Syllabus: Module 5: Cement

1. Portland Cement-Types of Portland Cement - Pozzolana Cement, White Cement, Blast furnace
slag cement
2. Storage of cement

1 Introduction

2 Cement Manufacturing Process

2.1 Wet Process

2.2 Dry Process

3 Chemical Composition of Cement

The various constituents combine in burning and form cement clinker. The compounds formed in the
burning process have the properties of setting and hardening in the presence of water. They are known
as Bogue compounds after the name of Bogue who identified them. Le-Chatelier and Tornebohm have
referred these compounds as Alite (C3S), Belite (C2S), Celite (C3A) and Felite (C4AF). The following
Bogue compounds are formed during clinkering process.
The principal mineral compounds Formula Name Symbol
Tricalcium silicate 3CaO.SiO2 Alite C3S
Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.SiO2 Belite C2S
Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 Celite C3A
Tetracalcium alumino ferrite 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 Felite C4AF

Tricalcium silicate is supposed to be the best cementing material. It is about 25-50% (normally about
40%) of cement. It renders the clinker easier to grind, increases resistance to freezing and thawing,
hydrates rapidly generating high heat and develops an early hardness and strength. However, raising of
C3S content beyond the specified limits increases the heat of hydration and solubility of cement in water.
The heat of hydration is 500 J/g.
Dicalcium silicate is about 25-40% (normally about 32%) of cement. It hydrates and hardens slowly and
takes long time to add to the strength (after a year or more). It imparts resistance to chemical attack.
Raising of C2S content renders clinker harder to grind, reduces early strength, decreases resistance to
freezing and thawing at early ages and decreases heat of hydration. The heat of hydration is 260 J/g.
Tricalcium aluminate is about 5-11% (normally about 10.5%) of cement. It rapidly reacts with water
and is responsible for flash set of finely grounded clinker. The rapidity of action is regulated by the
addition of 2-3% of gypsum at the time of grinding cement. Tricalcium aluminate is responsible for the
initial set, high heat of hydration and has greater tendency to volume changes causing cracking. Raising
the C3A content reduces the setting time, weakens resistance to sulphate attack and lowers the ultimate
strength, heat of hydration and contraction during air hardening. The heat of hydration of 865 J/g.
Tetracalcium alumino ferrite is about 8–14% (normally about 9%) of cement. It is responsible for flash
set but generates less heat. It has poorest cementing value. Raising the C4AF content reduces the
strength slightly. The heat of hydration is 420 J/g.

4 Hydration of Cement
The chemical reaction between cement and water is known as hydration of cement. The reaction takes
place between the active components of cement (C4AF, C3A, C3S and C2S) and water. The factors
responsible for the physical properties of concrete are the extent of hydration of cement and the resultant
microstructure of the hydrated cement.

4.1 Heat of Hydration

The process of hydration is an exothermic chemical reaction which means heat is liberated during the
reaction. The heat liberated in the process is called as Heat of Hydration.
The evolution of heat causes an increase in temperature of the concrete, being greatest in mass
concreting. Since the cooling of a mass of concrete can only occur from surfaces exposed to atmosphere
the temperature of the interior is higher than that at the surface and also there is a rapid increase in
strength in the interior than at the surface. Shrinkage cracks may result from stresses, induced by cooling
of the surface while the interior of concrete is still at higher temperature. However, in practice, the heat
evolution may be taken to its advantage in cold weather provided the concrete is warm at the time of
placing and excessive heat loss is prevented by suitable lagging.

4.2 Hydration Reactions of Cement:

When the cement comes in contact with water, the hydration products start depositing on the outer
periphery of the nucleus of hydrated cement. This reaction proceeds slowly for 2-5 hours and is called
induction or dormant period. As the hydration proceeds, the deposit of hydration products on the
original cement grain makes the diffusion of water to unhydrated nucleus more and more difficult,
consequently reducing the rate of hydration with time. At any stage of hydration, the cement paste
consists of gel (a fine-grained product of hydration having large surface area collectively), the unreacted
cement, calcium hydroxide, water and some minor compounds.
The crystals of the various resulting compounds gradually fill the space originally occupied by water,
resulting in the stiffening of the mass and subsequent development of the strength. The reactions of the
compounds and their products are as follows:

The product C–S–H gel represents the calcium silicate hydrate also known as tobermorite gel which is
the gel structure. The hydrated crystals are extremely small, fibrous, platey or tubular in shape varying
from less than 2 mm to 10 mm or more. The C–S–H phase makes up 50–60% of the volume of solids
in a completely hydrated Portland cement paste and is, therefore, the most important in determining the
properties of the paste. The proposed surface area for C–S– H is of the order of 100–700 m2/g and the
solid to solid distance being about 18 Å.
The Ca(OH)2 liberated during the silicate phase crystallizes in the available free space. The calcium
hydroxide crystals also known as portlandite consists of 20-25% volume of the solids in the hydrated
paste. These have lower surface area and their strength contributing potential is limited.
The gel must be saturated with water if hydration is to continue. The calcium hydroxide crystals formed
in the process dissolve in water providing hydroxyl (OH–) ions, which are important for the protection
of reinforcement in concrete. As hydration proceeds, the two crystal types become more heavily
interlocked increasing the strength, though the main cementing action is provided by the gel which
occupies two-thirds of the total mass of hydrate.
It has been found that the hydration of C3S produces less C–S– H and more Ca(OH)2 as compared to
C2S. As Ca(OH)2 is soluble in water and leeches out making the concrete porous, Particularly in
hydraulic structures, a cement with small percentage of C3S and more C2S is used.

4.3 Water Requirement for Hydration

About an average 23 per cent (24 per cent C3S, 21 per cent C2S) of water by weight of cement is required
for complete hydration of Portland cement. This water combines chemically with the cement
compounds and is known as bound water. Some quantity of water, about 15 per cent by weight of
cement, is required to fill the cement gel pores and is known as gel water. Therefore, a total of 38 per
cent of water by weight of cement is required to complete the chemical reaction.
The general belief that a water/cement ratio less than 0.38 should not be used in concrete because for
the process of hydration, the gel pores should be saturated – is not valid. This is because as even if
excess water is present, complete hydration of cement never takes place due to deposition of hydration
products. As a matter of fact, water/cement ratio less than 0.38 is very common for high strength
concretes. If excess water is present, it will lead to capillary cavities.

5 Grade of Cement
The ordinary Portland cement has been classified as 33 Grade (IS269:1989), 43 Grade (IS 8112:1989),
and 53 Grade (IS 12669-1987). The physical requirements of all these three types of cement are almost
same except for compressive strength and are as follows:
33 Grade 43 Grade 53 Grade
Initial Setting time (min) 30 30 30
Final Setting time (max) 600 30 30
Compressive Strength in MPa (N/ mm2) must not be less than
after 72 ± 1 hr 16 23 27
after 168 ± 2 hr 22 33 37
after 672 ± 4 hr 33 43 53

6 Compressive Strength Test

Compressive strength is the ability of material or structure to carry the loads on its surface without any
crack or deflection. Compressive strength formula for any material is the load applied at the point of
failure to the cross-section area of the face on which load was applied.
Compressive strength of concrete cube test provides an idea about all the characteristics of concrete.
By this single test one judge that whether Concreting has been done properly or not. Concrete
compressive strength for general construction varies from 15 MPa (2200 psi) to 30 MPa (4400 psi) and
higher in commercial and industrial structures.
1. The test specimens are 70.6 mm cubes having face area of about 5000 sq. mm. Large size
specimen cubes cannot be made since cement shrinks and cracks may develop.
2. The temperature of water and test room should be 27°± 2°C.
3. A mixture of cement and standard sand in the proportion 1:3 by weight is mixed dry with a
trowel for one minute and then with water until the mixture is of uniform colour.
4. Three specimen cubes are prepared. The material for each cube is mixed separately.
5. The quantities of cement, standard sand and water are 185 g, 555 g and (P/4) + 3.5, respectively
where P = percentage of water required to produce a paste of standard
consistency.
The Standard or Normal consistency for Ordinary Portland cement varies
between 25-35%. To prepare a mix of cement paste of Standard consistency
25-35% of water is added to cement.
6. The mould is filled completely with the cement paste and is placed on
the vibration table. Vibrations are imparted for about 2 minutes at a
speed of 12000±400 per minute.
7. The cubes are then removed from the moulds and submerged in clean
fresh water and are taken out just prior to testing in a compression testing machine.

