NOV/2013)
The operational amplifier most commonly referred as ‘op-amp’ was introduced in
1940s. The operational amplifiers performs addition, subtraction, multiplication etc. due to its
use in performing mathematical operations, it has been given as operational amplifier.
 ircuit diagram of I to V converter (NOV/2013)
5. Draw the circuit

6. Draw the circuit diagram of subractor.

sub (APRIL/2013)

R2
_
R1
v1 +
R4  R2  R
R3 vOUT  v2 1   v1 2
v2 R3  R4  R1  R1
R4

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7. Draw the circuit diagram of op-amp
op differentiator. (NOV/2012)

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8. What is meant by filter? (NOV/2012)

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A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass a specific band of frequencies while attenuating all
the signals outside that band. It is a frequency selective circuit.
9. Mention some applications of an instrumentation amplifier. amplifier (APRIL/2012)
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 Temperature controller
 Temperature indicator
 Light intensity meter
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 Analog weight scale
10. Draw the pin configuration of IC741.IC741
 Part-B (11 Marks)

1. Explain about the basic of IC 741 by using its ideal and practical characteristics.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER: (Op-Amp)

An operational amplifier or OP-AMP is a DC-coupled voltage amplifier with a very high voltage
gain. Op-amp is basically a multistage amplifier in which a number of amplifier stages are
interconnected to each other in a very complicated manner. Its internal circuit consists of many
transistors, FETs and resistors. All this occupies a very little space. So, it is packed in a small
package and is available in the Integrated Circuit (IC) form. The term Op-Amp is used to denote an
amplifier which can be configured to perform various operations like amplification, subtraction,
differentiation, addition, integration etc.

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OP-AMP
An op-amp has two input terminals and one output terminal. The op-amp also has two voltage
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supply terminal. It has a differential input and a single ended output. The terminal marked as negative
(-) is called as an inverting terminal and the terminal marked as positive (+) is called as a non-
inverting terminal of the operational amplifier. If we connect an input signal at the inverting terminal
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(-) of the op-amp than the amplified output signal is π radians (180°) out of phase with respect to the
applied input signal. If an input is connected to the non-inverting terminal (+) than the output signal
obtained will be in phase i.e. it will have no phase shift with respect to the input signal.
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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF OP-AMP

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Block Diagram of an OP AMP

This contains four stages,
INPUT STAGE
The input stage is a Dual input balanced output differential amplifier. The two amplifiers are
applied at inverting or non inverting terminals. This stage provides most of voltage gain of the op-
amp and decides input resistance value R1.
INTERMEDIATE STAGE
This is usually another differential amplifier. It is driven by output of the input stage. This
stage is dual input unbalance output differential amp. This stage provides additional voltage gain to
the input signals.
Electrical Electronics Engineering– MECH DEPT. 3
LEVEL SHIFTING STAGE
This is third stage in the block diagram of op-amp.
op amp. Due to direct coupling between first two
stages the input of level shifting stage is an amplifying system with non-zero
non zero DC level. Level shifting
stage is used to bring this DC level to a zero volt with respect
r to ground.
OUTPUT STAGE
This is normally complementary output stage. It increases magnitude of voltage and rises the
current supplying capacity of the op-amp.
op amp. It also provides low output resistance. The output stage is a
push pull of two transistors
Advantages of Op-Amp
 Good thermal stability
 Low offset voltage
 Low offset current
 High reliability
Disadvantages of Op-Amp
 It is difficult to realize the large values of resistance and capacitance.
 No methods to fabricate transformer using linear IC’s.
Applications of Op-Amp
The integrated op-amp’s
amp’s offers all the advantages of IC’s such as high reliability, small size,
cheap, less power consumption. They are used in variety of applications such as Inverting & Non Non-

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inverting amplifiers, Unity gain buffer, Summing amplifier, Differentiator, Integrator, Adder,
Instrumentation amplifier, Wien bridge oscillator, Filters etc.

