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 Participatory Approaches to Development:
An Analysis of the Experiences of Development
Projects in Sudan

A thesis presented i n fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
III

Development Studies
at Massey University, Palmerston North,
New Zealand

Nawal EI-Gaili �I-Gack

2007
 Abstract

This thesis aims to explore and analyse the experiences of participatory development projects
in Sudan. The study focuses on participation in development, an issue that has attracted
debate and discussion since the early 1 970s. To contribute to this discussion and create more
knowledge on this issue the White Nile Agricultural Services Project (WNASP) and North
Kordofan Rural Development Project (NKRDP) were selected as case studies. Through
various methods the nature and potential of participatory development approaches and
interventions have been explored with the aim of identifying the factors that influenced
people' s participation, and suggesting ways to improve the practice of participatory
development at grassroots level.

The study found that although the projects encouraged and claimed to adopt participatory
approaches, people were not engaged in a process through which participation could achieve
empowerment or create real changes in their lives. The outcome of people's participation in
the projects was influenced by development providers' policies, credibility and behaviour of
staff, nature and amount of resources, socio-cultural norms, power relations, and
communities' previous experiences, organisation and level of education. This suggests that
primarily, designing participatory development programmes requires an in-depth
understanding of prevailing social, economic, political and physical environments. Secondly,
development providers should adopt approaches that accept negotiations with communities
and challenge oppressive situations. Finally, if participatory development is to achieve its
objectives, local communities must be provided with resources, information and skills.

B ased on evidence from powerful individuals in North Kordofan, this thesis suggests a
moral-obligatory approach as one of the ways to improve the practice of participatory
development in Sudan. This approach requires a fundamental change in development
providers' policies, visions and credibility . If the essence of participatory development is
adhered to, and if strategies and plans are designed collectively then there is an opportunity
for making real change in the lives of those addressed by development interventions. This
thesis concludes that more research is needed to explore the values, role, and impact of
development providers and facilitators, as well as the nature and potential of local
communities' participative values, organisations and practices.

11
 Acknowledgments

This thesis is a product of inputs, cooperation and support I have received from a range of
people and organisations to whom I would remain indebted and whom I would like to
acknowledge.

I am very much grateful to my supervisors: Prof. John Overton, Ms. Janet Reid and Dr.
Maria Borovnik. My sincere gratitude to John for the insightful guidance, continuous support
and encouragement I received throughout the way. Special thanks to Janet for her
constructive ideas, critical assessment and friendly support, and to Maria for her valuable
inputs and constant enthusiasm. I also acknowledge the support of all the staff and
colleagues at the Institute of Development Studies at Massey University. Special thanks to
AlProf. Regina Scheyvens, Kristy, Rochelle and Polly for sharing ideas and surrounding me
with a friendly environment.

My deepest gratitude to my family: to my husband, Mohamed Ugool for his understanding

and continued support and to my sons, Mahmoud, Ahmed and Abobaker who have
enlightened my life and spared me some space to complete this study.

I acknowledge with gratitude the hospitality, cooperation and inputs of the research
participants in Sudan. Without their participation and contributions these research findings
would not have been exist.

Many credits are due to the International Fund for Agricultural Development (lFAD) Central
Unit in Khartoum and the project management in NKRDP for the opportunity given to me to
conduct my field work and be part of project settings. I would like to thank Mr. Yassin
Doleib, the Monitoring and Evaluation Manager of NKRDP, who arranged to send me the
permission to study the project' s experiences, and arranged for accessing the project' s
information and participants.

I am very grateful to al l the staff of the National Forests Corporation (FNC) for their support
and assistance in various aspects. Special thanks to Dr Abdel-Azim Margani, Mr. Mamoun
Gasim and Mrs Hana Hamdalla for their unlimited and friendly support. My sincere gratitude
to my colleague Anwar Abdel-Hameed, Director of the White Nile State Forests, who
provided me with accommodation, transportation and for introducing me to many local
authorities and informal organisations in the White Nile State.

I deeply appreciate the valuable suggestions and ideas provided to me by Dr. Khalid Al­
Amin and Dr. Abdel-Azim Yasin . I also appreciate their efforts to access other facilities at
the University of Khartoum and interviews with academics.

My heartfelt gratitude to my family and friends in Sudan: My mother Aisha M . Jubara, my

sister Eiman Masad and my brothers, Omer El-Gaili, El-Fatih Salih and Abass A. Al-Kalifa
who have always been there for me.

Most of all, my sincere thankfulness to Almighty Allah, the God of the Universe, for
providing me with strength and provisions to complete this project.

