MODULE 6

DIGITA L TR A N SMI SS IO N :

LINEAR PCM
PREPARED BY:
ENGR. JO-ANN V. MAGSUMBOL
 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
IS THE TRANSMISSION OF DIGITAL SIGNALS
BETWEEN THE TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVERS
AND REQUIRES PHYSICAL TRANSMISSION
MEDIUM SUCH AS CABLE, FIBER OPTIC , ETC.
PULSE MODULATION
The process sampling an analog
information signals and then converting
those samples into discrete pulses and
transporting the pulses from a source to
a destination over a physical medium.

The process of using some

characteristic of a pulse (amplitude,
width, position) to carry an analog
signal.
TYPES OF PULSE MODULATION
1. PULSE
AMPLITUDE
MODULATION

4. PULSE CODE 2. PULSE WIDTH

MODULATION MODULATION

3.PULSE
POSITION
MODULATION
PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Amplitude of the modulating signal changes the
amplitude of the pulses (information)
Pulse Amplitude Modulation

pulse AM signal modulating signal

STEP 1: PAM PROCESS
Signals to be Mixed

pulse train modulating signal

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STEP 2: PAM PROCESS
Pulse Amplitude Modulation

pulse AM signal modulating signal

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PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
A process where the pulse width of a fixed amplitude
pulse varies proportionally to the amplitude of the
analog signal.
 PULSE POSITION MODULATION
A form of pulse modulation where the position of a constant
width pulse within a prescribed timeslot is varied according to the
amplitude of the modulating signal
 PULSE CODE MODULATION
The process of transmitting analog information in digital form, which
involves sampling the analog signal and converting the sampled
to a digital number
PCM APPLICATIONS
PCM is the most commonly used technique in digital
communications

1. Telephone System
2. Digital Audio Recording
3. CD Laser disks
4. Voice mail
5. Digital Video

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FROM ANALOG SIGNAL TO PCM DIGITAL CODE
SIMPLEX PCM TRANSMISSION
STEPS TO PRODUCE PCM
 STEP 1: SAMPLING
The act of periodically holding a value (sample) of the
continually changing analog input signals.

TYPES OF SAMPLING
 NATURAL SAMPLING
The natural sampling method retains the natural shape of the
sample analog waveform
NATURAL SAMPLING

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 FLAT TOP SAMPLING
The most common method used for sampling voice signals
in PCM where the sample-and-hold circuit convert those
samples to a series of constant-amplitude PAM levels.
FLAT-TOP SAMPLING

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SAMPLE AND HOLD CIRCUIT: INPUT AND OUTPUT WAVEFORMS
SAMPLE AND HOLD WAVEFORM

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 NYQUIST SAMPLING THEOREM

States that for a sample to be reproduced

accurately at the receiver, the sampling frequency
must be at least twice of the highest modulating
signal.

fs ≥ 2 fm

where:
fm= highest modulating signal
fs = sampling frequency
SATISFACTORY SAMPLING RATE

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SAMPLING RATE TOO LOW

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ALIASING IN THE FREQUENCY
DOMAIN

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SAMPLE AND HOLD CIRCUIT: OUTPUT SPECTRUM
 STEP 2: QUANTIZATION
The process of assigning discrete level to time-varying
quantity in multiples of some fixed unit, at a specified instant
or specified repetition rate.

Is the process of approximating sample levels into their

closest fixed value
 LINEAR INPUT VS.OUTPUT
TRANSFER

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 STEP 3: ENCODING
The process of converting the quantized discrete-signal
(PAM samples) to parallel PCM codes.
PCM PARAMETERS
NUMBER OF LEVELS OR CODEWORD

M= 2n

Where:
M - # of Levels or Codeword
n - # of bits excluding the sign bit
 BINARY SIGNAL

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TYPICAL FOUR-LEVEL SIGNAL USING
1, 2, 3, & 4V

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BANDWIDTH

BW = nfs = fb
Where:
BW - Bandwidth
n - # of bits excluding the sign bit
fs – sampling frequency
Fb – input bit rate
 RESOLUTION