Equivalent Circuit of Op-Amp:

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Equivalent Circuit
IDEAL OP-AMP
AMP CHARACTERISTICS
 Infinite voltage gain (So that
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tha maximum output is obtained)

 Infinite input resistance (Due to this almost any source can drive it)
 Zero output resistance (So that there is no change in output due to change in load
current)
 Infinite bandwidth
 Zero noise
 Zero power supply rejection ratio (PSSR=0)
 Infinite common
ommon mode rejection ratio (CMMR=∞)
(CMMR=

CHARACTERISTICS OF OP- AMP:

Characteristics of op-amp
amp is classified into two types, They are
 AC characteristics
 Dc characteristics

AC Characteristics:
AC characteristics can be further classified into two forms
 Slew rate
SLEW RATE:
It is the maximum rate of change of output voltage passed by a stepped input voltage.
It is denoted by SR. The value is 0.5v/us.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Closed Loop Gain:
In closed loop gain there will be some feedback. Feedback is nothing but the elements
like capacitors or resistors is connected across the input and output terminals.
Open Loop Gain:
In open loop gain, there will not be any feedback. For 741 IC in open loop gain the
value is infinity.

DC Characteristics:
DC characteristics can be further classified into many forms.
 Input bias current
 Input offset current
 Input offset voltage
 Input resistance
 Input capacitance
 Output offset voltage

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 Thermal drift
Thermal drift is further classified into two types
 Input offset current drift
 Input offset voltage drift ot
 INPUT BIAS CURRENT:
The average of the currents entering in to the (-)input and(+)input terminals of an op-amp
is called as an input bias current. Its value is 500nA for IC741.
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 INPUT OFFSET CURRENT:
The algebraic difference between the currents in the (-) input and (+) input is referred to
as input offset current. It is 200nA for IC741.
 INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE:
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It is the voltage difference that must be applied between the input terminals of an op-
amp. Since the voltage could be positive or negative. For IC741, the maximum value is 6mv.
 INPUT RESISTANCE:
This is the differential input resistance of input terminals with the other terminal
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connected to the ground. For the IC741, the input resistance is 2Mohms.
 INPUT CAPACITANCE:
It is the equivalent capacitance that can be measured at either of the input terminal
with the other terminal connected to the ground. A typical value of Ci is 1.4pF.
 INPUT VOLTAGE:
This is the common mode voltage that can be applied to both input terminals without
disturbing the performance of an op-amp. For the 741c, their range is (+ or -)13V.
 COMMON MODE REJECTION RATIOCMRR)
It is the ability of op-amp to reject the signal common to both the inputs. Generally, it
is high. For 741c, the value is 90db.
 SUPPLY VOLTAGE REJECTION RATIO:
The change in an op amp’s input offset voltage due to variations in supply voltage is
called supply voltage rejection ratio. For 741c, the value is 150uV\V. It is also called as
power supply rejection ratio.
 OUTPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE:
It is the voltage presented at the output terminal when both the input terminals are
grounded. For 741 IC, the value is (+ or -) 15mV.

Electrical Electronics Engineering– MECH DEPT. 5

  INPUT OFFSET CURRENT DRIFT:
It is the rate of change of input offset current with respect to the temperature of balanced op
amp. The value is 0.2nA/degree celcius.
 INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE DRIFT:
The rate of change of input offset voltage with respect to the temperature of balanced
op amp. Its value is 0.15mV/degree celcius.

 INPUT COMMON MODE RANGE:

It is the maximum range of signal that can be applied as a common mode. For 741c,
the value is (+ or -)13v.
 INPUT DIFFERENTIAL RANGE:
It is the maximum differential signal that can be applied to the input terminals of the
op amp without affecting the normal operations.
 COMMON MODE GAIN:
It is the ratio of common mode output voltage to common mode input voltage. The
value is less than 1v. It is denoted by Avcm.
 DIFFERENTIAL MODE GAIN:
It is the ratio of differential mode output voltage to the differential mode input voltage.
It is denoted as Avdm.

