ASSIGNMENT

TRANSPORTATION
ENGINNERING

ANIMESH MISHRA
170104017
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1. Compare the three main types of pavement structures used in road
construction.
ANSWER:
a. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by
grain-to-grain transfer through the points of contact in the granular
structure.
The wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area,
and the stress decreases with the depth. Taking advantage of this stress
distribution characteristic, flexible pavements normally has many layers.
Hence, the design of flexible pavement uses the concept of layered system.
Based on this, flexible pavement may be constructed in a number of layers
and the top layer has to be of best quality to sustain maximum compressive
stress, in addition to wear and tear. The lower layers will experience lesser
magnitude of stress and low quality material can be used. Flexible
pavements are constructed using bituminous materials. These can be either
in the form of surface treatments (such as bituminous surface treatments
generally found on low volume roads) or, asphalt concrete surface courses
(generally used on high volume roads such as national highways). Flexible
pavement layers reflect the deformation of the lower layers on to the
surface layer (e.g., if there is any undulation in sub-grade then it will be
transferred to the surface layer). In the case of flexible pavement, the
design is based on overall performance of flexible pavement, and the
stresses produced should be kept well below the allowable stresses of each
pavement layer.

Typical layers of a flexible pavement

Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat, surface course, tack coat,
binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course, compacted sub-grade, and natural sub-
grade.
Seal Coat:
Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide skid
resistance.
Tack Coat:
Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted with water. It
provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and must be thin, uniformly cover
the entire surface, and set very fast.
Prime Coat:
Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent surface like
granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two layers. Unlike
tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a water tight
surface.
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Surface course
Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains
superior quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt
concrete(AC). The functions and requirements of this layer are:

• It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also it will

prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base,
sub-base and sub-grade,
• It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid-
resistant riding surface,
• It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the weakening
effect of water.

Binder course
This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. It's chief purpose is to distribute
load to the base course The binder course generally consists of aggregates having less asphalt
and doesn't require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a part of the surface
course by the binder course results in more economical design.
Base course
The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder course and
it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage It may be
composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials.
Sub-Base course
The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the primary
functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of
fines from the sub-grade in the pavement structure If the base course is open graded, then the
sub-base course with more fines can serve as a filler between sub-grade and the base course
A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement constructed over a
high quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the additional features offered by a sub-base
course. In such situations, sub-base course may not be provided.
Sub-grade
The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from the
layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be
compacted to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture content.

Failure of flexible pavements

The major flexible pavement failures are fatigue cracking, rutting, and thermal cracking. The
fatigue cracking of flexible pavement is due to horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the
asphaltic concrete. The failure
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criterion relates allowable number of load repetitions to tensile strain and this relation can be
determined in the laboratory fatigue teston asphaltic concrete specimens. Rutting occurs only
on flexible pavements as indicated by permanent deformation or rut depth along wheel load
path. Two design methods have been used to control rutting: one to limit the vertical
compressive strain on the top of subgrade and other to limit rutting to a tolerable amount (12
mm normally). Thermal cracking includes both low-temperature cracking and thermal fatigue
cracking.
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b. RIGID PAVEMENTS
Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses to a
wider area below. A typical cross section of the rigid pavement. Compared to flexible
pavement, rigid pavements are placed either directly on the prepared sub-grade or on a single
layer of granular or stabilized material. Since there is only one layer of material between the
concrete and the sub-grade, this layer can be called as base or sub-base course.
In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the slab action, and the pavement behaves like an
elastic plate resting on a viscous medium. Rigid pavements are constructed by Portland
cement concrete (PCC) and should be analyzed by plate theory instead of layer theory,
assuming an elastic plate resting on viscous foundation. Plate theory is a simplified version of
layer theory that assumes the concrete slab as a medium thick plate which is plane before
loading and to remain plane after loading. Bending of the slab due to wheel load and
temperature variation and the resulting tensile and flexural stress.

Types of Rigid Pavements

Rigid pavements can be classified into four types:

• Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP),

• Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP),
• Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP), and
• Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).

Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement:

They are plain cement concrete pavements constructed with closely spaced contraction joints.
Dowel bars or aggregate interlocks are normally used for load transfer across joints. They
normally has a joint spacing of 5 to 10m.

Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement:

Although reinforcements do not improve the structural capacity significantly, they can
drastically increase the joint spacing to 10 to 30m. Dowel bars are required for load transfer.
Reinforcements help to keep the slab together even after cracks.

Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement:

Complete elimination of joints are achieved by reinforcement.

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Failure criteria of rigid pavements

Traditionally fatigue cracking has been considered as the major, or only criterion for rigid
pavement design. The allowable number of load repetitions to cause fatigue cracking depends
on the stress ratio between flexural tensile stress and concrete modulus of rupture. Of late,
pumping is identified as an important failure criterion. Pumping is the ejection of soil slurry
through the joints and cracks of cement concrete pavement, caused during the downward
movement of slab under the heavy wheel loads. Other major types of distress in rigid
pavements include faulting, spalling, and deterioration.
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c. SEMI-RIGID PAVEMENTS
Semi-rigid pavements represent an intermediate state between the Flexible and the Rigid
pavement. The flexural strength of such type of pavment is much lower than the concrete
slab, but it derives support by the lateral distribution of loads through the pavement depth as
in flexible pavement.Lean cement concrete, soil cement and lime-puzzolanic concrete
construction are examples of semi-rigid pavements.
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Guidelines for the design of semi-rigid pavements.