8. Compressive strength is taken to be the average of the results of the three cubes.
9. The load is applied starting from zero at a rate of 35 N/ mm2/minute. The compressive strength
is calculated from the crushing load divided by the average area over which the load is applied.
The result is expressed in N/mm2. The minimum specified strength for some of the cements is
given in Table below
7 Types of Cement
7.1 Portland Cement
As per ASTM C150, Portland Cement is “hydraulic cement (cement that not only hardens by reacting
with water but also forms a water-resistant product) produced by pulverizing clinkers which consist
essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing one or more of the forms of calcium sulfate
as an inter ground addition”.
The European Standard EN 197-1 uses the following definition: “Portland cement clinker is a hydraulic
material which shall consist of at least two-thirds by mass of calcium silicates, (3 CaO·SiO2, and 2
CaO·SiO2), the remainder consisting of aluminium- and iron-containing clinker phases and other
compounds. The ratio of CaO to SiO2 shall not be less than 2.0. The magnesium oxide content (MgO)
shall not exceed 5.0% by mass”.
Portland cement is widely used building material in the construction industry. The most common, called
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is grey in colour, but white Portland cement is also available. Its name
is derived from its similarity to Portland stone available near the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England. It
was named by Joseph Aspdin who obtained a patent for it in 1824.
As per ASTM, Portland cement is five types which are:
1. Type I
2. Type II
3. Type III
4. Type IV
5. Type V
Physically and chemically, these cement types differ primarily in their content of C3A and in their
fineness. In terms of performance, they differ primarily in the rate of early hydration and in their ability
to resist sulphate attack. The general characteristics of these types are listed in Table 1 below.
Table 1. General features of the main types of Portland cement

Classification Characteristics Applications

Type I General purpose Fairly high C3S content for General construction (most
good early strength buildings, bridges, pavements,
development precast units, etc)
Type II Moderate sulphate Low C3A content (<8%) Structures exposed to soil or water
resistance containing sulphate ions
Type III High early strength Ground more finely, may Rapid construction, cold weather
have slightly more C3S concreting
Type IV Low heat of hydration Low content of C3S (<50%) Massive structures such as dams.
(slow reacting) and C3A Now rare.
Type V High sulphate resistance Very low C3A content Structures exposed to high levels of
(<5%) sulphate ions

The differences between these cement types are rather subtle. All five types contain about 75 wt%
calcium silicate minerals, and the properties of mature concretes made with all five are quite similar.
Thus these five types are often described by the term “ordinary Portland cement”, or OPC.
Sulphate attack is an important phenomenon that can cause severe damage to concrete structures. It is
a chemical reaction between the hydration products of C3A and sulphate ions that enter the concrete
from the outside environment. The products generated by this reaction have a larger volume than the
reactants, and this creates stresses which force the concrete to expand and crack. Although hydration
products of C4AF are similar to those of C3A, they are less vulnerable to expansion, so the designations
for Type II and Type V cement focus on keeping the C3A content low.
7.1.1 Type I
Type I is a general purpose portland cement suitable for all uses where the special properties of other
types are not required. It is used where cement or concrete is not subject to specific exposures, such as
sulfate attack from soil or water, or to an objectionable temperature rise due to heat generated by
hydration. Its uses include pavements and sidewalks, reinforced concrete buildings, bridges, railway
structures, tanks, reservoirs, culverts, sewers, water pipes and masonry units.
7.1.2 Type II
Type II Portland cement is used where precaution against moderate sulphate attack is important, as in
drainage structures where sulphate concentrations in groundwaters are higher than normal but not
unusually severe (Table 2). Type II cement will usually generate less heat at a slower rate than Type I.
With this moderate heat of hydration (an optional requirement), Type II cement can be used in structures
of considerable mass, such as large piers, heavy abutments, and heavy retaining walls. Its use will
reduce temperature rise - especially important when the concrete is placed in warm weather.
7.1.3 Type III
Type III is a high-early strength Portland cement that provides high strengths at an early period, usually
a week or less. It is used when forms are to be removed as soon as possible, or when the structure must
be put into service quickly. In cold weather, its use permits a reduction in the controlled curing period.
Although richer mixtures of Type I cement can be used to gain high early strength, Type III, high early-
strength Portland cement, may provide it more satisfactorily and more economically.
7.1.4 Type IV
Type IV is a low heat of hydration cement for use where the rate and amount of heat generated must be
minimized. It develops strength at a slower rate than Type I cement. Type IV Portland cement is
intended for use in massive concrete structures, such as large gravity dams, where the temperature rise
resulting from heat generated during curing is a critical factor.
7.1.5 Type V
Type V is a sulphate-resisting cement used only in concrete exposed to severe sulphate action -
principally where soils or groundwaters have a high sulphate content. Table 2 below describes sulphate
concentrations requiring the use of Type V Portland cement. Low Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) content,
generally 5% or less, is required when high sulphate resistance is needed.

Table 2. Attack on concrete by soils and waters containing various sulphate concentrations

Relative Degree of Percentage Water-Soluble Sulphate Sulphate (as SO4) in Cement Type
Sulphate Attack (as SO4) in Soil Samples Water Samples, Ppm
Negligible 0.00 to 0.10 0 to 150 I
Positive 0.10 to 0.20 150 to 1500 II
Severe 0.20 to 2.00 1500 to 10,000 V*
Very Severe 2.00 or more 10,000 or more V plus pozzolana **

*Or approved Portland-pozzolana cement providing comparable sulphate resistance when used in concrete.