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 OUTPUT RESISTANCE:
It is the resistance measured at the output terminal of op amp with respect to ground
for 741c, the value is 75 ohms.
 POWER CONSUMPTION:


value is 85mv.
OUTPUT SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT:
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It is the quiescent power consumed by the op amp for its operation. For 741c, the
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This is the current that may flow if an op amp gets shorted accidentally. For 741c, the
value is 85mv.
 FULL POWER BAND WIDTH:
It is the maximum frequency up to which the output voltage range can obtain without
distortion
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2. Explain the working of an instrumentation amplifier with a circuit. Give its characteristics and
application (11) (NOV2012/APRIL/NOV/2014)
In many industrial and consumer applications the measurement and control of physical
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conditions are very important.(foreg) measurement of temperature & humidity inside a dairy
or a meat plant permit the operators make necessary adjustments to maintain product quality.
Similarly precise temperature control of plastic furnace is needed to produce a particular type
of plastic.Generally, a transducer is used at the measuring site to obtain the required
information easily & safely. The transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into
another.
A resistive transducer whose resistance changes as a function of some physical energy
is connected in one arm of bridge with a small circle around it & is denoted by (R ± ∆R),
where RT is the resistance of transducer and ∆R the change in resistance of RT. The bridge in
the circuit is dc exited but could be ac exited as well. For the balanced bridge at some
reference condition,

Electrical Electronics Engineering– MECH DEPT. 6

 es
Vb = Va
( ) ( )
=
+
=
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+
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Generally resistors RA, RB, RC are selected so that they are equal in value to the transducer
resistance RT at some reference condition the reference condition is the specific value of the physical
quantity under measurement at which the bridge is balanced this value is normally established by the
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designer and depends on the transducer’s characteristics, the type of physical quantity to be
measured, and the desired application.The bridge is balanced initially at a desired reference
condition. However, as the physical quantity to be measured changes, the resistance of the
transducer also changes, which causes the bridge to unbalance (Va ≠ Vb). The output voltage of the
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bridge can be expressed as a function of the change in resistance of the transducer.

Let the change in resistance of the transducer be ∆R . Since Rb&Rc Are fixed resistors, the
voltage Vb is constant. However, the voltage Va varies as a function of the change in transducer
resistance. Therefore, according to the voltage divider rule,
( )
=
+ ( + ∆R)
( )
=
( + )
Consequently, the voltage Vab across the output terminals of the bridge is,
Vab = Va– Vb
= −
+ +∆ +
However, if RA = RB = RC = RT = R, then
∆ ( )
=
2(2 + ∆ )
the (-)ve sign indicates that Va<Vb(since RT increases)

Electrical Electronics Engineering– MECH DEPT. 7

 The basic gain differential amplifier is (-RF/R1)
∆ ( )
= − =
2(2 + ∆ )
Generally, R is very small. Therefore we can approximate (2R + R) = 2R.
∆
=
4

This equation indicates that V is directly proportional to the change in resistance R of the
transducer since the change in resistance is caused by a change in physical energy, a meter connected
at the output can be calibrated in terms of the units of that physical energy.

Features of Instrumentation Amplifier

 High gain
 High CMRR
 Low Power consumption
 High slew rate

Applications of Instrumentation Amplifier

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 Temperature indicator
 Light-intensity meter
 Thermal conductivity meter
 Analog weight scale ot
3. Draw the circuit of a first order and second order butter worth active low pass filter and derive the
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transfer function (11) (APRIL/2013)(NOV/2014)

(i)Low pass filter

The first order low pass Butterworth filter is realized by RC circuit used along with an op-
amp, used in the non- inverting configuration. This is also called one pole low pass Butterworth filter.
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The resistances Rf and R1 decide the gain of the filter in the pass band.
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First Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter

Analysis of the filter circuit

The impedance of the capacitor C is -jXc where Xc is the capacitive reactance given by
Xc= 1/(2πfC).
By potential divider rule, the voltage at the non-inverting input terminal 2 which is the
voltage across the capacitor C is given by
RC filter is connecting non inverting input
1
jωC
V = V
R + 1 jωC

Electrical Electronics Engineering– MECH DEPT. 8

 ω = 2πf
1
V = V
1 + jωR C
General non inverting output
R
V = 1+ V
R
We can write,

1
= 1+
1+

1
= 1+
1+

1
= 1+
1+ 2

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1+

=1+ ot f- Frequency of input signal

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fC-Cutoff frequency of filter
1
=
2
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(i)High Pass Filter

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High Pass Filter

R
V =
R +

jωR C
V = V
1 + jωR C
Electrical Electronics Engineering– MECH DEPT. 9
 For non inverting output

