1

Introduction to cement
2

1: cement
1.1 definition
1.2 hydraulic cement and non-hydraulic
cement
1.3 row material
1.4 manufacture of cement
1.5 basic chemistry of cement

2: role of cement
2.1 strength
2.1.1 hydration of cement
2.1.2 heat of hydration

2.2 binding
3

3: tests
3.1 fineness of cement
3.2 consistence of standard paste
3.3 setting time
3.4 soundness

4: types of cement
4.1 ordinary Portland (type I ) cement
4.2 rapid-hardening Portland ( type III )
cement
4.3 special rapid-hardening Portland
cements
4.4 low-heat Portland (type IV ) cement
4.5 modified ( type II ) cement
4.6 sulfate-resisting ( type V ) cement
4.7 Portland blast-furnace ( type IS )
cement
4

4.8 super sulfated (slag) cement

4.9 white and colored Portland cement
4.10 Portland-pozzolan ( types IP, P,
I(PM) ) cements
4.10.1 pozzolans
4.11 expansive (or expanding) cements
4.12 high-alumina cement (HAC)

5: cementitious materials

6: topics for [self-study]

6.1 differentiate between density and
specific gravity
6.2 differentiate between mass and
Ȗ6.3 some physical properties of construction
6.4 The effect of pozzolana on workability:
5

Cement:
1.1 definition
cement is a binder, a substance used for
construction that sets, hardens, and
adheres to other materials to bind them
together. Cement is seldom used on its
own, but rather to bind sand and gravel
(aggregate) together. Cement mixed with
fine aggregate produces mortar for
masonry, or with sand and gravel, produces
concrete

1.2 hydraulic cement and non-hydraulic

cement:
hydraulic cement will be setting and
hardening in the presence of water. For
setting and hardening must happen a
hydration reaction. such as Portland
cement, Portland-pozzolan cement. NOTE
(If you increase the water, the voids
6

increase, and consequently the concrete

strength decreases. Therefore, the amount
of water must be sufficient for a reaction to
happen for each existing cement} amount
of water must be sufficient for a reaction to
occur for each existing cement}
non-hydraulic cement does not set and
harden under water or produce non-water-
resistant products such as lime and gypsum.
Slaking process:(lime)
Ca0+H20 > Ca (OH)2+Heat
Hardening process:
Ca (OH)2+C02 >Ca (CO3) +H20

1.3 raw materials

Calcareous :
Lime: - CaO (C)
• Argillaceous :
Silica: - SiO2 (S)
Alumina: - AI203 (A)
7

Iron oxide bearing materials: - Fe203 (F)

Major oxide: {C, S, A, F)
{C, S} >80% -90% (Calcium Silicates)

1.4 manufacture of cement:

Portland cement is the basic ingredient of

concrete. Concrete is formed when
Portland cement creates a paste with
water that binds with sand and rock to
harden. Cement is manufactured through
a closely controlled chemical combination
of calcium, silicon, aluminum, iron and
other ingredients. Common materials
used to manufacture cement include
limestone, shells, and chalk or marl
combined with shale, clay, slate, blast
furnace slag, silica sand, and iron ore.
These ingredients, when heated at high
temperatures form a rock-like substance
8

that is ground into the fine powder that

we commonly think of as cement.
Bricklayer Joseph Aspdin of Leeds,
England first made Portland cement early
in the 19th century by burning powdered
limestone and clay in his kitchen stove.
With this crude method, he laid the
foundation for an industry that annually
processes literally mountains of
limestone, clay, cement rock, and other
materials into a powder so fine it will pass
through a sieve capable of holding water.
Cement plant laboratories check each
step in the manufacture of Portland
cement by frequent chemical and physical
tests. The labs also analyze and test the
finished product to ensure that it
complies with all industry specifications.
The most common way to manufacture
Portland cement is through a dry method.
9

The first step is to quarry the principal

raw materials, mainly limestone, clay, and
other materials. After quarrying the rock
is crushed. This involves several stages.
The first crushing reduces the rock to a
maximum size of about 6 inches. The rock
then goes to secondary crushers or
hammer mills for reduction to about 3
inches or smaller. The crushed rock is
combined with other ingredients such as
iron ore or fly ash and ground, mixed, and
fed to a cement kiln. The cement kiln
heats all the ingredients to about 2,700
degrees Fahrenheit in huge cylindrical
steel rotary kilns lined with special
firebrick. Kilns are frequently as much as
12 feet in diameter—large enough to
accommodate an automobile and longer
in many instances than the height of a 40-
story building. The large kilns are
10