**Should be approved pozzolana that has been determined by tests to improve sulphate resistance when used in concrete with
Type V cement
7.2 Portland Pozzolana Cement
Pozzolana is a volcanic powder found in Italy near Vesuvius. A pozzolanic material can be a natural or
artificial which contains silica and aluminous in a reactive form. This material usually does not possess
any cementitious properties, but when it is mixed with water or moisture or lime to undergo reaction
with calcium hydroxide to form compounds possessing cement properties.
Portland Pozzolana cement is integrated cement which is formed by synthesizing OPC cement with
pozzolanic materials in a certain proportion (usually fly ash 10-25% by mass of PPC). It is commonly
known as PPC (IS 1489(partI)).
Pozzolana (burnt clay, shale, or fly ash) has no cementing value itself but has the property of combining
with lime to produce a stable lime-pozzolana compound which has definite cementitious properties.
Free lime present in the cement is thus removed. Consequently, the resistance to chemical attack
increases making it suitable for marine works. The hardening of Portland pozzolana cement consists in
hydration of Portland cement clinker compounds and then in interaction of the pozzolana with calcium
hydroxide released during the hardening of clinker. At the same time, calcium hydroxide is bound into
a water-soluble calcium hydrosilicate according to the reaction
Ca(OH)2 + SiO2 + (n – 1) H2O = CaO.SiO2.nH2O
with the effect that pozzolana Portland cement acquires greater water-resisting property than ordinary
Portland cement.
7.2.1 Types of pozzolana materials :
a. Artificial pozzolana
Fly ash, silica fume, rice husk, blast furnace slag.
b. Natural pozzolana
Burnt clay, pumicite, diatomaceous Earth.
7.2.2 Properties of Portland Pozzolana Cement
a. Initial setting time = 30 min (minimum)
b. Final setting time = 600 min (maximum).
c. At 3 days 13MPa (minimum)
d. At 7 days 22 MPa (minimum)
e. At 28 days 33 MPa (minimum)
f. Drying shrinkage should not be more than 0.15%
g. Initial strength of PPC is less but final strength is equal to the 28 days strength of OPC
h. PPC has lower rate of development of strength than OPC
7.2.3 Uses of Portland Pozzolana Cement
a. Used in hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction near the seashore, dam
construction etc- mostly in sulphate rich environments.
b. Used in pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete members.
c. Used in masonry mortars and plastering.
d. As it gives better surface finish, it is used in decorative and art structures.
e. Used in manufacture of precast sewage pipes.
f. Used under harsh concreting conditions.
7.2.4 Advantages of Portland Pozzolana Cement
a. It is an eco-friendly cement as the material used in the manufacture are made of natural recycled
waste.
b. It is very fine cement hence very good when used for plastering works.
c. Pozzolana cement has very good resistance against sulphate attack hence is used in hydraulic
structures, marine structures, construction near the sea shore, dam construction etc.
 d. As the pozzolana materials are very fine, it can fill gaps between the reinforcement and
aggregate , thus reducing the shrinkage, honeycomb formation and bleeding can be reduced,
which in turn increases the strength and durability of concrete.
7.2.5 Disadvantages of Portland Pozzolana Cement
a. The initial strength obtained is less, which effect the de-
shuttering of supports early.
b. As it contains more fine material, handing of concrete is
difficult.
c. When compared to the OPC setting time is less for PPC
d. Reduction in alkanity reduces the resistance to corrosion
of steel reinforcement
e. As the strength of this concrete gains slowly, curing
process is very important. Any error in this could cause
durability problems.
7.2.6 Grading of PPC
In many countries, PPC is graded like OPC depending upon their compressive strength at 28 days. In
India, so far PPC is considered equivalent to 33 grade OPC, strength wise, although some brand of PPC
is as good as even 53 grade OPC. Many cement manufacturers have requested BIS for grading of PPC
just like grading of OPC. They have also requested for upper limits of fly ash content from 25% to 35%.
Recently BIS has increased the fly ash content in PPC from 10–25% to 15–35%.

