ZOO 102.

1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

EXPLORING THE SKELETAL SYSTEM OF DIFFERENT REPRESENTATIVES OF

VERTEBRATE CLASSES

University of the Philippines Visayas Tacloban College, Tacloban City, Leyte

Myrabelle B. Lopez

ABSTRACT

Considered to be of high importance to the body structure of the Subphylum Vertebrata,

the skeletal system is the body system composed of bones, cartilages, ligaments and other tissues
that perform essential functions for the vertebrate body. This includes supporting the body by
acting as a rigid, yet flexible skeleton that acts as a framework to support the other organs of the
body allowing the movement of some joints to change shape and positions depending on its need.
Likewise, it protects internal organs by enclosing or partly enclosing various key organs of the
body including our brain, ears, heart, and lungs. It also produces blood cells since the central
cavity of long bones is filled with marrow, typically red bone marrow which is responsible for
forming red and white blood cells. In addition, it stores and releases minerals and fat. For this
exercise, the students observed representative species of each classes of vertebrates where they
were tasked to identify certain bones that comprise the skull of various vertebrates, to compare
the differences size, shape and occurrence of cranial bones in various vertebrates, to identify the
bones that comprise the post-cranial skeleton of various vertebrates and to compare the
postcranial skeletons of a variety of vertebrates noting differences in size and other factors that
affect the types of locomotion that the skeletal system supports. It showed that there is a wide
superficial differences, which are associated with each class brought by its adaptations for
particular habits or environments.

INTRODUCTION

Composed of bones as its fundamental structure, the skeletal system is considered to be of

tantamount role in securing the other systems that equally allows an organism, specifically the
vertebrates to properly function. The skeletal system is the body system composed of bones,
cartilages, ligaments and other tissues that perform essential functions for the vertebrate body.
Bone tissue, or osseous tissue, is a hard, dense connective tissue that forms most of the adult
skeleton, the internal support structure of the body. In the areas of the skeleton where whole bones
move against each other, cartilages, a semi-rigid form of connective tissue, provide flexibility and
smooth surfaces for movement. Additionally, ligaments composed of dense connective tissue
surround these joints, tying skeletal elements together.
ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

Together, they perform a variety of integral functions depending on the vertebrates. This
includes supporting the body by acting as a rigid, yet flexible skeleton that acts as a framework to
support the other organs of the body allowing the movement of some joints to change shape and
positions depending on its need. Likewise, it protects internal organs by enclosing or partly
enclosing various key organs of the body including our brain, ears, heart, and lungs. The skeletal
system also produces blood cells since the central cavity of long bones is filled with marrow,
typically red bone marrow which is responsible for forming red and white blood cells. In addition,
it stores and releases minerals and fat. The mineral component of bone, in addition to providing
hardness to bone, provides a mineral reservoir that can be tapped as needed. Additionally, the
yellow marrow, which is found in the central cavity of long bones along with red marrow, serves
as a storage site for fat.

The component parts of the skeletons of vertebrates, although remarkably uniform in basic
plan, are subject to wide superficial differences, which are associated with each class and
with adaptations for particular habits or environments. The axial skeleton consists of the skull and
the vertebral column. The appendicular skeleton supports the fins in fish and the legs in tetrapods
(four-legged animals) and is associated with limb girdles, which become progressively more
closely linked with the vertebral column in the higher vertebrates. Superficially there may be
an exoskeleton of scales; some scales on the head may be incorporated into the skull.

Ossification, or osteogenesis, is the process of bone formation by osteoblasts. Ossification

is distinct from the process of calcification; whereas calcification takes place during the
ossification of bones, it can also occur in other tissues. Ossification begins approximately six
weeks after fertilization in an embryo. Before this time, the embryonic skeleton consists entirely
of fibrous membranes and hyaline cartilage. The development of bone from fibrous membranes is
called intramembranous ossification; development from hyaline cartilage is called endochondral
ossification.