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Comparison between Flexible and Rigid Pavement:

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2. Write short note on geological classification of natural rocks and their
inherent characteristics.
ANSWER:
a. IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks are formed from solidification and cooling of magma. This magma can be
derived from partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planet's mantle or crust. Typically,
the melting of rocks is caused by one or more of three processes namely; an increase in
temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition. Igneous comes from word
“ignis” meaning fire, it is therefore not surprising that igneous rocks are associated with
volcanic activity and their distribution is controlled by plate tectonics. One of the appealing
aspects of the plate tectonics is that it accounts for reasonably well for the variety of igneous
rocks and their distribution (Carlson et al, 2008). Divergent plates are usually
associated with creation of basalts and gabbros especially in the oceanic crust e.g. in the mid-
Atlantic ridges. While in the intra-continental areas you can have wide aray of rocks from
basic, intermediate to the acidic rocks. In the convergent plates usually granites and andesites
magmas are produced e.g. In the South America, Indonesia etc.
Igneous rocks are divided into two main categories: Plutonic (intrusive) rock and
volcanic (extrusive).
Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystallizes slowly within the
Earth's crust. A common example of this type is granite. Volcanic or extrusive rocks result
from magma reaching the surface either as lava or fragmental ejecta, forming rocks such as
pumice or basalt. The chemical
abundance and the rate of cooling of magma typically form a sequence known as Bowen's
reaction series, after the Canadian petrologist Norman L. Bowen. The Bowens reaction series
explain sequences of crustal formation. The Bowens series is important because it forms
basis for explaining igneous mineral and textures.
Types of igneous rocks
Igneous rocks can be differentiated according to their texture, colour and composition. The
difference in these three parameters depends on environment of deposition and chemistry of
magmas. Below is an explanation on of each parameter as mentioned above.
Texture
When magma cools slowly large crystals form and rock forms phaneritic texture on the other
hand if magma cools fast then small crystals form sometime a glassy texture where no
minerals form can be achieved this way. It is based on the textural difference that igneous
rocks can be divided into either extrusive or intrusive rocks. Examples of both extrusive and
extrusive rocks are given in Figure 2 below. Intrusive are rocks that form by magma
solidifying before reaching the surface hence forming coarse grained texture while extrusive
are those that magma solidify on surface forming fine grained rocks.
Colour
A rock with majorly dark minerals form mafic rocks but with more fractionation during
magma cooling lighter coloured mineral are able to form based on Bowens series. Based on
this colour difference the rocks can be either mafic or felsic in Figure 2 below shows that as
you move from right to left you have
more ultra-mafic due to fractionation.
Composition
Igneous rocks can also be classified based on chemistry. This is mainly based on silica
content as highlighted .When silica is above 75% main minerals that form are feldspars
while with reduction of silica more mafic minerals form, hence basis for rock difference.