Res = Vmin = VLSB

Where:
Res - Resolution
Vmin – Voltage minimum other than 0
VLSB – Voltage Least Significant Bit
 2 BITS RESOLUTION

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 3 BITS RESOLUTION

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 DYNAMIC RANGE

DR = 2n – 1 = (Vmax/Vmin )
Where:
DR – Dynamic Range
Vmin – Voltage minimum other than 0
Vmax – Voltage Least Significant Bit
n - # of bits excluding the sign bit
QUANTIZATION ERROR

Qe = (Res/2)
Where:
Qe – Quantization Error
Res - Resolution
QUANTIZATION INTERVAL

- the magnitude difference between steps

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SIGN MAGNITUDE CODES

The codes currently used for PCM, where MSB is the sign
bit and the remaining bits are used for magnitude.

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FOLDED BINARY CODE

- The codes on the bottom half of the table are a mirror

image of the codes in the top half, except for the sign bit.

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 where:
a. Analog input signal
b. Sample pulse
c. PAM
d. PCM

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CODING EFFICIENCY

ŋ = (βcal/βactual) x 100%

Where:
ŋ – Coding efficiency
βCal– Calculated number of bits
βactual – Actual number of bits
SIGNAL-TO-QUANTIZATION NOISE RATIO

SQR = 10.79 + 20 log (Vs/q)

Where:
SQR – Signal-to-Quantization Noise Ratio
Vs – Signal Voltage
q – Quantization Interval
 EXAMPLE

1. For a resolution of 0.04V, determine the voltages for

the following linear seven-bit sign magnitude PCM
codes:

a) 0110101
b) 0000011
c) 1000001
d) 0111111
e) 1000000
 EXAMPLE

2. Determine the minimum number of bits required for

PCM codes with the following dynamic ranges and
determine the coding efficiencies:

a. DR = 24 dB
b. DR = 48 dB
c. DR = 72 dB
 EXAMPLE

3. Determine the number of bits required in a PCM

code for a dynamic range of 80 dB. What is the coding
efficiency?
 EXAMPLE

4. Determine the SQR for the following input signal and

quantization noise magnitudes:

Vs Vn(V)
1 Vrms 0.01
2 Vrms 0.02
3 Vrms 0.01
4 Vrms 0.2
 LINERAR PCM CODES
the magnitude change between any two successive
steps is uniform
 LINEAR QUANTIZATION - SIGNAL
AMPLITUDE VERSUS QUANTIZATION
VALUE

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NOTE:
- Two methods are used to reduce the quantum steps
to 128 or 256 without sacrificing fidelity.

1. Use non-uniform quantizing performed in the

coding process.
2. Use companding prior to quantizing

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LINEAR VERSUS NON LINEAR PCM
CODES

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NON-LINERAR PCM CODES
the step size increases with the amplitude of the
input signal
LINERAR PCM CODES
• Uses evenly spaced quantization levels
• Typically 16-bits per sample
• Provide a large dynamic range
• Difficult for human to perceive quantization noise
• Compact Disks
- 16-bits linear sampling
- 44.1 kHz sampling rate
- 2 channels
NON-LINERAR PCM CODES
•If we try to use 8 bits per sample, dynamic range is
reduced significantly and quantization noise can be
heard
•In particular, we end up with not enough levels for the
lower amplitudes
•Solution is to sample more densely in the lower
amplitudes and less densely for the higher amplitudes
•Sort of like a log scale
 MIDTREAD QUATIZATION
the first quantization interval is made larger in
amplitude than the rest of the steps.

MIDRISE QUANTIZATION
the lowest-magnitude positive and negative
have the same voltage range as all the other
codes.
IDLE CHANNEL NOISE
FCC EMISSION DESIGNATIONS
FIRST SYMBOL SECOND SYMBOL THIRD SYMBOL
A 0 A
B 1 B
C 2 C
F 3 D
G 7 E
H 8 F
J 9 N
K W
L
M
N
P
R

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FCC EMISSION DESIGNATIONS

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