Chapter 2 Form and Function: An Overview POWER electronic circuits change the character of electrical energy: from & {fo a, from one voltage level to another. or in some other way. Wervcler ca such circuits generically as converters, static converters (because they contain no thar ad Pans) Power processors, ot power conditioners. The part of the system ihat actually manipulates the flow of energy is the power circuit, I is the trae forthe rest of the system's components, such as the control circuit or the therret management pars. ‘The power circuit has a basic topol ogy to which we add other circuit elements that perform ancillary functions, such as protection against transient overvoltages and firing to eliminate electromagnetic interference. Although these ether ae, iments are important, they do not affect the function of the power circuit. Theis Purpose is to modify certain aspects of the power circuit's behavior, such as the structures to transform them into practice tems, in Parts 11, Hl, and IV. In Part I we show how a desired conversion function influences the form. or topology, of the power circuit. We also use these forms to illustrate the analytic should apply when studying a power circuit. ion and the form simple. Where we present S,mare advanced topology, our goal is to show the connection between it and ite simpler form—and the benefits gained from the added complexity. 2.1 THE FUNCTIONS OF A POWER CIRCUIT Before we can specify the form of a power circuit, we must define its function In Beneral its function isto alter the characteristics of electrical energy provided by ul12 Chapter 2 Form and Function: An Overview fone extemal system to those required by another. For instance, the power supply for a computer must convert the sinusoidal mains energy (60 Hz, 110° V rms in the United States) to a 5 V de waveform. Another example is a power circuit for driving a variable speed ac motor, which might draw power from a battery and deliver a sinusoidal current waveform to the motor. ‘The types of functions that a power circuit can perform are limited only by the characteristics of electric power that are to be altered. As already mentioned, the transformations from ac to de and from de to ac are two possible functions, Interfacing systems with waveforms that are similarly shaped, but have different amplitudes, is another. If both waveforms are constant in time, we call the power circuit a de/de converter, and if both are alternating, we call the circuit an aclac converter. In the latter case, we might want to change the frequency or phase as well as the amplitude. It is important that you not think of a power circuit's function as fixed for all time, The value of such a circuit is not just its ability to alter the form of electric energy, but also its ability to do so in response to a control signal. For instance, we can make the output of a computer power supply remain at 5 V even though the amplitude of the utility waveform changes by more than 20%. In some applications, such as light dimmers, the entire function of the power circuit is to provide this controllability. A power circuit provides an interface between two other systems external {0 it and therefore imposes relationships between the voltage and current waveforms at one port and those at the other. Exactly what waveforms exist at these ports {depends noi only on these relationships, but also on how the two extemal systems respond to being related in this manner. Thus it is important always to describe the operation of a power circuit in the context of the external systems to which it is connected, {In certain situations one extemal system, such as a voltage source, will dictate ‘a waveform at one port independent of the power circuit or the other extemal system. In these cases, we treat the waveform as an input to be processed by the Power circuit to ereate an output. The extemal system at the output then defines the covariable (the current in this case) at its port, and we work backward through the power circuit to determine the shape of the covariable's waveform at the input Because of their simplicity, we often use these cases when presenting the initial topologies in the following chapters. ‘The direction of energy flow usually determines whether ports serve as input ‘or output. However, many power circuits are capable of processing bidirectional power, and identifying their ports as input or output leads to ambiguity. This am- biguity is aggravated by the fact that the types of semiconductor devices used to construct the circuit also constrain the direction of power. Thus we could construct {wo identical topologies to process power in opposite directions. This is an impor- tant issue, which we address frequently, for it emphasizes that two visually distinct. circuits can behave similarly.2.2 2.2. Section 2.2 ac/de Converters. 13 ‘The basic form of a power circuit stems primarily from the need to provide efficient energy conversion. This need precludes the use of a transistor operating. as a linear amplifier, regardless of its designed power level. For almost all energy conversion applications, such a circuit technique simply dissipates too much energy relative to the amount it processes.! Similarly, using a resistor in conjunction with ‘an energy storage element is not a practical way to make a low- or high-pass filter in a power circuit, All elements in the basic power circuit, at least in their ideal form, must be lossless. This requirement leaves us with two kinds of components ‘with which to build power circuits: switches (semiconductor devices that are either fully on or off) and energy storage elements (inductors and capacitors). AC/DC CONVERTERS Without regard for the direction of energy flow, ac/dc converters comprise the broadest class of power electronic circuits. They are present in every piece of line- ‘operated electronic equipment—from table radios to large computers. They also are used extensively in industrial controls and processes, such as variable speed motor drives, induction heating, plating, and the electrolytic production of chemicals. Because of its symmetry, the basic converter topology is capable of bidirec- tional power; that is, the same topology can convert ac to de, o de to ac. For this reason we do not attach any significance to the order of the “ac” and “de” in the name “ac/dc converter.” 