7.3 White and Colored Portland Cement (IS 8042-1989)

It is manufactured from pure white chalk and clay free from iron oxide. Greyish colour of cement is
due to iron oxide. So, the iron oxide is reduced and limited below 1 per cent. Coloured cements are
made by adding 5 to 10 per cent colouring pigments before grinding. These cements have same
properties as that of ordinary Portland cement and are non-staining because of low amount of soluble
alkalis. Sodium alumino fluoride is added during burning which acts as a catalyst in place of iron.
As the raw materials, particularity the kind of limestone required for manufacturing white cement is
only available around Jodhpur in Rajasthan, two famous brands of white cement namely Birla White
and J.K. White Cements are manufactured near Jodhpur. The raw materials used are high purity
limestone (96% CaCo3 and less than 0.07% iron oxide). The other raw materials are china clay with
iron content of about 0.72 to 0.8%, silica sand, flourspar as flux and selenite as retarder. The fuels used
are refined furnace oil (RFO) or gas. Sea shells and coral can also be used as raw materials for
production of white cement. Generally white cement is ground finer than grey cement. Whiteness of
white cement as measured by ISI scale shall not be less than 70%.
The strength of White Cement is higher than ordinary Portland cement. These cements are used for
making terrazzo flooring, face plaster of walls (stucco), ornamental works, and casting stones.

7.4 Blast Furnace Slag Cement (IS 455-1989)

Slag is a non-metallic product consisting essentially of glass containing silicates and aluminosilicates
of lime and other bases, as in the case of blast-furnace slag, which is developed simultaneously with
iron in blast furnace or electric pig iron furnace. Granulated slag is obtained by further processing the
molten slag by rapid chilling or quenching it with water or steam and air. The slag constituent in the
cement varies between 25 to 65 per cent.
It is manufactured by an intimate and uniform blending of Portland cement and finely ground granulated
blast furnace slag (GGBFS).
It can also be manufactured by intimately grinding a mixture of Portland cement clinker and granulated
slag with addition of gypsum or calcium sulphate.
The chemical requirements of Portland slag cement are same as that of 33 grade OPC. The initial and
final setting times and compressive strength are also same as 33 grade OPC. This cement can be used
in all places where OPC is used. However, because of its low heat of hydration it can also be used for
mass concreting, e.g., dams, foundations, etc. However, in cold weather the low heat of hydration of
Portland blast furnace cement coupled with moderately low rate of strength development, can lead to
frost damage. Extensive research shows that the presence of GGBS leads to the enhancement of the
intrinsic properties of the concrete both in fresh and hardened states. The major advantages currently
recognized are:
1. Reduced heat of hydration;
2. Refinement of pore structure;
3. Reduced permeability;
4. Increased resistance to chemical attack.
Note:
Only glassy granulated slag could be used for the manufacture of slag cement. Air-cooled crystalline
slag cannot be used for providing cementitious property. The slag which is used in the manufacture of
various slag cement is chilled very rapidly either by pouring it into a large body of water or by subjecting
the slag stream to jets of water, or of air and water. The purpose is to cool the slag quickly so that
crystallization is prevented, and it solidifies as glass. The product is called granulated slag. Only in this
form the slag should be used for slag cement. It the slag prepared in any other form is used, the required
quality of the cement will not be obtained.

8 Some Other Types of Cement

8.1 Rapid Hardening Cement (IS 8041–1990)

This cement is similar to ordinary Portland cement. As the name indicates it develops strength rapidly
and as such it may be more appropriate to call it as high early strength cement. It is pointed out that
rapid hardening cement which develops higher rate of development of strength should not be confused
with quick-setting cement which only sets quickly. Rapid hardening cement develops at the age of three
days, the same strength as that is expected of ordinary Portland cement at seven days.
The rapid rate of development of strength is attributed to the higher fineness of grinding (specific
surface not less than 3250 sq. cm per gram) and higher C3S and lower C2S content. A higher fineness
of cement particles expose greater surface area for action of water and also higher proportion of C3S
results in quicker hydration. Consequently, Rapid hardening cement gives out much greater heat of
hydration during the early period. Therefore, rapid hardening cement should not be used in mass
concrete construction.
The use of rapid heading cement is recommended in the following situations:
1. In pre-fabricated concrete construction.
2. Where formwork is required to be removed early for re-use elsewhere,
3. Road repair works,
4. In cold weather concrete where the rapid rate of development of strength reduces the
vulnerability of concrete to the frost damage.

8.2 Extra Rapid Hardening Cement

Extra rapid hardening cement is obtained by intergrinding calcium chloride with rapid hardening
Portland cement. The normal addition of calcium chloride should not exceed 2% by weight of the rapid
hardening cement. It is necessary that the concrete made by using extra rapid hardening cement should
be transported, placed and compacted and finished within about 20 minutes. It is also necessary that
this cement should not be stored for more than a month.
Extra rapid hardening cement accelerates the setting and hardening process. A large quantity of heat is
evolved in a very short time after placing. The acceleration of setting, hardening and evolution of this
large quantity of heat in the early period of hydration makes the cement very suitable for concreting in
cold weather, The strength of extra rapid hardening cement is about 25 per cent higher than that of rapid
hardening cement at one or two days and 10–20 per cent higher at 7 days. The gain of strength will
disappear with age and at 90 days the strength of extra rapid hardening cement or the ordinary Portland
cement may be nearly the same.
There is some evidence that there is small amount of initial corrosion of reinforcement when extra rapid
hardening cement is used, but in general, this effect does not appear to be progressive and as such there
is no harm in using extra rapid hardening cement in reinforced concrete work. However, its use in
prestress concrete construction is prohibited.