111

"
 Table of Contents

Abstract 11

Acknowledgments 111

Table of Contents IV
List of Figures and List of Tables IX
Glossary of Sudanese Terms X
Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations Xl

Chapter One: Introduction ..................................................... 1

Background 1
Importance of the Research Project 3
Contribution to Knowledge 5
Research Question and Objectives 5
Organisation of the Thesis 10

Chapter Two: Participatory Development Discourse ......... 14

Introduction 14
Participation: Concepts and Definitions 18
Defining Participation 19
Objectives and Purpose of Participation 22
Adoption of Participatory Development Approaches 27
The Project Approach 30
Integrating Women into Development 31
Civic Participation 36
Indigenous Values and Knowledge 37
Summary 40

Chapter Three: Participation in Practice: Concepts and

Experiences .............................................................................. 42

Introduction 42
Role and Impact of Development Providers 43
The Role of Development Professionals 49
Formation and Support of Local Community Organisations 51
Involving Women in Community Organisations 52
Non-Governmental Organisations: Practical Experiences 53
Factors which influenced People's Participation 56
Summary and Conclusion 60

iv
Chapter Four: Research Methods and Fieldwork Experience
.................................................................................................. ()�

Introduction 62
Case Study Strategy 62
Useful Events 65
Pilot Studies 66
Sudanese Settings 68
Living in the Rural Settings 69
General Framework 72
Research Participants 72
Reaching the Inaccessible 73
The Sampling Frame 73
Selection of Research Methods 76
Primary Data 77
Recording and Quality ofData Collection 83
Writing and Reviewing Field Notes 84
Data Reduction and Analysis 86
Ethical Considerations 87
Limitations 88
Summary 89

Chapter Five: Sudan Context: Background and

Developntent Efforts ........... ................................ ............ .. .. 90
. . . .

Introduction 90
Political System: An Overview 92
Ethnicity and politics 93
Decentralisation: Concepts and Practices 97
The Sudanese Model of Development 99
The Present Government 's Modelfor Development 1 02
Integrating Women into Development Processes 1 05
Frameworkfor Peace, Development and Poverty Eradication 107
Civil Society Organisations in Sudan 108
Factors that Influenced Development Processes 1 12
Diversity of Ethnic and Political Groups 1 12
Political Corruption 1 13
Local Power 114
Education System and Technical Capacities 1 15
Lack of Technical and Organisational Capacity 116
Summary and Conclusion 116

v
Chapter Six: Participatory Development Experiences of the
White Nile Agricultural Services Project ........................... 118

Introduction 1 18
The Project Context 1 19
The Organisational Structure 121
The White Nile Setting: An Overview 122
The WNASP's Mechanisms: Formation of New Organisations
126
Who is Benefiting from the Farmers Organisations ? 128
Involving Women in the Project 130
Capacity and Sustainability of the Project's Organisations 132
Interventions and Outcomes 132
Scheme Rehabilitation 133
The Credit Component 135
Extension Services 1 39
Community Forestry 1 40
Community Development 1 43
New Government Policy: The Ignored Lesson 146
Influencing Factors for the WNASP' s Outcomes 148
Project-related Factors 1 48
Government-related Factors 1 49
Community-related Factors 151
Summary and Conclusion 154

Chapter Seven: North Kordofan Rural Development

Project: Indigenous Participatory Organisations and
Practices ................................................................................. 156

Introduction 156
The Project Context 157
The Organisational Structure 1 58
Staff Unity and Interaction 1 59
Describing the North Kordofan Setting: An Overview 163
General Features 1 63
Communities' Needs and Challenges 1 64
Political Framework 1 71
Indigenous Participatory Concepts in the Project Sites 178
Motil'lIting Values 1 78
Working/or a Common Good 1 79
Representation: Concepts and Organisations 18 1
Grassroots Organisations 1 83
Summary and Conclusion 188

vi
Chapter Eight: North Kordofan Rural Development
Project: Approaches, Mechanisms and Outcomes ........... 190

Introduction 190
The Project's Approaches 190
Selection of the Villages: the Questionable Choices 1 91
Using PRA Methods 1 92
The Self-help Approach 1 95
Enforcing Gender Mainstreaming Approach 197
Coordination and Establishing Networks 200
Formation of New Organisations 203
Involving Women in the VDOs 205
Who is Benefiting from the VDOs 207
Sustainability of VD Os 208
Interventions and Outcomes 211
Micro Credit Programme 2//
Farmers ' Demonstration Plots 216
The Literacy Programme 216
General Concerns 2 18
Professionals ' Technical Capacity: Limited Trust 218
Priorities and Sustainability: Everyone 's Concern 222
Reporting and Assessment 222
Factors Influencing Participation 224
Summary and Conclusion 225