mounted with the axis inclined slightly

from the horizontal. The finely ground
raw material or the slurry is fed into the
higher end. At the lower end is a roaring
blast of flame, produced by precisely
controlled burning of powdered coal, oil,
alternative fuels, or gas under forced
draft. As the material moves through the
kiln, certain elements are driven off in the
form of gases. The remaining elements
unite to form a new substance called
clinker. Clinker comes out of the kiln as
grey balls, about the size of marbles.
Clinker is discharged red-hot from the
lower end of the kiln and generally is
brought down to handling temperature in
various types of coolers. The heated air
from the coolers is returned to the kilns, a
process that saves fuel and increases
burning efficiency. After the clinker is
11

cooled, cement plants grind it and mix it

with small amounts of gypsum and
limestone. Cement is so fine that 1 pound
of cement contains 150 billion grains. The
cement is now ready for transport to
ready-mix concrete companies to be used
in a variety of construction projects.
Although the dry process is the most
modern and popular way to manufacture
cement, some kilns in the United States
use a wet process. The two processes are
essentially alike except in the wet process,
the raw materials are ground with water
before being fed into the kiln.

1.5 basic chemistry of cement:

We have seen that the raw materials used

in the manufacture of Portland cement
consist mainly of lime, silica, alumina and
12

iron oxide. These compounds interact with

one another in the kiln to form a series of
more complex products.
We have many types of compounds that
is:
1-Tricalcium silicate {3CaO.SiO2} (C3S)
2-Dicalcium silicate {2CaO.SiO2}
(C2S)
3-Tricalcium aluminate {3CaO.AL2O3} (C3A)
4-Tetracalcium aluminoferrite
{4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3} (C4AF)

The calculation of the potential

composition of Portland cement is
based on the work of R. H. Bogue and
others, and is often referred to as
'Bogue composition'. Bogue's equations
for the percentages of main compounds in
cement are given below. The terms in
13

brackets represent the percentage of the

given oxide in the total mass of cement.

C3S = 4.07(CaO) - 7.60(SiO2) - 6.72(AL2O3) -

1.43(Fe2O3) - 2.85(SO3)
C2S = 2.87(SiO2) - 0.754(3CaO.SiO2)
C3A = 2.65(Al2O3) - 1.69 (Fe2O3)
C4AF = 3.04(Fe2O3).

These equations determine the proportion

of cement-forming materials, and by
differing these proportions in a deliberate
manner, new types of cement with
different characteristics and features are
produced.

o The silicates C3S and C2S, are the most

important compounds, which are
responsible for the strength of
hydrated cement paste.
14

The silicates in cement are not pure

compounds.
3-Role of cement:
2.1 Strength:
o Cement is the main component of
concrete, and it is the basis for the
compressive strength in concrete, as it
obtains its properties when adding
water and the reaction occurs, and this
is the role of compounds in cement.
o
C3S: it is one of the main compounds
in Portland cement, that responsible
for early strength [>28days], that is
exothermic a high heat to the reaction
C2S: it is one of the main compounds
in Portland cement, that responsible
for later strength [<28days], that is low
heat of hydration for early age.
15

C3A: it is one of cement of main compounds in

Portland cement, that is contributes little or
nothing to the strength of cement except at
early ages, and when hardened cement paste is
attacked by sulfates, the formation of calcium
sulfo-aluminate (ettringite) may cause
disruption. However, C3A is beneficial in the
manufacture of cement in that it facilitates the
combination of lime and silica.
C4AF: it is also present in small
quantities and does not affect the
behavior significantly, and it
responsible to color of cement because
include iron.
2.1.2 hydration of cement:
Hydration is the reaction that arises from
adding water to cement, which gives it its
properties in terms of strength and binding,
16

and in general, it results from the reaction

[CSH AND Ca(OH)2]
CSH: it is responsible for the strength in the
cement (previously referred to as tobermorite
gel)
Ca(OH)2: it is represent calcium hydroxide
{portlandite}, that is make durability bad,
because it’s reaction’s , that causes increase in
volume and make cracks.