8.3 Sulphate Resisting Cement (IS 12330–1988)

8.4 Quick Setting Cement
8.5 Super Sulphated Cement
8.6 Low Heat Cement
8.7 Air-Entraining Cement
8.8 Hydrophobic cement
Hydrophobic cement is obtained by grinding ordinary Portland cement clinker with water repellant
film-forming substance such as oleic acid, and stearic acid. The water-repellant film formed around
each grain of cement, reduces the rate of deterioration of the cement during long storage, transport, or
under unfavourable conditions. The film is broken out when the cement and aggregate are mixed
together at the mixer exposing the cement particles for normal hydration. The film forming water-
repellant material will entrain certain amount of air in the body of the concrete which incidentally will
improve the workability of concrete.
In India certain places such as Assam, Shillong etc., get plenty of rainfall in the rainy season had have
high humidity in other seasons. The transportation and storage of ordinary cement in such places cause
deterioration in the quality of cement and loses some if its strength, whereas the hydrophobic cement
which does not lose strength is an answer for such situations.
The properties of hydrophobic cement is nearly the same as that ordinary Portland cement except that
it entrains a small quantity of air bubbles. The cost of this cement is nominally higher than ordinary
Portland cement.

8.9 Masonry Cement

8.10 Expansive Cement
Concrete made with ordinary Portland cement shrinks while setting due to loss of free water. Concrete
also shrinks continuously for long time. This is known as drying shrinkage. Cement used for grouting
anchor bolts or grouting machine foundations or the cement used in grouting the prestress concrete
ducts, if shrinks, the purpose for which the grout is used will be to some extent defeated.
There has been a search for such type of cement which will not shrink while hardening and thereafter.
As a matter of fact, a slight expansion with time will prove to be advantageous for grouting purpose.
This type of cement which suffers no overall change in volume on drying is known as expansive cement.
Cement of this type has been developed by using an expanding agent and a stabilizer very carefully.
Proper material and controlled proportioning are necessary in order to obtain the desired expansion.
Generally, about 8-20 parts of the sulphoaluminate clinker are mixed with 100 parts of the Portland
cement and 15 parts of the stabilizer. Since expansion takes place only so long as concrete is moist,
curing must be carefully controlled. The use of expanding cement requires skill and experience.

8.11 IRS-T 40 Special Grade Cement

IRS-T-40 special grade cement is manufactured as per specification
laid down by ministry of Railways under IRST40: 1985. It is a very
finely ground cement with high C3S content designed to develop
high early strength required for manufacture of concrete sleeper for
Indian Railways. This cement can also be used with advantage for
other applications where high early strength concrete is required.
This cement can be used for prestressed concrete elements, high rise
buildings, high strength concrete.

8.12 Oil-Well Cement

8.13 Rediset Cement
Accelerating the setting and hardening of concrete using admixtures is a common knowledge. Calcium
chloride, lignosulfonates, and cellulose products form the base of some of admixtures. The limitations
on the use of admixtures and the factors influencing the end properties are also well known.
High alumina cement, though good for early strengths, shows retrogression of strength when exposed
to hot and humid conditions. A new product was needed for use in the precast concrete industry, for
rapid repairs of concrete roads and pavements, and slip-forming. In brief, for all jobs where the time
and strength relationship was important. In the PCA laboratories of USA, investigations were conducted
for developing a cement which could yield high strengths in a matter of hours, without showing any
retrogression. Regset cement was the result of investigation. Associated Cement Company of India have
developed an equivalent cement by name “REDISET” Cement.
8.13.1 Properties of “Rediset”
1. The cement allows a handling time of just about 8 to 10 minutes.
2. The strength pattern of REDISET and regset in mortar and concrete is given below:

3. The strength pattern is similar to that of ordinary Portland cement mortar or concrete after one
day or 3 days. What is achieved with “REDISET” in 3 to 6 hours can be achieved with normal
concrete only after 7 days.
4. “REDISET” releases a lot of heat which is advantageous in winter concreting but excess heat
liberation is detrimental to mass concrete.
5. The rate of shrinkage is fast but the total shrinkage is similar to that of ordinary Portland cement
concrete.
6. The sulphate resistance is very poor.
8.13.2 Applications
“REDISET” can be used for:
1. very-high-early (3 to 4 hours) strength concrete and mortar,
2. patch repairs and emergency repairs,
3. quick release of forms in the precast concrete products industry,
4. construction between tides.