For this purpose, an exercise was conducted to identify certain bones that comprise the
skull of various vertebrates, to compare the differences size, shape and occurrence of cranial bones
ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

in various vertebrates, to identify the bones that comprise the post-cranial skeleton of various
vertebrates and to compare the postcranial skeletons of a variety of vertebrates noting differences
in size and other factors that affect the types of locomotion that the skeletal system supports.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The students closely examined preserved skeletal system from the museum of different
representative samples of vertebrate classes namely: shark, bony fish, toad, snake, bird and a cat.
Its notable features embedded within the said system were located and its functions were noted.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSSION

A. Shark
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Figure 1. Skeletal System of the dogfish shark

The skeleton of the shark (Figure 1) has evolved and adapted to suit and aid the habitat,
migration, hunting habits and diet of these acclaimed carnivores. Unlike terrestrial animals,
humans, and even other marine animals, sharks’ skeletons are made purely of cartilage and
connective tissue, or muscle. There is no bone.

This type of skeleton means that the shark is lighter, as cartilage is about half the density
of bone but still it is relatively strong ,durable material but also light weight and flexible. This is
important because, unlike other fish, the shark has no swim bladder to prevent it from sinking to
the bottom of the ocean and allows it to turn in a tighter radius than other fish, an essential skill
when in hot pursuit of darting prey .Cartilage found in the jaws and backbones of sharks require
more strength then the cartilage found in the fins. These areas are strengthened with calcium salts
forming a calcified cartilage which has similar strength characteristics of bone without the added
weight. Interestingly, sharks don’t possess any ribs.
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Composed with cartilage together with integumentary and endoskeleton derivatives, the
chondrocranium mostly protects the entire brain and other related sensory organs with its anterior
extension known as the rostrum. Its olfactory senses are embedded within the nasal capsules which
are supported by the ethmoid plate. The inconspicuous ear within the brain case is supported by
the otic capsules. Although they don’t have any ribs, the sharks have vertebrae which exit the
braincase via the foramen magnum and the occipital condyle. It contains visceral arches which
are designed for supporting the mouth and gills. The palatoquadrate formed from the mandibular
arch (Meckel’s cartilage) is modified to form the upper and lower jaw bearing teeth then,
posteriorly located is the hyomandibular articulation which supports the tongue and the jaw. The
ceratohyal composes the last portion of the visceral arches followed by the epibranchial portion.
Each of the branchial arches, the arches which actually function as respiratory arches in fishes, has
an epibranchial and a ceratobranchial. The hyoid arch is an additional arch anterior to the first
branchial arch. The hyoid is often involved in respiration, but its primary functions are related to
jaw support and extension. Lastly, is the heterocercal tail which is mainly for propelling fast
movements of the shark.

B. Bony Fish
ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

A
Figure
bony fish shares similarities 2. Skeletal
to that of other System of aclasses
vertebrate bony fish
such as having a brain case made up
of the parietal and temporal regions and a nasal that encases the organ responsible for sensing food
, prey and predators. It also has a pre-maxilla and a maxilla which composes the jaw which protects
the mouth together with its associated structures such as the hyomandibular and the quadrate. The
dentary and articular is where the teeth is located. Bony fish have a special adaptation that allows
them to remain buoyant, or float on water. They have a special organ called a swim bladder, which
is under the layer of bony skeleton and filled with gas. They are able to breathe without swimming
through their operculum, a flap on each side that covers the gills.
The dorsal and ventral ribs together with the haemal spine and arch protects the lungs ,
heart and other organs while the neural arch and spine allows the fish to propel swimming
including turns and other powerful locomotions.

C. Amphibian
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Figure 3. Skeletal System of a toad

The head skeleton of early amphibians was nearly identical to that of bony fishes but this
arrangement has not persisted among contemporary amphibian and the dermal bones are reduced
in number and most of the skull is cartilaginous. The open structure of the skull better
accommodates the more elaborate sensory and feeding apparatus of amphibians. Part of the
visceral arches has evolved into the hyoid apparatus, a structure that supports the base of the
tongue.
The cranium forms the narrow central part of the skull. It is tubular in shape and pierced
by a large hole at the posterior end. This is the foramen magnum through which the brain joins the
spinal cord. The foramen is bordered on each side by a cartilage bone called ex-occipital, which
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bears a convex occipital condyle. The two occipital condyles fit into de-pressions on the first
vertebra. The roof of the cranium is formed by a pair of thin flat bones called front parietals which
extend from the ex-occipitals behind to the nasal capsules in front.
The floor of the cranium is supported by a dagger-shaped Para sphenoid, the blade of which
points forwards. At the anterior end of the cranium is a ring-like cartilage bone, the sphenethmoid,
which is completely covered over by the front parietals. Besides the foramen magnum, the brain
case is perforated by several small openings for the exit of the cranial nerves.