Textures of igneous rocks

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Phaneritic Texture
Phaneritic textured rocks are comprised of large crystals that are clearly visible to the eye
with or without a hand lens or binocular microscope. The entire rock is made up of large
crystals, which are generally 1/2 mm to several centimetres in size; no fine matrix material is
present. This texture forms by slow cooling of magma deep underground in the plutonic
environment.
Aphanitic Texture
Aphanitic texture consists of small crystals that cannot be seen by the eye with or hand lens.
The entire rock is made up of small crystals, which are generally less than 1/2 mm in size.
This texture results from rapid cooling in volcanic or hypabyssal (shallow subsurface)
environments.
Porphyritic Texture
Porphyritic rocks are composed of at least two minerals having a conspicuous (large)
difference in grain size. The larger grains are termed phenocrysts and the finer grains either
matrix or groundmass (see the drawing below and image to the left). Porphyritic rocks are
thought to have undergone two stages of cooling; one at depth where the larger phenocrysts
formed and a second at or near the surface where the matrix grains crystallized.
Glassy Texture
Glassy textured igneous rocks are non-crystalline meaning the rock contains no mineral
grains. Glass results from cooling that is so fast that minerals do not have a chance to
crystallize. This may happen
when magma or lava comes into quick contact with much cooler materials near the Earth's
surface. Pure volcanic glass is known as obsidian.
Vesicular Texture
This term refers to vesicles (cavities) within the igneous rock. Vesicles are the result of gas
expansion (bubbles), which often occurs during volcanic eruptions. Pumice and scoria are
common types of vesicular rocks.
Fragmental (Pyroclastic) Texture
Pyroclastic are rocks blown out into the atmosphere during violent volcanic eruptions. These
rocks are collectively termed fragmental. If you examine a fragmental volcanic rock closely
you can see why.You will note that it is comprised of numerous grains or fragments that have
been welded together by the heat of volcanic eruption. If you run your fingers over the rock it
will often feel grainy like sandpaper or a sedimentary rock. You might also spot shards of
glass embedded in the rock.
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b. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks are basically rocks that have experience change due to high pressure and
temperature below zone of diagenesis. Protolith refers to the original rock, prior to
metamorphism. In low grade metamorphic rocks, original textures are often preserved
allowing one to determine the likely protolith. As the grade of metamorphism increases,
original textures are replaced with metamorphic textures and other clues, such as bulk
chemical composition of the rock, are used to determine the protolith. Below is an
examination of the role of two agents of metamorphism.
Classification
Classification of metamorphic rocks depends on textures and its degree of metamorphism.
Three kinds of criteria are normally employed in the classification of metamorphic rock.
These are:
Mineralogical - The most abundant minerals are used as a prefix to a textural term. Thus, a
schist containing biotite, garnet, quartz, and feldspar, would be called a biotite-garnet schist.
A gneiss containing hornblende, pyroxene, quartz, and feldspar would be called a
hornblende-pyroxene gneiss. A schist containing porphyroblasts of K-feldspar would be
called a K-spar porphyroblastic schist.
Chemical - If the general chemical composition can be determined from the mineral
assemblage, then a chemical name can be employed. For example a schist with a lot of quartz
and feldspar and some garnet and muscovite would be called a garnet-muscovite quartzo-
feldspathic schist. A schist consisting mostly of talc would be called a talc-magnesian schist.
Texture- Most metamorphic textures involve foliation. Foliation is generally caused by a
preferred orientation of sheet silicates. If a rock has a slatey cleavage as its foliation, it is
termed a slate, if it has a phyllitic foliation, it is termed a phyllite, if it has a shistose foliation,
and it is termed a schist. A rock that shows a banded texture without a distinct foliation is
termed a gneiss. All of these could be porphyroblastic (i.e. could contain porhyroblasts).A
rock that shows no foliation is called a hornfels if the grain size is small, and a granulite, if
the grain size is large and individual minerals can be easily
distinguished with a hand lens.
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Metamorphic Grade
The intensity of a metamorphic event through the use of the concept of metamorphic grade
(Figure 3). With increasing depth in the Earth, ambient temperature and pressure conditions
rise steadily. Thus, within the continental crust, temperatures vary from approximately 200°C
at 5 km to 800°C at 35 km. While these temperatures are extreme relative to our everyday
experiences, they are significantly below the melting point of most rocks. Likewise,lithostatic
pressure increases with increasing depth. At 5 km the pressure is approximately 2 kilo bars,
or about 2000 times atmospheric pressure. Deeper within the crust, at about 35 km, the
pressure increases to some 10 kb. This trend of increasing temperature and pressure within
the Earth is defined by a region of commonly encountered metamorphic conditions. Low
temperature and pressure setting as low-grade metamorphism usually gneisses, while high
temperature and intense pressure is known as high-grade metamorphism in schist
environment.
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c. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of material at the Earth's surface and (or)
within bodies of water. Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause mineral
and/or organic particles (detritus) to settle and accumulate or minerals to precipitate from a
solution. Sediments can be detrital, chemical or organic sediments. Detrital sediments are
mechanically eroded from pre-existing rocks. Chemical sediments on the other hand are fluid
precipitates or evaporates deposited in various environments. Sedimentary rocks are
important in regard to resources like limestone deposits, coal and oil. They are also important
geologically in interpretation of earth’s history (Carlson et al, 2009). Below is table with
descriptions of some common sedimentary rocks which include; sandstone, limestone, shale,
conglomerate, and gypsum.
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3.State the functioning and role of different types of commonly used
aggregate crushers.
ANSWER:
a. JAW CRUSHER
A jaw crusher uses compressive force for breaking of particle. This mechanical pressure is
achieved by the two jaws of the crusher of which one is fixed while the other reciprocates. A
jaw or toggle crusher consists of a set of vertical jaws, one jaw is kept stationary and is called
a fixed jaw while the other jaw called a swing jaw, moves back and forth relative to it, by
a cam or pitman mechanism, acting like a class II lever or a nutcracker. The volume or cavity
between the two jaws is called the crushing chamber. The movement of the swing jaw can be
quite small, since complete crushing is not performed in one stroke. The inertia required to
crush the material is provided by a flywheel that moves a shaft creating an eccentric motion
that causes the closing of the gap.
Jaw crushers are heavy duty machines and hence need to be robustly constructed. The outer
frame is generally made of cast iron or steel. The jaws themselves are usually constructed
from cast steel. They are fitted with replaceable liners which are made of manganese steel, or
Ni-hard (a Ni-Cr alloyed cast iron). Jaw crushers are usually constructed in sections to ease
the process transportation if they are to be taken underground for carrying out the operations.
Jaw crushers are classified on the basis of the position of the pivoting of the swing jaw

1. Blake crusher-the swing jaw is fixed at the upper position

2. Dodge crusher-the swing jaw is fixed at the lower position
3. Universal crusher-the swing jaw is fixed at an intermediate position
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b. CONE CRUSHER(SECONDARY CRUSHER)
With the rapid development of mining technology, the cone crusher can be divided
into four types: compound cone crusher, spring cone crusher, hydraulic cone crusher
and gyratory crusher. According to different models, the cone crusher is divided into
VSC series cone crusher (compound cone crusher), Symons cone crusher, PY cone
crusher, single cylinder hydraulic cone crusher, multi-cylinder hydraulic cone
crusher, gyratory crusher, etc.
A cone crusher is similar in operation to a gyratory crusher, with less steepness in
the crushing chamber and more of a parallel zone between crushing zones. A cone
crusher breaks rock by squeezing the rock between an eccentrically gyrating spindle,
which is covered by a wear-resistant mantle, and the enclosing concave hopper,
covered by a manganese concave or a bowl liner. As rock enters the top of the cone
crusher, it becomes wedged and squeezed between the mantle and the bowl liner or
concave. Large pieces of ore are broken once, and then fall to a lower position
(because they are now smaller) where they are broken again. This process
continues until the pieces are small enough to fall through the narrow opening at the
bottom of the crusher.
A cone crusher is suitable for crushing a variety of mid-hard and above mid-hard
ores and rocks. It has the advantage of reliable construction, high productivity, easy
adjustment and lower operational costs. The spring release system of a cone
crusher acts an overload protection that allows tramp to pass through the crushing
chamber without damage to the crusher.
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c. ROLLER CRUSHER

Roll Crushers are designed to handle the primary, secondary and tertiary stage crushing of
friable materials such as coal, salt, clay, bauxite, limestone and other minerals of similar
characteristics in the mining, power generation and numerous other industries. Roll Crushers
are one of the most widely used crushers in the mining industry and have numerous
advantages, such as high capacity, low headroom, low horsepower, the ability to handle wet,
sticky feeds and the generation of minimum fines while producing a cubical product.

The simplified design gives these units excellent reliability and requires very little
maintenance. Roll Crushers are designed with built-in tramp relief that allows for the passing
of uncrushable materials while continuing operation and returning to the initial product
setting.