R
V = 1+ V
R

V R jωR C
= 1+
V R 1 + jωR C

V R j2πfR C
= 1+
V R 1 + j2πfR C

V j
=A
V 1+j

Where A = +1
1
=

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2

4. Explain the analysis of differentiator. (NOV/2013)(APRIL/2014)

The circuit which produces the differentiation of the input voltage at its output is called

differentiator.The
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differentiator. The differentiator circuit which does not use any active device is called passive
differentiator. While the differentiator using an active device like op-amp
op amp is called an active
The circuit performs the mathematical operation of differentiation. i.e. the output wave
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form is the derivative of the input
nput waveform. The differentiator provides a constant output above a
cut-off
off frequency and passes no signal below this frequency. So the differentiator is also called as
high pass filter (HPF).The non-inverting
inverting terminal (3) is grounded. Therefore node ‘a’ voltage is zero.
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i.e. Va = 0
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(i.e.) Vo ∞dVi

At node ‘a’,

+ =0

 The node ‘a’ is virtually grounded. Therefore Vn = Va = 0

 =−

 Here the –ve sign is introduced because the input is given to the inverting terminal

The equation shows that the output is C1Rf times the differentiation of the input and product
C1Rf is called time constant of the differentiator.

Input to Differentiator

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Output of Differentiator
5. Draw and explain the operation of integrator circuits. (NOV/2013)
In an integrator circuit, the output voltage is the integration of the input voltage. The
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integrator circuit can be obtained without using active devices like op-amp, transistors etc. in
such a case an integrator is called passive integrator. While an integrator using an active
device like an op-amp is called active integrator. The integrator provides a constant output
below a cut-off frequency and passes no signal above this frequency. So the integrator is also
called as low pass filter (LPF). If we inter change the resistor and the capacitor of the
differentiator we get the circuit of an integrator.

Electrical Electronics Engineering– MECH DEPT. 11

The non- inverting terminal is grounded. The node N is also at ground potential from the concept of
virtual ground.VN= 0 , as input current of op-amp
amp is zero, the entire current I flowing through R1,
also flows through Cf (i.e) Vo ∞ Vi
At node ‘a’

+ =0

=−

=−

=−

Integrating on both sides

∗
=−

1
( )= ( )

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Input to Integrator
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Output of Integrator
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6. With neat circuit diagram explain the operation of adder and subtractor.
tractor. ((APRIL2012)
(NOV/2012) (NOV/2013)

A circuit whose output is the sum of all the inputs given is called summer or summing amplifier.
There are two types of summer (i) inverting summer & (ii) non-inverting
non inverting summer.

(i) Inverting Summer

A summer amplifier with two input voltages V1 and V2, two input resistors R1 and R2,
feedback resistor Rf is shown in the fig. below
R1
R3
_
v1 R2
+
v2  R R 
v OUT    v 1 3  v 2 3 
 R1 R2 

Inverting Summer
The voltage at the node ‘a’ is zero as the non- inverting input terminal is virtually grounded.

The nodal equation by KCL at node ‘a’ is

+ + =0

= ( + )

∞( + )

(ii) Non Inverting Summer

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Non Inverting Summing amplifier
For non inverting,

= 1+ ot
+ +
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=
1 +1 +1

⎡ + + ⎤
⎢ ⎥
= 1+ ⎢ 1 ⎥
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⎢ +1 +1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
If = = =
+ +
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= 1+
3

(iii)DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER (or) SUBTRACTOR

A circuit that amplifier the difference between the two signals. The differential amplifier
is very useful in instrumentation circuits. The voltage V1 and V2 are applied at op-amp input
terminals. The different voltage at the input terminal of the op-amp is zero. Node ‘a’ and ‘b’
are at the same potential designated as V3.

