Power Hletrnict and Instrumentation [ht] introduction to Power Electronics + Power electronics is one of the important branch of clectronics and electrical engineering. It deals with conversion and control of electric energy. We know that AC voltage and current of fixed frequency is available from mains. This supply cannot be used always directly. For example computer needs SMPS (Gwitched Mode Power Supply) for its working. Fig. 1.1.1 shows the basic functioning of power electronic system. The electric energy in one form is given at the input. The power electronic system ‘converts the electric energy in the other form. For ‘example, the input may be AC and the output can ‘be DC. We know that such conversion is performed by rectifier. Thus rectifier is a power clectronic Boone | [Tpover |, etary ene'3y —5} alectonic => ‘nthe ‘none system |” another ‘orm nati Tonverand Fig. 1.4.1. Basic inputs/outputs of powor slectronic systems system. +The power electronic system thus performs conversion of electric energy. It also controls the amount of electric energy to be given to the output. The word, power means high amplitudes of current and voltages. 4.1.1 | History + Mercury are rectifiers were introduced in 1900. ‘These rectifiers were employed for thie conversion of ac to de or inversion of de to ac. ‘Research and development in power devices led to invention of metal tank rectifier, grid-controlled vacuum tube rectifier, ignitron, thyratron etc. These devices were used for power control untill 1950, +A “silicon transistor” was invented in 1948 at Bell, Telephone Laboratories. In 1956 Bell Laboratories inverted “PNPN transistor switch”, ‘Based on above research General Electric Company developed a three terminal PNPN device, called Silicon Controlled Rectifier (6CR). Introduction to Power Electronics and a Thy + Developed of SCR opened up the New era of power electronic semiconductor solid state devices, led to development of higher efficiency power controllers. ‘Power electronics revolution gained momentum jn the decades of 1980 and 1990. Development of bipolar junction transistors, MOSFETs, IGBTS made the power converter more efficient and fast ‘sNoiseless power conversion due to solid state power devices led to use of power electronic converters for large number of applications at the end of 20th century. 1.1.2 | Power Electronics Systems «Fig, 1.12 shows the block diagram of the system which uses thyristorised power controller. Here note that the power controller or converter can use thyristor (SCR), GTO, MOSFET, BJT or IGBT as a switch. +The power source can be AC mains, generator or batteries. The power controller converts the input power which is suitable for the load. For example, if the load is DC motor, then it needs de voltage and current. + Then the power controller or modulator converts the input AC into controlled DC which is suitable for the motor. +The sensing and feedback circuits monitor the load conditions. For example, speed and output current are sensed in case of motor loads. { Power source Reference settings ——o ‘and commands Fig. 1.1.2 Block diagrar siiks | ofthe system having power TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS". Anup trust fr knowledge ;ower Electonics and Instrumentation 13 Introdtlon fo Power Electrons and Thy ‘+ This feedback is given to the control unit. The control unit consists of drive circuits of the power controller. The drives of the switches aré adjusted according to feedback and the reference settings. In ‘ase of motor drives, the reference settings can be required speeds at different times. + The control unit adjusts the drives whenever there is difference between feedback (actual) speed and) reference speed. The control unit also accepts commands form the user. These commands are given for the proper functioning of the power electronic system and the load. + Our major study of power electronics is centered around the study of various power controllers (converters), their performance for different loads, control and drive circuits, design of feedback and’ sensing circuits ete University Question 1. What is power electronic converter system ? Draw the block diagram. Power Electronic Converters ci ATCA ACERT ‘There are five types of electronic converters nthe input, output and the job form. These converters are introduced further. 