The nasal capsules are attached to the anterior end of the cranium and the sphenethmoid
extends into them from behind. Each half of the nose is covered over by a triangular membrane
bone called nasal, and its floor is supported by another membrane bone, the vomer.

The orbits are represented by two large cavities, one on each side of the cranium. They are
meant for lodging the eyes. The cartilaginous optic capsules are not fused with the cranium and
therefore they are not found in a prepared skeleton. The auditory or otic capsules are situated
posteriorly, one on each side of the cranium, just in front of the ex-occipitals. Each capsule is a
cartilaginous box which is covered over by a single cartilage bone called pro-otic. The floor of the
capsule is supported by a lateral expansion of the Para sphenoid. On the outer side of the pro-otic
is a thin hammer-shaped membrane bone, the squamosal, which connects the otic capsule with the
posterior end of the upper jaw.

The upper jaw forms the outer margin of the skull. It consists of two halves which are
united to the cranium, both in front and behind. Each half of the jaw is composed of an outer series
of three membrane bones, the premaxilla, the maxilla and the quadratojugal. The premaxillae are
small bones at the anterior part which unite with one another in the middle line and are fused to
the nasal capsules. Behind the premaxilla is a long slender maxilla which is joined to the
quadratojugal. At the posterior end of the quadratojugal is a small cartilaginous piece, the quadrate,
which bears a concave facet for articulating with the lower jaw.Extending between the cranium
and the outer series of three bones just described, there is an inner series of three supporting bones.
These are the palatine, the pterygoid and the quadrate. They serve to brace up the upper jaw with
the cranium.
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The palatine is a rod-like bone in front of the orbit which connects the maxilla with the
sphenethmoid. The pterygoid is a Y-shaped bone, the foot of which is attached to the junction
between the palatine and the maxilla.The two arms of the pterygoid are directed backwards; the
inner arm supports the floor of the otic capsule and the outer arm projects towards and fuses with
the quadrate. Thus the pterygoid and the quadrate form an efficient girder for the articulation of
the lower jaw.The lower jaw consists of two halves which are united anteriorly, in the middle fine,
by a short ligament. Each half is derived from a Meckel’s cartilage and is composed of three bones,
the mentomeckelian, the angulosplenial and the dentary.The mentomeckel in is a small cartilage
bone at the extreme anterior end. Behind the mento-meckelian is a long slender angulosplenial
which encloses the inner margin of the Meckel’s cartilage. The posterior end of the angulosplenial
articulates with the quadrate of the upper jaw.The dentary is a membrane bone which covers the
outer surface of the angulosplenial but does not extend up to the posterior end. Both jaws are
toothless.The hyoid apparatus is a cartilaginous plate lying on the floor of the mouth cavity. It
form$ the surface for the attachment of the tongue. The main bulk of the apparatus is known as
the body of the hyoid.A pair of horns called anterior cornua extend from the anterior part of the
body to the auditory capsules. Similarly, a pair of posterior cornua project backwards from the
body of the byoid and enclose the laryngotracheal chamber or voice box. The anterior cornua are
much longer than the posterior cornua (Swenson, n.d.).

The vertebral column is situated dorsally and extends from the base of the skull to the
posterior end of the trunk. It is composed of a series of ten separate bones, the first nine of which
are the ring like vertebrae and the last is a long rod-like urostyle. A typical vertebra, taken from
the middle of the series, consists of a solid cylindrical part, the body or centrum, which is concave
in front and convex behind and therefore said to be procelous. Dorsally, the centrum bears a bony
ring, the neural arch, which encloses the spinal cord in a neural canal. On the roof of the neural
arch is a low median ridge, the neural spine or spinous process.