R2
_
R1
v1 +
R4  R2  R
R3 vOUT  v2 1   v1 2
v2 R3  R4  R1  R1
R4

Consider node ‘a’,

Electrical Electronics Engineering– MECH DEPT. 13

 V −V V −V
+ =0
R R
Consider node ‘b’
V −V V
+ =0
R R
Rewriting equation (a) & (b)
1 1 V V
+ V − =
R R R R
1 1 V
+ V − =0
R R R
Subtracting equating (3) from (4)
− + =
−
=

= ( − )

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7. Explain the analysis of inverting amplifier and non- inverting amplifier (APRIL/2013)
(i) INVERTING AMPLIFIER

An inverting amplifier not only amplifies the input signal but also produce a phase
shift in voltage between the input and the output.
+
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_
vIN
 R 
R2 vOUT  v IN  1  2 
R1  R1 
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Inverting Amplifier

The op amp circuit consists of a resistor R1 and a feedback resistor Rf.R1 is connected
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between the input and the inverting terminal of the op amp.The Rf is connected between the input
inverting(2) terminal and the output(6) of the op amp. The non- inverting terminal (3) is grounded.
The input and the output of the inverting amplifier are out of phase with each other.Since the input
impedance of the op-amp is large, current cannot enter into the op-amp. So output current is same as
the input current i.e. I1 = I0. The input is given to the inverting terminal and the non-inverting
terminal is virtually grounded therefore the node voltage is zero.So voltage developed across Rf is
equal to the output voltage Vn of the circuit.
W.K.T,
Vi = I1R1
I1 = Vi/R1
Vo = Io *Rf
Vo = -I1*Rf (Io = -I1)
Here the –ve sign indicates that the input and the output are in the opposite direction
Vo = -Vi * Rf / R1
Av = -Rf / R1

Electrical Electronics Engineering– MECH DEPT. 14

 (ii) NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER:
A non-inverting amplifier amplifies the signal and the output is same as that of the input. In the non-
inverting amplifier the input is applied to the non-inverting terminal (3) and the resistor R1 is
grounded. The voltage at the inverting terminal (Vi) must be same as that at the non-inverting
terminal. The input impedance of the op-amp is very high so that the entire voltage given is obtained
at the node ‘a’.If I1 is the current through the resistor R1,Vi= I1.R1
R2
_
R1
vIN +
R2
vOUT  v IN
R1

Non Inverting Amplifier

Since the voltage drop across R1 is equal to the difference between Vi and Vo,
V −V
I =
R
Io* Rf = Vo-Vi

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Vo = Vi +Io.* Rf
We know that, I1 = Io,
Vo = Vi + I1.Rf
From (1) & (2)=
A =
ot V
V
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V +I ∗R I ∗R +I ∗R R +R
A = = =
I ∗R I ∗R R

8. Explain in detail about V to I converter. (APRIL/2012)

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(i) Voltage To Current Converter [Transconductance Amplifier]

In many application it is necessary to convert voltage signal to a proportional output current.

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 V- I converter with floating load

 V- I converter with grounded load

V-I Converter with Load ZL

Since the voltage at node a is Vi
=
=

(i.e.) the input voltage Vi is converted into an output current of

Electrical Electronics Engineering– MECH DEPT. 15

 Same current flows through signal source and load

Applying KCL, + =
− −
+ =
V + V − 2V = Ri
− −
=
−2
− + +
=

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2

Since op-amp is used in non-inverting mode

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Gain = 1 + R R
Gain = 2
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Output Voltage, =2
=
=
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Input impedance of non-inverting amplifier is very high.

Applications:
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 It is used in low voltage DC and AC voltmeter

 It is used in led and Zener diode
(ii) Current To Voltage Converter [Transresistance Amplifier]

Photocell, photodiode, photovoltaic cell give an output current, (i.e.) proportional to an

incident radiant energy or light.The circuit through this device can be converted to voltage by
using a current voltage converter and there by the amount of light or radiant energy incident
on the photo device can be measured.-ve terminal is at virtual ground, no current flows
through Rs and current Is flows through the feedback resistor Rf, thus the output voltage

Electrical Electronics Engineering– MECH DEPT. 16

 Resistor Rf is sometime shunted with a capacitor Cf to reduce high frequency noise
and the possibility of oscillation.

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Reference:
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1. I. Albert Malvino and David Bates, “Electronic Principles”, 7th Edition, Tata Mc-Graw Hill, New Delhi,
2006.
2. Ramakant A Gayakward, Operational Amplifiers and Linear Integrated circuits, 4th Edition, PHI
Learning, Delhi, 2009.
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