8.14 High Alumina Cement

8.15 Refractory Concrete

8.16 Very High Strength Cement

9 Storage of Cement
1. Portland cement is kept in sacks of 0.035 m3 (50 kg) capacity for local use.
2. These are stored for short period of time in airtight room avoiding moisture and dampness, at
some distance from walls and at some height from floors.
3. The stack should be covered with suitable coverings to avoid circulation of air through the stack
4. Not more than ten (10) bags should be stacked one over another.

10 Useful Links:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland_cement
https://www.acivilengineer.com/portland-cement/
http://iti.northwestern.edu/cement/monograph/Monograph3_8.html
https://www.civilengineeringx.com/traditional-materials/types-of-cement/
https://www.rinkerpipe.com/TechnicalInfo/files/InfoBriefs/IS102TypesPortlandCement.pdf
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/compressive-strength-concrete-cube-test/1561/
 Aggregates
1 General
Aggregates are the important constituents in concrete.
1. They give body (volume and mass) to the concrete,
2. Reduce shrinkage
3. Increase economy.
Earlier, aggregates were considered as chemically inert
materials but now it has been recognized that some of the
aggregates are chemically active. Certain aggregates exhibit
chemical bond at the interface of aggregate and paste. The
aggregates occupy 70–80 per cent of the volume of concrete,
their impact on various characteristics and properties of
concrete is significant.
Cement is the only factory-made standard component in concrete. Other ingredients, namely, water and
aggregates are natural materials and can vary to any extent.

2 Classification
2.1 Based on Weight (density)
Aggregates can be classified as
1. Normal weight aggregates,
2. Light weight aggregates and
3. Heavy weight aggregates

Normal weight aggregates can be further classified as

a. Natural aggregates
b. Artificial aggregates
2.1.1 Natural aggregates
Sand, Gravel, Crushed Rock such as Granite, Quartzite, Basalt, Sandstone
These are obtained by natural crushing or weathering of igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic rocks.
Gravels and sand reduced to their present size by the natural agencies also fall in this category. The
most widely used aggregate are from igneous origin. Aggregates obtained from pits or dredged from
riverbeds, creeks or sea. They are most often not clean enough or well graded to suit the quality
requirement. They therefore require sieving and washing before they can be used in concrete.
2.1.2 Artificial aggregates
Broken Brick, Air-cooled Slag, synthetic aggregates e.g. Fly ash, Bloated clay (Clay which has
expanded during firing, owing to entrapped air or the breakdown of sulfides or other ingredients in the
clay; light and porous).
a. Broken bricks known as brick bats are suitable for mass concreting, for example, in foundation
bases. They are not used for reinforced concrete works.
b. Blast furnace slag aggregate is obtained from slow cooling of the slag followed by crushing.
The dense and strong particles as obtained are used for making precast concrete products. The
sp. gr. of these range between 2–2.8 and bulk density 1120–1300 kg/m3. The blast furnace slag
aggregate has good fire resisting properties but are responsible for corrosion of reinforcement
due to sulfur content of slag.
c. Synthetic aggregates are produced by thermally processed materials such as expanded clay and
shale used for making light weight concrete.

2.2 Based on Size

Aggregates can also be classified based on the size of the aggregates as
1. Coarse aggregate
2. All in Aggregate
3. Graded Aggregate
4. Fine aggregate.
The size of aggregate bigger than 4.75 mm is considered as coarse aggregate and aggregate whose size
is 4.75 mm and less is considered as fine aggregate.
2.2.1 Coarse aggregate

2.2.2 All in Aggregate

Naturally available aggregates of different fractions of fine and coarse sizes are known as all-in-
aggregate. The deficiency of any particular fraction can be corrected for use in the mix but they are not
recommended for quality concrete.
2.2.3 Graded Aggregate:
Aggregate most of which passes through a particular size of sieve are known as graded aggregate. For
example, a graded aggregate of nominal size 20 mm means an aggregate most of which passes IS sieve
20 mm.
2.2.4 Fine aggregate
Aggregate passing through 4.75 mm sieve are defined as fine. They may be natural sand—deposited by
rivers, crushed stone sand—obtained by crushing stones and crushed gravel sand. The smallest size of
fine aggregate (sand) is 0.06 mm. Depending upon the particle size, fine aggregates are described as
fine, medium and coarse sands. On the basis of particle size distribution, the fine aggregates are classed
into four zones; the grading zones being progressively finer from grading zone I to grading zone IV (IS:
383).