Chapter Nine: Reflections on Participatory Development in

�1J(}�11 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ���

Introduction 227
Policies and Credibility of Development Providers 228
Government Role 228
Development Agencies ' Concerns 234
Non-governmental Organisations 237
Development Professionals' Attitudes and Behaviour 239
Addressing Power Relationships 24 1
Formation of Community Organisations 243
Gender Issues 245
Indigenous Values, Structures and Practices 249
Adopting a Moral Commitment Approach 252
Conclusion 254

vu
Chapter Ten: Conclusion ..................................................... 257

Summary of Thesis 257

Research Findings 260
Recommendations for Future Research 27 1

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 List of Figures and List of Tables

List of Figures

Figure 1 . 1 : Thesis Organisation 10

Figure 1 . 2: Geographical Map of Sudan: Location of Case studies 13

Figure 7. 1 : Organisational Structure of NKRDP 1 60

Figure 7. 2: Non-Governmental Organisations: the Case of North Kordofan State 1 75

List of Tables

Table 4. 1 : Data Collection Modes 74

Table 6. 1 : Total Project Cost and Various Components Cost 1 20

Table 6.2: Community Forestry : Project Achievements 1 42

Table 6.3: Women' s Programme ( 1 996-2001 ) 1 44

Table 7 . 1 : The NKRDP Sites: Population and Targeted Communities 1 58

Table 7.2: Criteria for Well-being Ranking in Um-Ruwaba 1 1 68

Table 7.3: Criteria for Well-being Ranking in Um-Ruwaba 2 1 69

Table 8. 1 : Criterion for Selection of Targeted Villages 1 92

Table 8.2: People' s Priorities in Comparison to Project Interventions Listed by PRA

Participants 1 93

Table 8.3: Social S kills Training: Literacy Programme 217

Table 8.4: NKRDP: Stakeholders Roles and Challenges 223

IX
 Glossary of Sudanese Terms

AI-Hakama' a A woman who speaks with wisdom and offers consultation

Dar Community centre
EI-Goodeya Community-based mechanism for conflicts resolution
Feddan Unit = 0.42 ha = 1 .03 acre
Ijara Leasing contract
Magmuat N egash Focus group discussion
Mudharaba Participation contract
Murabaha A purchase and resale contract
Musharaka Participation contract
Nafir Mobilisation
Qard al-Hasan Good loan
Salam A purchase contract
Sanduq A traditional participatory savings/ revolving fund
Sheikh A village headman
Takaful Social justice and solidarity
Umda Locality headman
Wali State Governor

x
 Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations

ABS Agricultural Bank of Sudan

ARC Agricultural Research Corporation (North Kordofan State)
ASF Agricultural Support Fund
CCU IFAD Central Coordination Unit / Khartoum
CDF Comprehensive Development Framework / World B ank
CSOs Civil Society Organisations
DANIDA Danish International Development Agency
DFID Department for International Development / UK
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation
FCB Farmer Commercial Bank / Sudan
FINIDA Department for International Development Co-operation / Finland
FNC Forests National Corporation
FRC Federal Rule Chamber
GAD Gender and Development
GCRT Gender Center for Research and Training / Khartoum / Sudan
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GoS Government of Sudan
GROs Grassroots Organisations
HDA Human Development Approach
IAAS Institute of African and Asians S tudies, University of Khartoum
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IFAD-CCU IFAD Central Coordination Unit
IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute
ILO International Labour Organisation
IMF International Monetary Fund
IRDS Institute of Research and Development Studies, University of Khartoum
ISS Institute for Security Studies
MAAI Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Resources and Irrigation (State)
MAF Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (Federal)
MESA Ministry of Education and Social Affairs (State)
MFLF Ministry of Finance and Labour Force (State)
MFNE Ministry of Finance and National Economic
CDS Comprehensive Development Strategy / Sudan
NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations
NKRD North Kordofan Rural Development Project
NKS North Kordofan State
ODA Overseas Development Administration / UK
ODI Overseas Development Institute / UK
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
WB-PDLG World Bank-Participatory Development Working Group
PDW Popular Development Works
RC Red Crescent
SAP Structural Adjustment Programme
SCOVA Sudan Council of Voluntary Agencies
SDD Sudanese Diners (SDD 1 .00 = US$ 0.005)

Xl
SIDA Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency
SOS Sahel International / UK
SPLNM Sudan People's Liberation ArmylMovement
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNICEF United Nations Children and Education Fund
UNOPS United Nations Office for Project Services
UNRISD United Nations Research Institute for Social Development
USAID US Agency for International Development
USDS United States Department of State
VDOs Village Development Organisations
WB World Bank
WFP United Nations World Food Programme
WID Women in Development
WNASP White Nile Agricultural Services Project
WNS White Nile State
WRI World Resources Institute

Xli