1 Basic Topology and Energy Flow Our first example of a power circuit is one that creates a de voltage from an ac voltage source. In this case, the power circuit produces a waveform that Ras an average value (the de voltage) from one that does not (the ac source). Using switches configured in the topology of Fig. 2.1(a) produces the desired waveform. Because one of the two external networks connected to the converter is a resistor, there is no ambiguity about input or output ports. Energy must flow from the source to the resistor. When the ac voltage is positive, closing the two switches marked P and leaving the two switches marked V open connects the input voltage to the output in the positive sense, When the ac voltage is negative, reversing the states of the switches reverses the connection of the ac voltage source to the output terminals, resulting in an output voltage that is again postive. ‘The waveform vg in Fig. 2.1(2) has a de component (equal to 2V,/x), but it also contains unwanted ac components that we can remove by the addition of ‘energy storage elements. For instance, if we use a low-pass LC filter as shown ‘We might choose to use a linear amplifier for afew applications. Although we specially restrict ‘our definition of power circuit o exclude these circuits, many of the issues we address inthis bok relate diretly to their design er segs:14 Chapter 2 Form and Function: An Overview ote * i a 7 | i iL i I ib | x me | REV I | Lyi t— /+-_ tower circuit ———o} o ‘Figure 2.1 (a) A power circuit, consisting only of switches, that converts an ac voltage, v,.. to one containing a de component, v4. (b) The ac/dc converter of (a) with the addition of filter elements L and C to remove the unwanted ac components from v.Section 2.2 ac/de Converters 15 o 1s it efx Pay @ ) (a) The converter topology of Fig. 2.1{a) connected and controlled to Pr mieetnwersion. (b) The conventional way of drawing the bridge converter of (a. in Fig. 2.106), most of the ac components in the voltage waveform created by the suuiches will appear across the inductor instead of at the output. As part of the O when 1 ie open Ths vy ty characteristic is that of a diode sent £280 consol when diode tums on and Ne a diode be used here? The uiteh Pres Peitse the diode will be fored off (eon biased) when the controlied pitch P tums on. The current Fy, which moc be Continuous, will force the diode on whee Pumsoff.28 Chapter 2 Form and Function: An Overview Problems 24 22 23 24 Determine the current in the voltage source, tc, of Fig. 2.1(8). What isthe average power delivered by this source? Determine the current in the battery, Vj., of Fig, 2.2. What is the power delivered t0 the resistor in this system? . ‘The bridge conveiter of Fig. 23a) has an ac source of value tye == 17Dsin.ot V and de source of value Vs; = 75 V. What value of a resulis in periodic steady state operation? Ifthe inductor in the converter of Fig. 2(a) is very large, ig can be considered constant at a value Jy. determined by the history of the switches. The inductor and de voltage source can be replaced by a current source, as shown in Fig. 2.15. Sketch the ac source current Z,- Superimpose this sketch on the waveform of the source voltage ¥; sinwt to show their relationship in time. Determine the average power delivered to the current source in terms of I. and V. P x tu = isin ot Ny fe ip Figure 2.18. The converter circult of Fig. 2.3(a) with its de voltage source and inductor 25 (assumed large) replaced by an equivalent current source. This circuit ‘model is the subject of Problem 2.4, ‘A dofac converter designed t0 connect a battery to a resistive load is shown in Fig. 2.16. The load requires a sinusoidal voltage ata frequency of $0 Hz, The switches Vig = 100 35H 32uF R =109 Figure 2.16 A de/ac converter containing a second-order low-pass filter on the ac ‘ide. This circut is the subject of Problem 2.5.Problems 29 ‘re operated to make vy, a square-wave voltage. Determine the amplitudes of the fundamental and thd harmonic components of the load voltage v,. 4 26° A resistor replaces the de source in the phase-contrlled converter of Fig. 2.3). Determine and plot the average value of the voltage across this resistor as cris varied between O and 7. 2.7 A seties resonant converter using the topology of Fig. 2.5) is constructed with the following element values: LeisouH, Cc R=50, and Ve What is the power delivered to the 5 92 load resistor if w= w,? Make an intl ‘gent approximation about the effect of damping. What is the amplitude of the third harmonic in vy? Express your answer as a percentage of the fundamental of vc, e The switching frequency is now adjusted so that w, = 3w,. Sketch v, and vye ‘on the same axes, What isthe power delivered to the load? What isthe amplitude of the third harmonic? 28 Determine the output voltage V3 of the de/de bridge convener of Fig. 2.7 in terms of V; and the duty ratio D of the P switches 29° The filter and toad ofa de/dc converter areas shown in Fig. 2.17. The input de voltage Souree is 100 V, and the required de loed voltage (the average value of t,) is 50 V. ‘The size of L must be chosen such that the peak-peak ripple on the ouiput current 4g does not exceed 0.5 A. These requirements can be met with the switch topotosy of either Fig. 2.7 or Fig. 2.8. Sketch the voltage x, produced in this application by «ach topology. For each topology calculate the value of L required to mee! the ripple specification. (Hin: Because the ripple is smal, a close approximation to the exact {answer ean be obtained by assuming u, to be constant.) % sade, Figure 2.17. The filter (L) and load (R) of a de/de converter. The required value of L | is determined in Problem 2.9, 210 Two de sources are connected through a de/dc converter, as shown in Fig, 2.18. In . Its periodic steady state the conver deivers 100 W from the 10 V source, V3 to Figure 2.18 A dc/de converter designed to transfer energy from V, to V;. This elrcutt {is the subject of Problem 2.10. —S————30 Chapter 2 Form and Function: An Overview {he 25 V source, Vj. What isthe lowest frequency t which the switches ean operate ‘0 produce a peak-peak ripple of no more than 60 mA in the current i? Wen this circuit is started, the switches must be controlled so that i builds Ub ois periodic steady state de value (10 A). Determine & control strategy for {uriches (ther on-state durations as a function of time) that will minimize the duration of this start-up transient 211. Determine and plot the rms ouput volage as a function of forthe ac controler of Fig. 2.10, 212 Can the bridge inverter of Fig, 2.2 be constructed using diodes forthe switches? 743 How should th diode used to implement the switch N in Fig. 2.14 be connected in {Be circuit? What isthe conversion ratio V5/Y; in terms ofthe duty vie Dat he P switch? 244 Determine a s ch implementation (both NV and P) for the topology of Fig. 2.14 Te ypul Permit the transfer of energy from V3 to V,, What isthe conversicg, ig Yi/¥j in terns of the duty ratio D of the N switch?