2.1.2 heat of hydration:

In common with many chemical
reactions, the hydration of cement
compounds is exothermic, and the
quantity of heat (in joules) per gram
of unhydrated cement, evolved
upon complete hydration at a given
temperature, is defined as the heat
17

of hydration. For the usual range of

Portland cements, about one-half of
the total heat is liberated between 1
and 3 days, about three-quarters in
7 days, and nearly 90 per cent in 6
months. In fact, the heat of
hydration depends on the chemical
composition of the cement and is
approximately equal to the sum of
the heats of hydration of the
individual pure compounds when
their respective proportions by mass
are hydrated separately.
18

Compound Heat of hydration

- J/g Cal/g
C3S 502 120
C2S 260 62
C3A 867 207
C4AF 419 100

It follows that by reducing the

proportions of C3A and C3S, the heat
of hydration (and its rate) of cement
can be reduced. As we have said, the
two compounds primarily
responsible for the strength of
hydrated cement are C3S and C2S,
and a convenient rule assumes that
C3S contributes most to the strength
development during the first four
weeks and C2S influences the later
19

gain in strength. At the age of about

one year, the two compounds, mass
for mass, contribute approximately
equally to the strength of hydrated
cement. in contrast to the prediction
of heat of hydration of cement from
its constituent compounds, it has
not been found possible to predict
the strength of hydrated cement on
the basis of compound composition.

2.2binding:
Where cement is an adhesive and binder
to the components of concrete.
20

3-Tests of cements:

3.1 fineness of cement:

Since hydration starts at the surface of the
cement particles, it is the total surface area
of cement that represents the material
available for hydration. Thus, the rate of
hydration depends on the fineness of
cement particles, and for a rapid
development of strength a high fineness is
necessary. However, the cost of grinding
and the effect of fineness on other proper-
ties, e.g., gypsum requirement, workability
of fresh concrete and long-term behavior,
must be borne in mind. Fineness is a vital
property of cement, and both BS and ASTM
require the determination of the specific
surface (in m?/kg). A direct approach is
to measure the particle size distribution by
sedimentation or elutriation; these
21

methods are based on Stoke's law, giving

the terminal velocity of fall under gravity of
a spherical particle in a fluid medium. A
development is the Wagner turbidimeter,
as specified by ASTM C 115-96a
(Reapproved 2003). Here, the concentration
of particles in suspension at a given level in
kerosene is determined using a beam of
light, the percentage of light transmitted
(and hence the area of particles) being
measured by a photocell. A typical curve of
particle size distribution is shown in, which
also gives the corresponding contribution of
these particles to the total surface area of
the sample.
22

3.2 consistence of standard paste:

For the determination of the initial setting time,
the final setting time, and
for Le Chatelier soundness tests, neat cement
paste of a standard consistence must be used.
Therefore, it is necessary to determine for any
given cement the water content which will
produce a paste of standard consistence.
Consistence is determined by the Vicat
apparatus, which measures
the depth of penetration of a 10 mm (8/3in.)
diameter plunger under its ownweight. When
the depth of penetration reaches a certain
value, the water content required gives the
standard consistence of between 26 and
33(expressed as a percentage by mass of dry
cement).
23

3.3 setting time:

This is the term used to describe the stiffening
of the cement paste. Broadly speaking, setting
refers to a change from a fluid to a rigid state.
Setting is mainly caused by a selective
hydration of CA and C¿‫راجع‬S and is
accompanied
by temperature rises in the cement paste;
initial set corresponds to a rapid rise and final
set corresponds to the peak temperature.
Initial and final sets should be distinguished
from false set which sometimes occurs within a
few minutes of mixing with water (ASTM C 451-
05). No heat is evolved in a false set and the
concrete can be re-mixed without adding
water. Flash set has previously been mentioned
and is characterized by the liberation of heat.
For the determination of initial set, the Vicat
apparatus is again used, this time with a 1 mm
(0.04 in.) diameter needle, acting under a
24

prescribed weight on a paste of standard

consistence. When the needle penetrates to
a point 5 mm (0.2 in.) from the bottom of a
special mould, initial set is said to occur (time
being measured from adding the mixing water
to the cement). A minimum time of 45 min is
prescribed by BS EN 197-1 for cements of
strength classes 52.5 N and 62.5 N whereas 60
minutes applies to strength classes of 32.5 N
and R and 42.5 N and R A similar procedure is
specified by ASTM C 191-04b except that a
smaller depth of penetration is required; a
minimum setting time of 60 min is prescribed
for Portland cements (ASTM C 150-05).
Final set is determined by a needle with a metal
attachment hollowed out to leave a circular
cutting edge 5 mm (0.2 in.) in diameter and set
0.5 mm (0.02 in.) behind the tip of the needle.
25

Final set is said to have occurred when the

needle makes an impression on the paste
surface, but the cutting edge fails to do so.
British Standards prescribe the final setting
time as a maximum of 10 hours for Portland
cements, which is the same as that of the
American Standards. An alternative method is
that of the Gillmore test, as prescribed by
ASTM C 266-04.