On each side, the neural arch carries an outwardly directed transverse process. Extending
forward from the anterior margin of the neural arch are two spoon like articulating processes called
pre-zygapophyses; and similarly, two posterior articular processes or post-zygapophyses project
backward from the posterior margin of the neural arch. When the vertebrae lie in their natural
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position, the convex posterior surface of one centrum fits into the concave anterior surface of the
following centrum, and the post-zygapophyses of the vertebra in front overlap the pre-
zygapophyses of the vertebra behind. The vertebrae cannot separate, because they are held together
by ligaments. A flexible vertebral column is produced in this manner. It encloses the spinal cord
in a continuous neural canal formed by the ring-like neural arches of the successive vertebrae.
There are intervertebral foramina between consecutive neural arches, through which spinal nerves
come out. The first vertebra or atlas articulates with the skull. It has neither transverse processes
nor pre-zygapophyses. Instead, it carries on its anterior face two concave facets for articulating
with the occipital condyles of the cranium. Its centrum is greatly reduced and flattened, and its
neural arch bears a pair of post-zygapophyses for articulating with the pre-zygapophyses of the
second vertebra.

The pectoral girdle is a bony framework encircling the anterior part of the trunk. It consists
of two symmetrical halves which are united with one another in the mid-ventral line, but separated
dorsally. Each half of the pectoral girdle is composed of the following structures. Lying dorsally
and above the vertebral column is a broad, partly cartilaginous plate called supra-scapula. Attached
to the supra-scapula is a stout scapula or shoulder blade, which forms the outer side of the girdle.
Connected with the lower end of the scapula and lying ventral to the vertebra column are two rod-
like bones, a clavicle in front and a coracoid behind. The clavicle is a thin membrane bone which
encloses the precoracoid cartilage. The precoracoid being en-sheathed is not easily visible. The
inner ends of the clavicle and the coracoid are joined by a curved piece of cartilage, called
epicoracoid. The right epicoracoid is slightly overlapped by the left one. The clavicle, the coracoid
and the epicoracoid are separated from one another by a wide gap which is known as the coracoid
fontanelle.

The pelvic girdle is a V-shaped structure at the posterior end of the trunk. The apex of the
V is directed back-wards and the two free ends of the V form a complete hoop by arti-culating
anteriorly with the transverse processes of the ninth verte-bra. The posterior end of the pelvic girdle
is disc-like, with a cavity called acetabulum on either side. The acetabulum supports the hind limb
by articulating with the thigh bone. The disc itself is formed by the fusion of three bones on each
side, the ilium, the ischium and the pubis. The two ilia form the anterior and dorsal sectors of the
ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

disc; they extend anteriorly as slender rods, one on each side of the urostyle, and articulate with
the ninth vertebra.

The forearm is supported by a single bone called radio-ulna which is formed by the fusion
of two bones, radius and ulna. The proximal end of the radio-ulna is concave and articulates with
the trochlea of the humerus to form the elbow-joint.It is drawn out into a backwardly directed
projection, called olecranon process, which extends beyond the trochlea and lies behind the elbow.
The distal end of the radio- ulna is expanded and flattened for joining with the wrist.The wrist or
carpus is composed of six small pieces of carpal bones which are arranged in two rows, a proximal
row and a distal row, each consisting of three carpals. The palm of the hand is supported by four
slender rod-like bones, the metacarpals. There are four fingers or digits, each of which is composed
of bones called phalanges). The innermost finger corresponding to our thumb is absent. The first
and second fingers have two phalanges in each, but the third and fourth have three in each.

Each hind limb is a sys-tem of bones. The thigh is supported by a long bone called femur,
with a slightly curved shaft and swollen ends. Its round-ed proximal end or head articulates with
the acetabulum forming a ball and socket hip joint, and its distal end is slightly expanded to form
a condyle for arti-culating with the shank bone. The shank or crus is supported by a single bone
called tibiofibula which is formed by the union of two bones, tibia and fibula. The tibiofibula is
expanded at both the ends; its proximal end articulating with the femur forms the knee joint, and
the distal end articulating with the tarsals forms the ankle joint. In tarsal bones.