Whether the application requires a single-stage or two-stage crusher, the forces necessary to
perform the crushing remain the same: a combination of impact, shear and compression. The
impact force occurs as the material enters the crusher and is impacted by the rotating roll.
Shear and compression forces occur as the feed material is pulled between the crushing plate
and/or crushing rolls.Depending on the feed size, material is fed into the crushing chamber
and encounters a single or a pair of rotating rolls. If a two-stage reduction is required, either a
Triple or Quad Roll configuration can be used. In this scenario, the top stage of the crusher
performs the primary reduction either by crushing the material between the roll and crushing
plate or between a pair of rolls. The material is then fed directly between the two bottom-
stage rolls for additional processing.If a single-stage reduction is required, then depending on
the feed-to-product-size ratio of reduction, either a Single or Double Roll Crusher can be
selected. Regardless of the crusher type selected, Roll Crushers allow for the material to
fracture along naturally occurring cleavage lines, which helps with minimizing fines
generation.
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d. HAMMER MILL
The basic principle is straightforward. A hammer mill is essentially a steel drum containing a
vertical or horizontal rotating shaft or drum on which hammers are mounted. The hammers
are free to swing on the ends of the cross, or fixed to the central rotor. The rotor is spun at a
high speed inside the drum while material is fed into a feed hopper. The material is impacted
by the hammer bars and is thereby shredded and expelled through screens in the drum of a
selected size.

Hammer mill apple shredder for juicing.

The hammermill can be used as a primary, secondary, or tertiary crusher.
Small grain hammermills can be operated on household current. Large hammer mills used in
automobile shredders may be driven by diesel or electric motors ranging from 2000 to over
5000 horsepower (1.5 - 3.7MW).
The screenless hammer mill uses air flow to separate small particles from larger ones. It is
designed to be more reliable, and is also claimed to be much cheaper and more energy
efficient than regular hammermills. The design & structure of the hammermill is always
determined by the end use.

Types of Hammer Mill Crushers can include "up running" and "down running" hammer mills

• "Up Running" - Uses perforated screens or grate bars to reduce soft or hard materials.
The material to be reduced determines the rotor construction that can be adjustable based
on wear.
• "Down Running" - Most suitable for fibrous materials due to the high concentration of
shearing action within the unit.
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E .GYRATORY CRUSHER
A gyratory crusher is similar in basic concept to a jaw crusher, consisting of a concave
surface and a conical head; both surfaces are typically lined with manganese steel surfaces.
The inner cone has a slight circular movement, but does not rotate; the movement is
generated by an eccentric arrangement. As with the jaw crusher, material travels downward
between the two surfaces being progressively crushed until it is small enough to fall out
through the gap between the two surfaces.
A gyratory crusher is one of the main types of primary crushers in a mine or ore processing
plant. Gyratory crushers are designated in size either by the gape and mantle diameter or by
the size of the receiving opening. Gyratory crushers can be used for primary or secondary
crushing. The crushing action is caused by the closing of the gap between the mantle line
(movable) mounted on the central vertical spindle and the concave liners (fixed) mounted on
the main frame of the crusher. The gap is opened and closed by an eccentric on the bottom of
the spindle that causes the central vertical spindle to gyrate. The vertical spindle is free to
rotate around its own axis. The crusher illustrated is a short-shaft suspended spindle type,
meaning that the main shaft is suspended at the top and that the eccentric is mounted above
the gear. The short-shaft design has superseded the long-shaft design in which the eccentric is
mounted below the gear.

Gyratory Crusher Components.

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4. Compare the different ways of measuring the mechanical properties of
aggregates(strength, hardness and toughness)
ANSWER:
PROPERTY: STRENGTH
AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE TEST
Aggregate crushing value test on coarse aggregates gives a relative measure of the
resistance of an aggregate crushing under gradually applied compressive load.Coarse
aggregate crushing value is the percentage by weight of the crushed material obtained
when test aggregates are subjected to a specified load under standardized conditions.
Aggregate crushing value is a numerical index of the strength of the aggregate and it
is used in construction of roads and pavements. Crushing value of aggregates indicates
its strength. Lower crushing value is recommended for roads and pavements as it
indicates a lower crushed fraction under load and would give a longer service life and
a more economical performance. The aggregates used in roads and pavement
construction must be strong enough to withstand crushing under roller and traffic. If
the aggregate crushing value is 30 or higher’ the result may be anomalous and in such
cases the ten percent fines value should be determined instead.

Calculation of Aggregate Crushing Value

The ratio of weight of fines formed to the weight of total sample in each test shall be
expressed as a percentage, the result being recorded to the first decimal place.

Aggregate crushing value = (W2 x 100) / (W1-W)

W2 =Weight of fraction passing through the appropriate sieve

W1-W =Weight of surface dry sample.

The mean of two result to nearest whole number is the aggregate crushing value.
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Components of Aggregate Crushing Test Apparatus.

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PROPERTY: HARDNESS
LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST
Los Angeles abrasion test on aggregates is the measure of aggregate toughness and
abrasion resistance such as crushing, degradation and disintegration. This test is
carried out by AASHTO T 96 or ASTM C 131: Resistance to Degradation of Small-
Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine.The
aggregate used in surface course of the highway pavements are subjected to wearing
due to movement of traffic. When vehicles move on the road, the soil particles present
between the pneumatic tyres and road surface cause abrasion of road aggregates. The
steel rimmed wheels of animal driven vehicles also cause considerable abrasion of the
road surface. Therefore, the road aggregates should be hard enough to resist abrasion.
Resistance to abrasion of aggregate is determined in laboratory by Los Angeles test
machine. The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to produce abrasive action by
use of standard steel balls which when mixed with aggregates and rotated in a drum
for specific number of revolutions also causes impact on aggregates. The percentage
wear of the aggregates due to rubbing with steel balls is determined and is known as
Los Angeles Abrasion Value.
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Recommended Los Angeles Test Values for Pavements
Los Angeles test is commonly used to evaluate the hardness of aggregates. The test
has more acceptability because the resistance to abrasion and impact is determined
simultaneously. Depending upon the value, the suitability of aggregates for different
road constructions can be judged as per IRC specifications as given:
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PROPERTY: TOUGHNESS
AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE TEST
The property of a material to resist impact is known as toughness. Due to movement
of vehicles on the road the aggregates are subjected to impact resulting in their
breaking down into smaller pieces. The aggregates should therefore have sufficient
toughness to resist their disintegration due to impact. This characteristic is measured
by impact value test.The aggregate impact value is a measure of resistance to sudden
impact or shock, which may differ from its resistance to gradually applied
compressive load.