3.4Soundness:
refers to the ability of a hardened cement
paste to retain its volume after setting. Lack
of soundness or delayed destructive
expansion can be caused by excessive
amounts of hard-burned free lime or magnesia.
Most specifications for Portland cement limit
the magnesia (periclase) content and require
that the maximum expansion must not exceed
26

0.80% for Portland, blended, or hydraulic

cement as measured by the autoclave-
expansion test. Since adoption of the
autoclave-expansion test (ASTM C151,
Standard Test Method for Autoclave Expansion
of Hydraulic Cement, or AASHTO T 107) in
1943, there have been exceedingly few cases of
abnormal expansion attributed to unsound
cement.

3.5: strength:
Strength tests are not made on neat cement
paste because of difficulties in obtaining good
specimens and in testing with a consequent
large variability of test results. Cement-sand
mortar and, in some cases, concrete of
prescribed proportions, made with specified
materials under strictly controlled conditions,
27

are used for the purpose of determining the

strength of cement.
There are several forms of strength tests: direct
tension, compression, and flexure. In recent
years, the tension test has been gradually
superseded by the compression test and
therefore will not be discussed here.
The British Standard method for testing the
compressive strength of cement BS EN 196-1:
2005 specifies a mortar prism test. The cements
are described by strength classes, with N
denoting normal, and R rapid, hardening
properties. ASTM C 109-05 prescribes a cement-
sand mix with proportions of 1:2.75 and a
water/cement ratio of 0.485, using a standard
sand (ASTMC 778-06) for making 51 mm (2 in.)
cubes. The mixing and casting procedure is
similar to that of BS EN 196, but the cubes are
cured in saturated
28

lime water at 23 °C (73 °F) until they are tested.

An alternative compression test is the modified
cube method (ASTMC 349-02) which utilizes the
sections of failed flexural prisms.
It should be noted that the strengths listed by
BS EN and ASTM are characteristic strengths and
mean strengths, respectively.
The flexural text, prescribed in ASTM C 348-02,
uses simply-supported 40 × 40 × 160 mm mortar
prisms loaded at mid-span; the mix proportions,
storage, and curing procedures are the same as
for the compression test.
As stated earlier, an advantage of this test is that
the modified cube test
can be undertaken as well.
29

4: types of cement
Different types of Portland cement are
manufactured to meet various physical and
chemical requirements for specific purposes.
Portland cements are manufactured to meet
the specifications of ASTM C150 or AASHTO M
85, (also see Performance Based Hydraulic
Cements for port- land cements meeting ASTM
C1157, Standard Performance Specification for
Hydraulic Cement). The requirements of
AASHTO M 85 and ASTM C150 are equivalent.
AASHTO specifications are used by some state
departments of transportation in lieu of ASTM
standards.
4.1 ordinary Portland (type I ) cement
Type I Portland cement is a general-purpose
cement suitable for all uses where the special
properties of other cement types are not
required. Its uses in concrete include
pavements, floors, reinforced concrete
30

buildings, bridges, tanks, reservoirs, pipe,

masonry units, and precast concrete products
4.2 rapid-hardening Portland ( type III )
cement
This type of cement has a high compressive
strength at the beginning in the early time,
where the proportion of C3S is high [up to 70
per cent] and it has a higher fineness (minimum
325 m^2/Kg), as it is used in cold weather, used
as dams, and the cost of type(3‫)راجع‬cement is
only marginally grater than that of ordinary
Portland cement.
4.3 special rapid-hardening Portland
cements

4.4 low-heat Portland (type IV ) cement

Developed in the US for use in large gravity
dams, this cement has a low heat of hydration.
Both ASTM C 150-05 and BS 1370: 1979 limit
31

the heat of hydration to 250 J/g (60 Cal/g) at

the age of 7 days, and 290 J/g (70 Cal/g) at 28
days.BS 1370: 1979 controls the lime content
by limiting the lime saturation factor to 0.66 to
1.08, and, because of the lower content of C3S
and CA, there is a slower development of
strength than with ordinary Portland cement,
but the ultimate strength is unaffected. The
fineness must not be less than 320 m/kg to
ensure a sufficient rate of gain of strength.
In the US, Portland-pozzolan (Type P) cement
can be specified to be of the low-heat variety,
while Type IP cement can be required to have a
moderate heat of hydration. ASTM C 595-05
deals with these cements.