Grade Particle Size

I 4.75mm
II 2.36mm
III 500 μm
IV 75 μm
2.3 Based on Geologic Characteristics
2.3.1 Aggregates from Igneous Rocks
Most igneous rocks make highly satisfactory concrete aggregates because they are normally hard, tough
and dense. They may be acidic or basic depending upon the percentage of silica content. The igneous
rocks as a class are the most chemically active concrete aggregate and show a tendency to react with
the alkalis in cement. As the igneous rock is one of the widely occurring type of rocks on the face of
the earth, bulk of the concrete aggregates, that are derived, are of igneous origin.

2.3.2 Aggregates from Sedimentary Rocks

The quality of aggregates derived from sedimentary rocks will vary in quality depending upon
a. the degree of consolidation,
b. the type of cementation,
c. the thickness of layers and
d. contamination,
These are all important factors in determining the suitability of sedimentary rock for concrete
aggregates. Some siliceous sand stones have proved to be good concrete aggregate. Similarly, the
limestone also can yield good concrete aggregate.
The sedimentary rocks with the stratified structure are quarried and concrete aggregates are derived
from it. The thickness of the stratification of sedimentary rocks may vary from a fraction of a centimeter
to many centimeters. If the stratification thickness of the parent rock is less and may reduce the strength
of the aggregate.
2.3.3 Aggregates from Metamorphic Rocks
Both igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks may be subjected to high temperature and pressure which
causes metamorphism which changes the structure and texture of rocks. Metamorphic rocks show
foliated structure. If the thickness of this foliation is less, then individual aggregate may exhibit foliation
which is not a desirable characteristic in aggregate. However, many metamorphic rocks particularly
quartzite and gneiss have been used for production of good concrete aggregates.

Because of these tendencies, schists, slates and shales commonly produce flaky forms, whereas, granite,
basalt and quartzite usually yield more or less equidimensional particles. Similarly, quartzite which
does not possess cleavage planes produces cubical shape aggregates.

3 Size
The largest maximum size of aggregate practicable to handle under a given set of conditions should be
used. Perhaps, 80 mm size is the maximum size that could be conveniently used for concrete making.
Using the largest possible maximum size will result in
a. reduction of the cement content
b. reduction in water requirement
c. reduction of drying shrinkage.
However, the maximum size of aggregate that can be used in any given condition may be limited by
the following conditions:
a. Thickness of section;
b. Spacing of reinforcement;
c. Clear cover;
 d. Mixing, handling and placing techniques.
Generally, the maximum size of aggregate should be as large as possible within the limits specified, but
in any case, not greater than one-fourth of the minimum thickness of the member.
For heavily reinforced concrete member the nominal maximum size of aggregate should usually be
restricted to 5 mm less than the minimum clear distance between the main bars or 5 mm less than the
minimum cover to the reinforcement, whichever is smaller.
other practical considerations, for reinforced concrete work, aggregates having a maximum size of 20
mm are generally considered satisfactory.

4 Shape
The shape of the aggregate is very much influenced by the type of crusher and the reduction ratio i.e.,
the ratio of size of material fed into crusher to the size of the finished product.
From the standpoint of economy (in cement requirement for a given water/cement ratio) rounded
aggregates are preferable to angular aggregates. On the other hand, the additional cement required for
angular aggregate is offset to some extent by the higher strengths and sometimes by greater durability
as a result of the interlocking texture of the hardened concrete and higher bond characteristic between
aggregate and cement paste.
Flat particles in concrete aggregates will have particularly objectionable influence on the workability,
cement requirement, strength and durability. In general, excessively flaky aggregate makes very poor
concrete.
the rocks available round about Pune region are found to yield slightly flaky aggregates, whereas, good
granite rock as found in Bangalore will yield cubical aggregate.
5 Deleterious Materials and Organic Impurities
Substances such as organic matters, clay, shale, coal, iron pyrites, etc. which are weak, soft, fine or may
have harmful physical or chemical effects on the aggregates are considered to be deleterious. They
affect the properties of concrete in green as well as in hardened state and are undesirable.
Organic matters, coatings such as clay, etc. affects the development of bond between aggregate and the
cement paste. The surface coated impurities in aggregate can be removed by adequate washing. The
salts present in the sea-shore sand should be washed out. Mica, if present in sand, reduces the strength
of concrete. Iron pyrites and sulfides produce surface staining and pop-outs.

6 Links
https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1995/ofr-95-0582/ofr-95-0582.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali%E2%80%93silica_reaction
https://www.cement.org/learn/concrete-technology/durability/alkali-aggregate-reaction