Recommended Aggregate Impact Test Values

Classification of aggregates using Aggregate Impact Value is as given below:

Specified limits of percent aggregate impact value for different types of road
construction by Indian Roads Congress is given below.
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5.Briefly explain the need and measurement of aggregate angularity (coarse
and fine) and it’s adhesion (Modified Lottman test and static immersion test )
with the aggregate.
ANSWER:
ANGULARITY NUMBER
NEED:
Angularity number test gives an idea of how angular the aggregate is. This is based on the
percentage of voids in the aggregate after compaction in a specified manner. In angularity
number test, a quantity of single sized aggregate is filled into metal cylinder of 3 liter
capacity. Then the aggregate is compacted in a standard manner and the percentage of void
found out. If the void content of the aggregate is 33% the angularity of such aggregate is
considered 0. If the void is 44%, the angularity number of such aggregate is considered 11.
The normal aggregate which are suitable for making concrete may have angularity number
anything from 0 to 11. Angularity number 0 represents the most practicable rounded
aggregateAngularity number 11 indicates the most angular aggregate that could be used for
making concrete.
MEASUREMENT:
PROCEDURE

This procedure is for aggregate size ¾ to No.4. If aggregate is coarser than ¾, a cylinder of
large capacity shall be required but amount of compactive effort or energy should be
proportional to the volume of the cylinder. 10 Kg of the sample is taken for the test. The
material should be oven dried. The aggregate is compacted in three layers, each layer being
given 100 blows using the standard tamping rod at a rate of 2 blows/second by lifting the rod
5 cm above the surface of the aggregate and then allowing it to fall freely. The blows are
uniformly distributed over the surface of the aggregate. After compacting the third layer, the
cylinder is filled to overflowing and excess material is removed off with temping rod as a
straight edge.

Angularity Number = 67-(100W/CGs)

where,
W = mean weight of the aggregate filling cylinder.
C = Weight/Volume of water that can completely fill the cylinder (= 3 liters = 3000 ml – in our
lab)
Gs = Specific Gravity of the aggregate.
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MODIFIED LOTTMANN TEST
This test method covers procedures for preparing and testing asphalt concrete specimens for
the purpose of measuring the effect of water on the tensile strength of the paving mixture.
This test method can be used to evaluate the effect of moisture with or without antistripping
additives including liquids and pulverulent solids such as hydrated lime or Portland cement.
This test method can be used to test asphalt concrete mixtures in conjunction with mixture
design testing to determine the potential for moisture damage, to determine whether or not an
antistripping additive is effective, and to determine what dosage of an additive is needed to
maximize the effectiveness. This test method can also be used to test mixtures produced in
field plants and to determine the effectiveness of additives on the mixture and under the
conditions imposed in the field. The results may be used to predict long term stripping
susceptibility of bituminous mixtures. The values stated in either SI units or inch-pound units
in parentheses shall be regarded separately as the standard. The values in each system may
not be exact equivalents; therefore, each system must be used independently without
combining values in any way.

SUMMARY OF TEST METHOD

A. Potential for Moisture Damage - The degree for susceptibility to moisture damage is
determined by preparing a set of laboratorycompacted specimens conforming to the job-mix
formula without an additive. The specimens are compacted to a void content corresponding
to void levels expected in the field usually in the 6 to 8% range. The set is divided into two
subsets of approximately equal void content. One subset is maintained dry (“untreated”) and
used as a control, while the other subset is partially saturated with water and moisture
conditioned (“treated”). The tensile strength of each subset is determined by the tensile
splitting test. The potential for moisture damage is indicated by the ratio of the tensile
strength of the wet subset to that of the dry subset.
B. Additive Effect - The effect of an antistripping additive is determined on a set of
specimens containing an additive prepared and tested as described above. The effect of an
additive dosage may be estimated by repeating the tests on sets with different additive
dosages.
C. Plant-Produced Mixtures - The potential for moisture damage or the effectiveness of an
additive in a plant-produced mixture is determined on specimens that are laboratory
compacted to 7 ± 1% void content using the Marshall apparatus and 7 ± 0.5% void content
using the Gyratory compactor, divided into wet and dry subsets, and evaluated as described
above.
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STATIC IMMERSION TEST
Static immersion testing exposes materials and test coatings to biofouling in a
seawater environment. These tests maybe used to ascertain the relative antifouling
performance of a surface or they maybe designed to investigate specific aspects of
the technology. When designing static immersion tests both seasonal and spatial
variations in the type and quantity of fouling at the test site must be taken into
consideration.
Test Panels
Test surfaces may be of any shape or size, however, there are two standard sizes that are used
at the FIT test site. These are 10" x 12" and 4" x 8" flat panels. The test surfaces are mounted
to PVC frames and immersed in seawater. The panels maybe enclosed in fish exclusion cages
to accelerate the intensity of fouling.

-10" X 12" Static Immersion Panels

The 10" x 12" Panels are used for long term and hydrodynamic tests. They are usually made
from 1/8" thick marine grade aluminum or fiber reinforced plastic. 1/2 inch diameter holes
are drilled 3/4" from the sides of each corner to facilitate attachment to a PVC frame.