4.247] AC to DC Converters '+Fig. 1.2.1 shows the inputs and outputs of AC to DC converters. The input is single phase or three phase AC supply normally available from the mains. The output is the controlled DC voltage and current. The AC to DC converters include diode rectifiers as well as controlled rectifiers. The controlled rectifiers mainly use SCRs. Since the is by patural_ commutation, Hence, extemal commutation circuits are not xequized. Hence AC to DC converters are also called as line (supply) commutated convertors. These converters are used for DC drives, UPS and HVDC svstems. | Supply 1 vette 7} eer Varstloor [Ys 39 acioDc | _. rego. |—+ se converters caper es Output t voiage | [ct ero Ed Fig. 1.2.1 AC to DC converters: 4.22 DC to AC Converters (Inverters) ‘Fig, 1.22 shows the inputs and outputs of DC to AC converters. These converters are commonly. called inverters, The input to the inverters is fixed DC voltage. Normally this DC voltage is obtained from the batteries. The output of the inverter is the fixed or variable frequency AC voltage. The AC voltage magnitude is also variable. Inverters are mainly used whenever mains is not available. For example UPS use inverters inside to generate AC output from batteries. Inverters are also used for speed control of Induction motors. The voltage, frequency or both are varied by inverter to control the speed of induction motors. Inverters are also used in standby and emergency power supplies. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”. Anup tus for rowiabe" r Introduction o Power Electrons and | nezend Thea | B ft aL [ Fixed Variable votinge | FJ P voltage |= variable frequency tT + DC ‘AC output \ input AC Fig. 1.22 DC to.AC convertors or inverters 4.2.3 | DC to DC Converters (Choppers) |" ~*~" + Fig. 123 shows the inputs and outputs of DC to DC converters or choppers. The choppers take input from fixed voltage DC supply such as battery or output of uncontrolled rectifier, The output of the chopper is fixed or variable DC voltage. The choppers are normally used in DC drives. The speed of the motor can be controlled in forward and reverse directions. The choppers are also used in switched I mode power supplies (SMPS). DC wdc. Fixed or variable : Fixed voltage, ‘converters a Se aippye —] UNS |e votapee ropes Fig, 1.23 pus and outputs ofthe DC to DC converter or chopper 1.2.4 | AC to AC Converters (Cycloconverters) ‘+ Fig. 124 shows the inputs and outputs of cycloconverters, The input to the cycloconverters is normally 19 or 3@ AC mains supply. It is fixed voltage and fixed frequency. The cycloconverters seen Variable frequency 2G ouphy [-— variable voliage (mains) AC cue Fig. 1.2.4 Inputs and outputs of cycloconverters TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS". Anup thst knowiodgoower Electronics and Istrumentaton 1-5 Introduction to Powe Electronics and Thyristors, provide the output which has variable voltage and variable frequency. The output frequency is lower than the input frequency. The cycloconverters are used mainly for AC traction drives, ference ‘Fig. 1.25 shows the inputs and outputs of AC regulator, The input to the AC regulator is fixed voltage AC mains, The output is variable AC voltage which is suitable for load, Here note that the output frequency is same as input frequency. Thus AC regulators does not change the frequency. Whereas cycloconverters change the frequency also. This is the difference between AC regulators and cycloconverters. The AC regulators are used for the speed control of large fans and pumps. ae J ee tT es Fixed voltage AC Nariable voltage i ‘ACsupply ——"] regulator [AC output Teast = Fenideet (II Fig. 1.2.5 Inputs and outputs of AC regulators University Questions, E, Mentian and explain diferent types of power electron covert sstns Draw ter input opt characteristics: SEA 2. What are power electronic circuits ? Explain any two of them with circuit, input and output roaveforms. oR 4, Mention and explain the different types of power electronic converter systems and also specify the form of input and output with wave forms SA 4. Explain in brie, the diferent types of power electronic converter circuits. Also indicate too applications in each case 5. Explain briefly the different types of thyristor power converters and mention too applications ofeach. 6. What is power converter ? List different types of power converters and mention their conversion function. Advantages and Disadvantages of Power Electronics PVTU : Jon.10 | «The control and conversion of electric power is performed with the help of power electronic controllers. Thus power electronic systems consists of controllers. The power electronic controllers are also called as power electronic converters. «The power electronic controllers have following advantages : a 1. Fast dynamic response due to static devices. 2. High efficiency of conversion due to low losses in electronic devices. 3, Compact size and light weight of the controllers due to electronic devices. 