The two proximal tarsals are the calcaneum and the astragalus. Both are elongated and
united with each other at their ends, but widely separated in the middle. The distal tarsals consist
of two or three small pieces, which owing to their smallness are easily overlooked.The foot or
metatarsus is composed of five slender metatarsals. There are Jive toes or digits. The first and
second toes have two phalanges in each, the third has three, the fourth four, and the fifth three. The
great toe or hallux has a small projection on its inner side. This is known as the calcar or pre-
hallux, and is composed of one or two small nodules.
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The two pairs of limbs are built on the same plan. Both are essentially pentadactyle, that is
‘five-fingered’; but the thumb or pollex is absent in the forelimbs. A comparison between the
forelimb and the hind limb reveals that the humerus corresponds to the femur, the radio-ulna to
the tibiofibula, the carpals to the tarsals, the metacarpals to the metatarsals, and the phalanges of
the fingers to those of the toes. The bones of the hind limb are of course longer than the
corresponding bones of the forelimb and the proximal tarsals are very much longer in comparison
to the proximal carpals (Gupta,2000).

D. Reptiles

atlas

trunk
vertebrae

caudal
vertebrae

Figure 4. Skeletal System of a snake

ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

Snake skeletons are not very complex because they do not have any appendages (limbs).
A few species, such as boas and pythons, retain some vestigial structures similar to pelvic bones.
In some species, these can even be seen externally and are called "spurs." These structures are
often used in reproduction. All other snakes simply have vertebrae, ribs, and a skull. Snakes can
have between 130-500 vertebrae, with ribs attached to each one. This does not include the bones
in the tail section, but only those that are anterior to the cloaca (analogous to the anus in mammals).

A unique part of the snake skeleton is the makeup of the skull and teeth. Adaptations in the
skull allow snakes to eat prey much larger than themselves. The bones are connected by elastic
ligaments, allowing a lot of stretch. The joint of the upper and lower jaws is placed very posterior
(far back) in the skull, allowing the mouth to open as wide as possible. Also, the bones of the lower
jaw are not fused together at the front, which means, they can move laterally when the snake is
swallowing large prey. In addition, a snake has an additional loosely-attached bone called a
"quadrate" on each side. This provides a "double hinge" at the joint and as a snake swallows, it
alternately moves the jaws on each side of the face and "walks" the prey into its mouth. Another
adaptation that helps the snake to swallow prey is the backwards curve of the teeth. They are angled
toward the throat and act as hooks to prevent live prey from wiggling loose. Snake teeth are both
acrodont (attached to the bone) and polyphydont (able to grow back when lost), and a snake may
have several sets of teeth throughout its lifetime. This is necessary, because teeth are often lost
while feeding. The type of teeth a snake has differs depending on the method used to capture and
kill prey.

The snake possesses an atlas where the trunk vertebrae and the caudal vertebrae are
attached. The caudal vertebra is the posterior part where the tail is located which allows it to move
swiftly in any direction it wants (Snake Anatomy,2012).
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E. Birds

Figure 5. Skeletal System of a bird

According to Extension. (2018), the avian skeletal system looks similar to that of mammals
but must accommodate a bird's need to be light enough to fly while having necessary body support.
Consequently, the skeleton of a bird includes some unique features.

Some vertebral sections (sections of the backbone) are fused to provide the rigidity required
for flight. The sternum (breastbone or keel) has a surface area large enough to allow for the
attachment of the main flight muscles which is the extension termed as the keel or carina. The size
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of the skull is proportionally small when compared to the skulls of other species because a large
head would make flying difficult. The tail is a short section of fused bones called a pygostyle.

The ribs include the uncinate process, which involves overlying flaps that project from the
ribs and connect adjacent ribs, giving strength to the rib cage so that it does not collapse during
flight. The neck is long in most species. A long, flexible neck acts as a shock absorber, protecting
the delicate tissues of the brain from too much jarring when a bird lands. Because a bird's body is
rigid, the long neck allows the bird to reach food located on the ground more easily. A long neck
also allows a bird's center of gravity to adjust when the bird changes from the upright position of
walking or perching to the more horizontal position of flying.

The bones of birds are lighter in weight than those of mammals. Some of the bones are
hollow and actually act as part of the avian respiratory system. These bones, called pneumatic
bones, include the skull, humerus, clavicle, keel, pelvic girdle, and lumbar and sacral vertebrae.