Panels should be coated on both sides with corner holes pre-drilled. Replication depends
greatly on experimental design, but a minimum of two replicates is suggested.The panels are
attached to PVC frames using nylon tie wraps. Three 10" x 12" panels can be fastened within
 11/09/2019 Assignment-2 CE304-TE 1 Animesh Mishra 28/34
a single test frame. Frames are enclosed within cages to exclude predation and to accelerate
data collection.

-4" X 8" Static Immersion Panels

The 4" x 8" Panels are used for short term and settlement studies. They are usually made
from 3/16" thick glass, marine grade aluminum or fiber reinforced plastic. These panels are
only coated on one side and they are placed back to back in frames that are designed to hold
them in place. In this configuration only the test surface is exposed to fouling and the
backside remains clean. The use of glass panels, in conjunction with clear coatings, enables
detailed settlement and growth studies to be performed.
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6.Why shape of aggregate is important for adequate performance of a
pavement layer and how it is measured for different sizes?
ANSWER:
Aggregates are the principal material in pavement. Conventional road aggregates in India are
natural aggregates obtained by crushing of rocks. In Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA), aggregates are
combined with an asphalt binding medium to form a compound material. By weight,
aggregate generally accounts for between 92 and 96 percent of HMA. They comprise the
majority of pavement volume. Therefore, knowledge of aggregate properties is crucial in
designing a high quality pavement. Aggregates can either be natural or manufactured. Natural
aggregates are generally extracted from larger rock formations through an open excavation
(quarry). Usually the rock is blasted or dug from the quarry walls then reduced in size using a
series of screens and crushers. Some quarries are also capable of washing the finished
aggregate. Manufactured rock typically consists of industrial by-products such as slag (by-
product of the metallurgical processing – typically produced from processing steel, tin and
copper) or specialty rock that is produced to have a particular physical characteristic not
found in natural rock (such as the low density of lightweight aggregate

Aggregate particles can be defined in terms of three independent shape properties: shape (or
form), angularity, and surface texture (Barrett, 1980). These three aggregate shape properties
fully characterize particles based on their geometry. The form property characterizes
aggregate particles based on ratios of particle dimensions. The angularity property
measurement describes particles based on the variations at the edges of particles. This
measurement defines particles in a range from rounded to angular. The final property is
surface texture. This property describes the surface roughness of a particle at a small scale,
which is not influenced by changes in form or angularity. These three properties are
independent of each other: an increase or decrease in one of these properties does not
necessarily influence the other two properties (Rousan, 2004). A schematic diagram
illustrating the differences between these three aggregate shape properties is shown :
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Aggregate shape properties are known to influence Bitumen pavement performance.
Angularity and texture govern the frictional properties and dilation of the aggregate structure.
Aggregate texture plays a major role in influencing the adhesive bond between the aggregate
and the binder, while aggregate form influences the anisotropic response of Bitumen mixes
Aggregate characteristics such as particle size, shape, and texture influence the performance
and service ability of hot-mix asphalt pavement (Brown et al. 1989, Kandhal et al. 1992). Flat
and elongated particles tend to break during mixing, compaction, and under traffic.
Therefore, aggregate shape is one of the important properties that must be considered in the
mix design of asphalt pavements to avoid premature pavement failure. The shape of
aggregate particle has a significant influence on the performance of the bituminous pavement.

Particle shape can be described as cubical, flat, elongated and round. The presence of flaky
aggregates is considered as undesirable in bituminous mixtures because of their tendency to
break down during construction and subsequent traffic operations. The voids present in a
compacted mix depend on the shape of aggregates. Blade shape aggregates have more voids
and reduce the workability. Hence it was felt that the study on the effect of the blade shape
aggregates on bituminous mixtures is relevant and essential. Krutz and Sebaaly (1993) found
a direct correlation between the rutting potential of HMA mixtures and the shape and texture
of coarse aggregate particles. Li and Kett (1967) concluded in their study that flat and
elongated particles could be permitted in a mixture without adverse effect on its strength.
Some mixes with flaky aggregates have been found to exhibit higher fatigue life than mixes
with non flaky aggregates. Oduroh et al. (2000) showed that the percentage of crushed coarse
particles had a significant effect on laboratory permanent deformation properties. As the
percentage of crushed coarse particles decreased, the rutting potential of the HMA mixtures
increased. Huber and Heiman (1987) found that crushed aggregate containing 19% flat and
elongated particles did not adversely affect the volumetric properties of HMA mixtures.
Approximately 85 percent of the total volume of bituminous concrete mixtures consists of
aggregate. It is not surprising that the performance of asphalt concrete mixtures is influenced
by the properties of their aggregate blends, such as gradation, shape (angularity and
elongation), and texture (roughness). In asphalt concrete, numerous studies have related the
gradation, shape, and texture of aggregate to durability, workability, shear resistance, tensile
strength, stiffness, fatigue response, rutting susceptibility, and optimum binder content of the
mixtures. In recognition of the importance of aggregate properties on pavement performance,
limits on flat and elongated particles or the amount of natural sand typically are incorporated
into specifications. However, often there is a lack of consistency between the aggregate
specifications and the ability to measure all the desired properties of aggregates. For example,
the most common test methods for evaluating aggregate angularity and surface texture are
indirect measures at best. Proper selection and evaluation of aggregate properties will remain
necessary to produce high-quality asphalt concrete mixtures, particularly as traffic and loads
increase. Quantification of aggregate properties with rational, objective characterization
methods is desirable. Visual examination is the most common method of judging aggregate
shape, the main objective of this investigation is to explore the use of different aggregate
shapes in DBM mixes. The performance of the aggregate shape factors is evaluated in terms
of Marshall Stability test results.
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MEASUREMENT:
The shape of the aggregate influences the gradation curve obtained by sieving (1). Flaky
particles tend to diagonally pass sieves having square holes. Also, the shape of the particle
has a significant influence on the volume of particles retained on a specific sieve. For
material retained on a given sieve size, Lees (1) has shown that rod-shaped particles are about
2.5 times the size of disc-shaped particles. This difference in size affects the ability of the
particles to properly fill voids of coarser size aggregate.
Simple Classification Systems
The shapes of fine- and coarse-aggregate particles can be divided into the following four
general shape categories (1 ,2): (a) flaky, (b) cuboidal, (c) blade, and (d) rod. Although
British Standard BS 812 (2) separates the aggregate into these four rather broad categories,
the method does not define the exact location of an aggregate within each category. A
special, simple gauge is used to measure the two indices required for shape classification.
ASTM (3) and the Corps of Engineers ( 4) also have test methods similar to BS 812 (2) for
evaluating flat and elongated coarse particles in aggregates to be used in concrete. These
methods use a specially designed caliper to determine particle shape ratios. Measurements are
performed by hand to determine if particles have certain length-to-thickness or widthto-
thickness ratios; specific particle dimensions are not measured. Although simple, these
methods are just classification schemes and do not permit determination of surface area.
Different ratios separating aggregate classes have been proposed for describing aggregate
particles (1,5). The four broad categories defined by these methods allow a large range of
particle shape characteristics within each classification. For research purposes, these methods
might give misleading results, affecting aggregate performance. Also, these classification
tests are not suitable for measuring the shape of particles much finer than about the No. 12
sieve, and surface area cannot be determined using the results. Classification systems that use
just one aspect ratio are not suitable for defining particle shape.
Generalized Classification Systems
Both fine and coarse aggregate particle shape can be determined by measuring the flatness
ratio and elongation ratio (1). The flatness ratio (p) is the ratio of the shortest length ( c)
divided by the intermediate length ( b), and the elongation ratio (q) is the ratio of intermediate
length (b) divided by the greatest length (a).