4. Increased operating life and reduced maintenance since there are no moving parts. Tr TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS" Anup st iowaover Bletroniy and Instrumentation S Power lectronic controllers use digital or microprocessor based control. Hence their ‘operation is highly flexible, 6 Since solid state devices are used, the electromagnetic interference and a acoustic noise fs reduced, +The power electronic controllers have some Arawbacks also. They are as follows 1, The power electronic controllers generate harmonics. These harmonics affect the performance of other loads. 2 The power factor of some power electronic controllers is very low. Hence power factor correction is necessary to reduce reactive power. 3. For very simple conversion requirements, power electronic converters may be costly. Here note that the edvantages outweigh the disadvantages. Hence power electronic controllers are used in large number of applications | University Question 1, Wut are the advantages of static. power ernie EET 1.4 | Applications of Power Electronics + We will briefly present the various applications where power electronic aystems are used. There are ‘numerous applications coming up every day in power electronics. Some of them are mentioned below 1. Uninterruptible power supplies and stand by power supplies (emergency power supplies) for citical Joads such as computers, medical equipments etc. 2, Power control in resistance welding induction heating, electrolysis, process industry etc. 3. Power conversion for HVDC and HVAC transmission systems. 4, Speed control of motors which are used in fraction drives, textile mills, rolling mills, ‘cranes, lifts, compressors, pumps etc. 5. Solid state power compensators, static contactors, transformer tap changers etc, Introduction to Power Betronics and Thos ° oe ron 6 High voltage supplies for clectosatie 5, recipitators, and »-ray generators, etc. 5 7. Power supplies for communication systems, 7h telephone exchanges, satellite systems ete, ‘a + These are some of the important applications of fa) power electronics University Question 1, What is power elecironics ? State the applications of power electronics PVT JulilS, DecolL Marks 6 Jan t7, Macks 3 | 1.5 | Thyristor BTU Jan. 16 J ‘«Thyristors are the oldest power semiconductor devices used for power ‘control applications. The very commonly used device from thyristor family is 3, silicon controlled rectifier ie. SCR The other ‘members of the thyristor family are : triac, diac silicon controlled switch (SCS), silicon unilateral switch (SUS), light activated SCR (LASCR) ete. Out of all these devices the most commonly and widely uused thyristor is SCR. Hence people also call thyristor in general for SCR. In this chapter we will be using the word thyristor for SCR. Whenever thyristor is written, the readers should consider that it is SCR. SCRs are mainly used in controlled rectifiers, AC voltage controllers, static switches ete. sezlevsoog 1.8. | Silicon Controlied Rectifier (SCR) ‘+ The SCR belongs to the thyristor family. Its symbo! and internal structure is shown in Fig. 151. The SCR has three terminals : Anode (A), Cathode (K} and Gate (G). There are four layers P-N-P-N as shown in Fig. 15 (). Hear “Anode (A), } & % oe aot 0 cab) nea iomraigcceranl Fig, 1.5.1 Silicon controled rectifier (SCR) * TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS". An pts or mowindgepower Blctronics and Instrumentation ‘+Hence there are three PN junctions inside the SCR. ‘The anode is made positive with respect to cathode. This is called forward bias on the SCR. A small positive voltage is applied between gate and cathode to tum on the SCR. When the SCR is tumed on, its internal drop becomes negligible. The current flows from anode to cathode in the SCR. ‘Once the SCR is turned on the gate has no control over the conduction of SCR. Even if the gate drive is removed, SCR does not turn-off. The SCR tums off whenever the current falls to zero. 4.82 | Structure of SCR ‘+ We know that SCR is a four layer device. Fig. 152 shows the vertical structure of the SCR. Fig. 1.5.2(a) shows more detailed structure. The p* layer is doped at 10!%/cm®. The p layer is doped at Gete(@) Cathode ) 4b p10%nt |, © 10%en? pe Se P90%en? | PF 10%%ent Anode (A) % (2) Structure of SOR Cathode (K) ra |__. cate = @ ‘Anode (A) {(b) Simplified structure of SCR Fig. 1.5.2 17 _ Introduction to Power Electronics and Thyristos 101” /em®, The p and p* layers from anode (A) of the SCR. The thickness of the p-layer is 30 to 50 hmm The n~ layer is lightly doped. The doping level of this layer is 10"*/om®, The width of n~ layer is 50 to 1000 jum This layer absorbs depletion layer of the junction Jj. When SCR is forward biased (Vax positive), junction Jp is reverse biased, And Jy and. Jy are forward biased. The depletion layer of J, is absorbed by n~ layer when SCR is forward biased, The width of n™ layer decides forward blocking capability of the SCR. The next p-layer, having. doping level of 1017 /cm? forms the gate of SCR. The width of this layer is 30 to 100jum The next ie, n* layer (doping level of 10" /em?) forms the cathode of SCR. Fig. 1.52(b) shows the simplified structure of SCR. The gate - cathode junction is J. When this junction is forward biased, (ie. gate signal applied) SCR can be turn-on, Due to gate signal, current starts flowing across J3. Some carriers flow across Jp also. Hence, internal regeneration starts and SCR tums on. This process is explained in detail with the help of two transistor analogy in next section. 