Other important bones in the avian skeleton are the medullary bones. These bones include
the tibia, femur, pubic bone, ribs, ulna, toe bones, and scapula. Medullary bones are an important
source of calcium when hens are laying eggs. Eggshells primarily are made of calcium, and a hen's
body mobilizes 47 percent of its body calcium to make an eggshell. When in production, a
commercial laying hen cannot obtain enough dietary calcium to allow for daily egg production.
Without medullary bones to draw calcium from, the hen would produce eggs with very thin and
weak shells.

Although important differences exist between the skeletons of birds and other animals,
several similarities are present as well. In general, birds have the same skeletal structure as many
other animals, including humans. This includes the common joints of the arms of chickens and
humans are easily identifiable. The joint between the scapula and the humerus is the shoulder while
the joint between the humerus and the radius/ulna is the elbow and the joint between
the radius/ulna and the metacarpus is the wrist.

Both the human leg and chicken leg have a femur, a fibula, and a tibia. In a chicken, the
femur holds the thigh meat, and the fibula/tibia combination holds the meat of the drumstick. The
metatarsus of a chicken is known as the shank, and the chicken walks on its toes. A comparison of
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the leg joints of chickens and humans is not quite as obvious as a comparison of the arm joints.
The joint at the top of the femur is the hip while the joint between the femur and the fibula/tibia is
the knee while the joint between the fibula/tibia and the metatarsus is the ankle (Byjus, 2018).

F. Mammals
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Figure 6. Skeletal System of a cat

The cat’s skeletal design is very similar to humans, although there are three significant
differences. First, a cat’s spine or backbone contains more bones that humans, mainly because
of the tail. Their vertebrae are not as tightly connected as ours, making the cat’s spine extremely
flexible. This feature enables the cat to arch his back and to twist or turn his body so that he can
squeeze through the tiniest gaps. Second, the cat lacks a clavicle or collarbone. A collarbone
would broaden the chest, thus reducing the cat’s ability to get through narrow spaces, and
limiting the length of his stride. In addition cats have no direct skeletal connection through a
collarbone between the bones of their forelimbs (pectoral girdle) and those of their vertebral
columns. In effect, they have shock-mounted forelimbs, which cushion a landing after a jump.

There are 29 bones in the cat’s head. The feline head can be loosely broken into the skull,
face (eyes, nose, cheeks) and jaw. The thick skull bone protects the cat’s delicate brain; other bones
include the jawbones (mandible and maxilla), nasal bones, cheekbones and eye orbit together with
canine and carnassial teeth which is supported by the dentary.

The vertebrae run along the upper part of the cat’s body from the skull to the tail. There
are 7 neck bones, 13 backbone, 3 sacral bones and 20-23 tail bones. The cat’s vertebrae are not as
tightly connected as that of the human, with much greater elasticity in the disks between the bones,
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making it much more flexible. The ribs surround the chest cavity on either side; there are 13 pairs
of rib bones in the cat. Its scapula is not attached to other bones; it is held in place by muscles.The
pelvis is divided into two halves, each containing three bones, the ilium, ischium, and the pubis.

Also known as the chest bone, the sternum is a flat bone in the chest protecting the heart
and lungs, the ribs connect to the sternum via cartilage. The clavicle attaches to the sternum and
shoulder blades in humans; however, in cats, this tiny bone is located deep within the chest muscle.
This makes the cat’s chest much narrower and deeper than other mammals, increasing the length
of his stride and allowing him to squeeze into narrow places.

The bones of the legs are long bones. The long bones of the foreleg consist of the humerus
in the upper leg, and the lower leg has the ulna and radius bones. The toes follow the carpal (wrist)
bones. The cat’s hind leg consists of the femur (upper leg), and the tibia and fibula below consists
and the cat’s rear foot connects the tibia and fibula to the tarsal bones, a group of seven bones
Connecting the legs to the feet on the foreleg are the carpal (front legs) and tarsal (rear legs) bones.
Cats have metacarpals in their front legs and metatarsals in their hind legs. Each front foot has five
metacarpal bones, and each hind foot has four metatarsal bones. Cats have five toes (phalanges)
on the front (foreleg), one of these toes is the dewclaw which sits higher up on the foot and does
not come into contact with the ground. There are four toes on the rear (hind leg). Each cat toe has
three bones, the distal, middle and proximal phalange. The cat’s claw is attached to the distal
phalange. Cats are digitigrade, which means walk on their toe (unlike humans who walk on the
flat of the foot). When a cat is declawed, the claw along with the distal phalange is amputated.
Some cats have additional toes, known as polydactyly (or Hemingway cats). Certain breeds are
more prone to this including Maine Coons and Bobcats. The final section of the vertebrae, the cat’s
tail consists of between 20 and 23 bones.