Particle Shape Using a Digitizer

For shape classification, the aggregates studied in this investigation were divided by sieving
into the following four size ranges: V2 to% in., Nos. 4 to 8, Nos. 8 to 120, and smaller than
the No. 120 sieve. These size ranges were selected by a panel of engineers as being
appropriate. For the two larger size aggregate ranges (the V2 to% in. and Nos. 4 to 8 sizes),
an aggregate sample consisted of 150 particles of each size, with the number of particles
being counted visually. In the smaller size ranges, microphotographs and special techniques
were used to measure the aggregate shape. The number of particles in each sample of smaller
particles varied from 50 to 150, on the basis of the number of particles captured in each
photograph. At least three different samples were measured for each aggregate type. This
approach resulted in the use of a minimum of 450 particles for each of the coarser two sizes
studied and a minimum of 150 particles for each of the finer two particle sizes studied;
usually 250 or more particles were included. The use of more than 150 particles was
desirable but was too expensive to achieve iu all cases fu1 lhe microscopic particles.
Aggregate shape was determined and numerous plots and tables produced without a human
hand ever working with the data. The procedure developed for particle analysis is completely
automated and uses a relatively inexpensive digitizer that automatically feeds data into an
IBM-XT microcomputer.
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Aggregate Greater Than No. 8 Sieve in Size
For the aggregate greater in size than the No. 8 sieve, photocopies were made of the flattest
profile of the particles. A Savin 7350 copying machine was used to provide images of 50
particles at a time, which were placed in a small box. The box had a clear plastic bottom and
dividers so as to give five rows of 10 aggregates each. The copy machine was found not to
distort the photocopied image of the aggregate. By providing a profile view of the aggregates,
the length and width were easily digitized directly from the photocopy using a Penpad
digitizing tablet manufactured by Pencept, Inc. The digitizer had an accuracy of 0.0015 in.,
which was sufficient, TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1301 particularly
considering the relatively large observed variation in aggregate shape and dimensions. The
length was digitized as the longest dimension of the aggregate, and the width as the average
dimension, in the plane of the photocopied image, perpendicular to the length. The coordinates
(x ,y) of each point representing one end of a dimension were digitized, and the actual
dimension was later calculated. If the original ordering of length, width, and thickness was to
correct, a computer program later automatically reordered the dimensions correctly. Shadows
were created when trying to photocopy the profile of the aggregate to measure its thickness.
Therefore, aggregate thickness was not digitized directly from a photocopy. Instead, vernier
calipers were used to measure the average thickness directly from the aggregate. The calipers,
open to the proper width, were then laid on the digitizing pad, and the tips of the calipers,
representing thickness of the aggregate, were digitized. A pen-type digitizer, as opposed to one
with cross-hairs, was used, enabling digitizing of the vernier caliper measurements. This
method of measuring the dimensions proved to be efficient. With experience, an operator can
digitize the three dimensions of 150 aggregates in approximately 30 to 45 min. After digitizing
the three perpendicular dimensions for all aggregates, the data are saved as an Autocad DXF
file in ASCII code.
Aggregate Smaller Than No. 8 Sieve in Size
Aggregates less than the No. 8 sieve in size require the use of specially prepared optical
microphotographs. Similar to the large aggregate, aggregate length was digitized directly
from the photograph as the longest dimension and the width as the average dimension, in the
plane of the photograph, perpendicular to the length. Because these particles are small, the
height cannot be measured directly using calipers. Therefore, a special technique was used
relating a shadow length on the photograph to particle height. As the particles were prepared
fol' the microscope, uniform reference spheres were added to establish the scale for vertical
height. A thin film of metal was evaporated onto the surface at an angle to the substrate on
which the particles set to create a shadow (7). Because the evaporation source is a relatively
long distance away, the angles at which it strikes the particles and reference spheres are
approximately equal. Therefore, by geometry, a unique ratio exists between the shadow
lengths of the reference spheres and the aggregate particles and their heights. A special
technique, described subsequently, was used to capture the shadow on the photograph.
Similar to the large aggregate, all digitized dimensions were saved as an Autocad DXF file in
ASCII code. A set of microphotograph data can be digitized in 25 to 50 min depending on the
number of aggregates in a sample.
Three-Dimensional Measurements of Very Fine Aggregate Samples
The fine aggregate samples studied (smaller than the No. 8 sieve in size) have a broad size
range that requires the use both of low- and of high-magnification techniques, which cannot
be accomplished using only one instrument. As a result, aggregate varying in size from the
No. 8 to the No. 120 sieve was treated differently than aggregate smaller than the 120 sieve.
The larger fraction particle size (Nos. 8 to 120 sieve size) is large enough to present
difficulties in direct optical measurements and especially in macrophotography because of the
 11/09/2019 Assignment-2 CE304-TE 1 Animesh Mishra 32/34
limited depth of field of optical techniques. If measurement of the thickness of these particles
is required , a unique sample preparation problem exists.
Large Fraction-Particles of Nos. 8 to 120 Sieve Size
Sample Dispersion: The solution for measuring aggregate shape of small particles is to look
not at the particles themselves but to create flat silhouette representations of the particles
from which measurements can be taken. If a shadow is added to the silhouette directly related
to a particle's height, the three dimensions of length, width , and height can easily be
measured in one flat plane. The technique of vacuum evaporation of thin metal films, such as
that used in the preparation of samples for transmission electron microscopy (TEM), was
used to prepare these flat, two-dimensional representations of three-dimensional samples (7).
In order to prepare fine aggregates so that silhouettes could be obtained, aluminum was used
instead of platinum (which is used in TEM preparation because of its ease of evaporation) ..
First, a glass microscope slide was cleaned with so~p and water to ensure good adherence of
the evaporated film. A good dispersion of the sample particles was placed on t.his slide. Care
was exercised to ensure that the particle spacmg was sufficient to allow for a shadow between
the particles, and that the dispersion was representative of the true size distribution. Obtaining
good sample dispersion is perhaps the hardest but most important part of the sample
preparatior. A wide variety of dispersion techniques can be used depending on the nature of
the particulate material being studied. For the particles used in this study, the dispersion was
~repared in the following manner. Each sample was .placed m a plastic bag . The sample was
then mixed .by shakmg t.he bag back and forth while turning it (8). Shakmg was earned out
for a sufficiently long period of time to thoroughly mix the sample. A number of small
subsamples were taken from different areas of the bag and mixed to further ensure a
representative sample. Because the mica consisted of relatively. large flakes, an antistatic
spray was not required to prevent st1ckmg of these particles to the sides of the bag. A number
of cleaned glass slides were placed on a flat surface and the extracted sample allowed to drop
onto the slides from a height of about 1 ft. This technique was performed in an area that had
no air movement. A small quantity of uniform glass spheres was also dropped onto the slides.
The size of the spheres was later determined by measuring their diameters on the photograph
and calculating sizes knowing the scale of the photograph. One of the slides that visually
appeared to have the best dispersion was selected for further processing .