1.5.3 | Merits, Demerits and Applications of SCR Merits of SCR i. Very small amount of gate drive is required since SCR is a regenerative device. i. SCRs with high voltage and current ratings are available. fii, On-state losses in SCRs are reduced. Demerits of SCR i. Gate has no control, once the SCR is turned on. ii, External circuits are required to tum-off the SCR. Operating frequencies are very low. ‘Snubbers (RC circuits) are required for dv/dt protection. Applications of SCR i. SCRs are best suitable for controlled rectifiers. ii, AC regulators, lighting and heating applications. iii, DC motor drives, large power supplies and electronic circuit breakers. iti iv. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS". An wp tint owe»‘Power Bernt and Intrumentaion, | University Questions: q [ioe hettr S —iee 2 Draw and explain the structure of SCR. [ar] state Anode-cathode Characto «The working of the thyristor can be blocking mode and forward conduction | CR). Forward ‘conduction (ON state} Reverse Marigela breakdown voltage Forward blocking (OFF state) Fig. ‘Static V4 characteristics of a thyristor (SCR) «The characteristics shown in the above figure are called static characteristics. The anode to cathode current Ix is plotted with respect to anode to cathode voltage Vx. The voltage 'Vao' is the forward break over voltage. ‘Vga’ is the reverse break-down voltage. And Tg1y Tgp sTga ate the gate currents applied to the thyristor. 1,$4 | Reverse Blocking Mode + Fig. 1.62 shows the situation when the thyristor will * be in reverse blocking mode. ? ‘ln the above figure, observe that the anode (A) is fewer ig made negative with respect to cathode (K). The gate 2 zs is kept open. There are three PN junctions in the 2 bets thyristor : J,,J, and Js. Due to this reverse bias, x junctions J, and J are also reverse biased. And junction J, is forward biased. The thyristor does not us conduct due to this reverse bias, Fig. 1.6.2 A reverse biased thyristor TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”. An up trust for Inowldgeower Electronics and Instrumentation. 1 +A very small current flows from cathode to anode. ‘This current is called (oerse Teakage current) of the thyristor. This mode is called reverse blocking rode, Fig: 1.61 shows the characteristic of thyristor Jn reverse blocking mode. Observe that reverse voltage increases but very small current flows. At ‘everse_break down voltage Gd the reverse current increases rapidly. At the time of reverse breakdown, the high voltage is present across the thyristor and heavy current flows through it. Hence lange povrer dissipation takes place in the thyristor. Due to this dissipation, the junction temperature aseeds_the permissible value and the thyrstorais damaged. Hence a reverse _voltage across the thyristor should never exceed Vo) + During the reverse blocking mode, the positive gate signal should not be applied. If the positive signal is applied between gate and cathode, junction Js is forward biased. Hence current starts flowing through it, This current adds to reverse leakage current of the thyristor. Hence dissipation is also increased, [ez] Forward Blocking Mode +The thyristor is said to be forward biased when anode is made positive with respect to cathode as shown in Fig. 163. Due to this forward bias the function Jy and J is forward biased and Jp is reverse Biased. Hence the forward voltage is to be hhold by junction Jp. A very small current flows from anode to cathode, This current is. called ward leakage carren€)This current is of the order of few milliamperes. In the forward blocking mode, the thyristor is forward biased but it does not tum-on. In the forward blocking mode a very small forward leakage current flows. In the forward blocking mode the voltage (Vqx.) can be increased till Vio. This situation is shown in Fig. 1.6.1. When Me forward voltage reaches Vgo, the thyristor turns ‘on. The thyristor goes from forward bl le {0 forward conduction mode, Normally gate drive is applied for this purpose. The highest voltage to be Sustained in forward blocking mode is] forward Ereak-over voltage, Vao. the voltage increases above Vio, the thyristor ‘0es into forward conduction mode (Le. turns-on) even if gate drive is not applied. Thus thyristor is T Fig, 1.8.3 Thyrlator in forward biased condition not damaged if voltage Vix > Vag, rather it is tugned-on. 1.63 | Forward Conduction Mode * When the thyristor is forward biased, then it can go into forward conduction by following techniques en Vax >Va0 ‘GiyWhen gate drive is applied «City When. 4 ‘exceeds permissible value ‘+Here note that the thyristor can go in the forward conduction mode only if it is in the forward blocking mode earlier. @ When Vx >Vso + The thyristor is driven into forward conduction mode when anode to cathode voltage (Vqx) exceeds the forward break-over voltage (Vpo); The thyristor is said to hhave turned-on when it operates in forward conduction mode. When V4 >Vgo, the thyristor is driven in forward conduction even if gate is open. From Fig, 1.63, it is clear that junction Jp is reverse biased during forward blocking mode (Wax Vjo. This is shown in Fig. 181. At these voltages, the leakage current {is so high, that internal regeneration starts in the device. » | BR ropar cat be ong of wa apace in the forward biased state. When the anode-cathode voltage changes rapidly, leakage current thought the device increases due to intemal capacitor. The leads to turn-on of the thyristor. 4 Light : Thyristor can be turned on by light, ‘when it falls on gate cathode junction of the Introduction to Power lectronios and Thyrisors thyristor light induces electronic hole pairs and it helps to increases leakage current. 5. High temperature : Tyristor tums on due to increased temperature AT higher temperature, there are more electron-hole pairs across junctions. This inverses the leakage current and the thyristor tums on Advantages of Gate Drive i) Most convenient to apply gate drive to turn on: SCR. fi) Gate drive can be easily generated by control circuits iil) gate can be controlled as required by simple 1 a circuits . 41.8.2 | Turn-on Dynamic Characteristics + Fig. 1.8.1 shows the current and voltage of the « thyristor during turn-on. The gate pulse is applied at t=0. During the delay time (t,), the anode eurrent rises very slowly and flows only near the narrow region of the gate. Observe that anode to cathode does not reduce during fy. It remains to the forward blocking value. During the rise time (ty), the anode current increases rapidly and anode to cathode voltage falls rapidly. The high voltage and‘current are present in the thyristor. Hence large dissipation takes place in the thyristor. ‘This power dissipation is called switching loss of the thyristor. The current starts spreading in the remaining area of the thyristor. During the spread time (tp), the conduction spreads over the complete cross-section of the thyristor. The anode current reaches to its maximum value. And the anode to cathode voltage falls to lowest value (ie. less than 2.V), The dissipation in the thyristor is also reduced. The turn on time (toy) of the thyristor is given as total of ff, and t,. Thus, fon = ta the tty tum on time can be defined as, ‘The turn-on time of the thyristor is defined as the time [from initiation of gate drive to the time when anode ‘current reaches to its full value. ‘The tum-on time of the thyristors is about 1 to 3 microseconds. The turn-on time can be effectively reduced by applying higher values of gate currents. Because of high gate currents, more electron-holes are injected near junction J,. Hence avalanche ‘break-down of J takes place fast. Therefore anode current rises fast. Thus effective turn-on time is 1 2 reduced, To turn-on the thyristor, the gate pulse is thus sufficient. 41.8.3 | Thyristor Tum-off + We know that thyristor can be turned-off, when its forward current falls below holding current. The can be done by two methods : i) Natural ‘commutation and ii) Forced commutation. i) Natural commutation : In this type of turn-off, the supply voltage becomes zero or negative, Hence thyristor is reverse biased. Therefore it is turned-off. ii) Forced commutation : When the supply voltage is DC, then extemal commutation component are used to tum-off the thriystor. The commutation components’ apply reverse bias across the thyristor temporarily or pass impulse of negative current. Therefore thyristor turns-off. 4.8.4 | Turn-off Dynamic Characteristics «Fig, 182 shows the thyristor current and voltage during turn-off. The thyristors are not turned off by gate. They need external circuit for turn-off. These circuits are called commutation circuits. These commutation circuits has to hold negative voltage across the thyristor during tum-off period. The natin Fig. 1.82 Dynamic characteristics of thyristor during turn-off TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS” An wp rit tape