The throat contains an unusual bone called the hyoid. Its principal function is to anchor the
tongue; it is also believed that it helps lions produce their characteristic roar and in domestic cats,
their purr
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The male cat has a small bone in the penis, this allows the penis to remain hard during
copulation, meaning he can do so for extended periods. Known as ossicles, these tiny bones of the
inner ear which help to amplify sound (Wells, 2015).

CONCLUSION
All the vertebrates contain unique and shared features that allows them to easily adapt in
their designated dynamic environment . All of them possess a skull-like structure which is either
made up from entirely bones or a calcified cartilage likewise they have a backbone which either
contains ribs or not.
The shark’s skeleton is unique in a sense that it is made up of purely cartilage, connective
tissue, or muscle which comprises the chondocranium , which surrounds their brain and is
relatively medium in size compared to the others. Other skeletal organs consist of the rostrum,
nasal capsules, ethmoid plate, group of visceral arches and a heterocercal tail. Having such type
of skeleton allows the it to be light since unlike other fish, the shark has no swim bladder hence,
the calcified cartilage allows it to prevent from sinking to the bottom of the ocean and allows it to
turn in a tighter radius than other fish, an essential skill when in hot pursuit of darting prey as a
carnivorous animal.
A bony fish also also possesses a relatively small braincase since they are known to have
small brains. Unlike, sharks they have a swim bladder encase in its dorsal and ventral ribs allowing
it to remain buoyant. An operculum covers its gills making it possible for them to breathe without
swimming.Apart from those, the bony fish consists of a neural spine, hyomandibular, dentary,
articular, quadrate , haemal spine and a neural arch.
The skeleton of early amphibians was nearly identical to that of bony fishes but this
arrangement has not persisted among contemporary amphibian and the dermal bones are reduced
in number and most of the skull is cartilaginous. The open structure of the skull better
accommodates the more elaborate sensory and feeding apparatus of amphibians. Part of the
visceral arches has evolved into the hyoid apparatus, a structure that supports the base of the
tongue. Almost all of its bones are similar to that of humans except for the squamosal,
quadratojugal, pterygoid and the urostyle.
A reptile specifically a snake has a simple skeletal structure mainly composed of a
braincase, a trunk and a caudal vertebra. A unique part of the snake skeleton is the makeup of the
ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

skull and teeth. Adaptations in the skull allow snakes to eat prey much larger than themselves. The
bones are connected by elastic ligaments, allowing a lot of stretch. Another adaptation that helps
the snake to swallow prey is the backwards curve of the teeth. They are angled toward the throat
and act as hooks to prevent live prey from wiggling loose.
The avian skeletal system looks similar to that of mammals but must accommodate a bird's
need to be light enough to fly while having necessary body support such as an extension of the
sternum called as the keel or carina allowing it enough leverage on its flight . Another notable
feature is their long, flexible neck acting as a shock absorber, protecting the delicate tissues of the
brain from too much jarring when a bird lands, permits it to reach food located on the ground
more easily and allows a bird's center of gravity to adjust when the bird changes from the upright
position of walking or perching to the more horizontal position of flying.
Cat, a representative species from the Class Mammalia has a very similar skeleton to that
of a human. However, a cat’s spine or backbone contains more bones that humans located at its
the tail. Their vertebrae are not as tightly connected as ours, making the cat’s spine extremely
flexible which enables it to arch his back and to twist or turn his body so that he can squeeze
through the tiniest gaps. Second, the cat lacks a clavicle or collarbone allowing it to get through
narrow spaces, and limiting the length of his stride. In addition cats have no direct skeletal
connection through a collarbone between the pectoral girdle and those of their vertebral
columns. In effect, they have shock-mounted forelimbs, which cushion a landing after a jump.

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