Fine Fraction Smaller Than No. 120 Sieve Size

Particle size measurements of the fine fraction less than the No. 120 sieve in size were made
from micrographs taken using the scanning electron microscope (SEM). The particles were
dispersed on a plastic substrate and the preparation coated with carbon by evaporation to
prevent charging the SEM. The dispersion was then shadowed with aluminum as previB
ously described. The paricles were left in place on the slide because depth of field is not a
problem in the SEM. The micrographs were taken using the backscatter signal, which is
sensitive to elemental differences. Good contrast was obtained using this technique between
the particle, shadow, and background. Uniform glass or latex spheres were included in the
dispersion for shadow and thickness determinations.
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7. Write a short note on graphical method of aggregate proportioning.
ANSWER:
Rothfuch’s Method
This method is used when a number of materials have to be mixed together for obtaining a
desired or design gradation. The desired gradation may be decided either based on
recommended grain size distribution charts or tables or using the below Fuller’s equation.
P= 100 (d/D) n
Where,
D = diameter of largest particle, mm
P = percent finer than diameter ‘d’ (mm) in the material
n = gradation index, which have values ranging from 0.5 to 0.3 depending upon the shape.

On a graph paper, with Y-axis representing percent passing and X-axis representing particle
size, as shown in figure. A diagonal line is drawn from point corresponding to (100 percent
passing, maximum particle size of the material) to a point corresponding to (zero percent
passing, smallest particle size of the materials) The different particle sizes are marked on X-
axis corresponding to the mean values of percentage finer taken on the Y-axis. For different
materials say A, B and C, sieve analysis has to be done and percentage finer has to be
calculated for each range of particle size for all the materials and grain size distribution
curves of these three materials are plotted as shown in fig and the balancing straight lines of
A, B and C are obtained, allowing only minimum of the areas on either sides of the balancing
lines. The opposite ends of the balancing straight lines of A and B are joined (i.e., zero
percent passing of materials A is joined with 100 percent passing of B). Similarly the
opposite ends of balancing lines of B and C are joined. The points where these lines meet the
desired gradation line represent the proportion in which the materials A, B and C are to be
mixed. These values may be read from the Y-axis by projecting the points of intersection as
shown in fig
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REFRENCES:
1. IS 2386-4 (1963)- Method of test of aggregate for concrete.
2. Florida Tech Website: Static Immersion Test and Modified Lottman Test.
3. Influence of coarse aggregate shape factors on bituminous mixtures by Ganpati
Naidu. P
4. Wikipedia.Org for Tpes of Crushers
5. Introduction to types and classification of rocks by Geoffrey Mibei(Geothermal
Development Company)
6. Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction, and Management.
7. Measurement of Aggregate Shape, Surface Area, and Roughness by Richard d.
Barksdale, Michael A. Kemp, William J. Sheffield, and James l. Hubbard .