4.5 modified ( type II ) cement

In some applications, a very low early strength
may be a disadvantage, and for this reason a
modified cement was developed in the US. This
32

cement has a higher rate of heat development

than that of Type IV cement, and a rate of gain
of strength like that of Type I cement. Type Il
cement is recommended for structures where a
moderately low heat generation is
desirable or where moderate sulfate attack
may occur. This cement is not available in the
United Kingdom.

4.6 sulfate-resisting ( type V) cement

Type V Portland cement is used in concrete
exposed to severe sulfate environments –
principally where soils or groundwaters have a
high sulfate content. It gains strength more
slowly than Type I cement. Lists sulfate
concentrations requiring the use of Type V
cement. The high sulfate resistance of Type V
cement is attributed to a low tricalcium
aluminate content, not more than 5%. The use
of a low water to cementitious materials ratio
33

and low permeability are critical to the

performance of any concrete exposed to
sulfates. Even Type V cement concrete cannot
withstand a severe sulfate exposure if the
concrete has a high water-cementitious
materials ratio. Type V cement, like other
Portland cements, is not resistant to acids and
other highly corrosive substances.
ASTM C150 (AASHTO M 85) allows both a
chemical approach (for example, limiting C3A)
and a physical approach (ASTM C452 expansion
test) to assure the sulfate resistance of Type V
cement. Either the chemical or the physical
approach can be specified, but not both.
4.7 portland blast-furnace ( type IS )
cement
This type of cement is made by intergrinding or
blending Portland cement clinker with
granulated blast-furnace slag, which is a waste
34

product in the manufacture of pig iron; thus,

there is a lower energy consumption in the
manufacture of cement. Slag contains lime,
silica and alumina, but not in the same
proportions as in Portland cement, and its
composition can vary a great deal. Sometimes,
Portland blast-furnace cement is referred to as
slag cement.

4.8 supersulfated (slag) cement

4.9 white and coloured Portland cement

For architectural purposes, it is used because of
its low concrete of soluble alkalis so that
staining is avoided, which white cement is
made from china clay, which contains little iron
oxide and manganese oxide.
35

4.10 Portland-pozzolan
( types IP, P ,I(PM) )cement
These cements are made by intergrinding or
blending pozzolans with Portland cement.
ASTM C 618-06 describes a pozzolan as a
siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material
which possesses little or no cementitious value
but will, in finely divided form and in the
presence of moisture, chemically react with
lime (liberated by hydrating Portland cement)
at ordinary temperatures to form compounds
possessing cementitious properties.
As a rule, Portland-pozzolan cements gain
strength slowly and therefore require curing
over a comparatively long period, but the long-
term strength is high. Figure 2.6 shows that
similar behavior occurs where the pozzolan
replaces part of cement, but the long-term
strength depends on the level of replacement.
36

ASTM C 595-05 describes Type IP for general

construction and Type P for use when high
strengths at early ages are not required; Type
I(PM) is a pozzolan-modified Portland cement
for use in general construction. The pozzolan
content is limited to between 15 and 40 per
cent of the total mass of the cementitious
material for Types IP and P while Type I(PM)
requires less than 15 per cent pozzolan.

4.10.1 pozzolans
pozzolan is a siliceous or siliceous and
aluminous material that possesses little or no
cementitious value but will, in finely divided
form and in the presence of moisture,
chemically react with calcium hydroxide at
ordinary temperatures to form compounds
having cementitious properties. It is therefore
classified as cementitious material. There are
both natural (ACI 232.1R) and artificial (fly ash,
37

ACI 232.2R, and silica fume, ACI 234R)

pozzolans. Descriptions of various kinds of
pozzolans and specifications for them are given
in ASTM C618 and ASTM C1240.

Pozzolana works to interact with Ca(OH)2

which is produced from hydrotion . When
pozzolana interacts with CaOH2, it acquires
cementitious properties and increases the
strength of concrete for later ages because
effects to rate of strength in early ages, but
recently, and if it does not react, it fills the
voids. It is either added to cement or replaced
by cement as it also reduces the cost.

Partial replacement of Portland cement by

pozzolan must be carefully defined, as its
specific gravity (or relative density) (1.9 to 2.4)
is much lower than that of cement (3.15). Thus,
38

replacement by mass results in a considerably

greater volume of cementitious material.

Typical materials of this type are volcanic ash

(the original pozzolan), pumicite, opaline shales
and cherts, calcined diatomaceous earth, burnt
clay, and fly ash (PFA).
The most common artificial pozzolan is fly ash,
or pulverized fuel ash (PFA), and we have other
types of pozzolanas are rice husks, metakaolin,
and silica fume.

4.11 expansive (or expanding) cements

For many purposes, it would be advantageous
to use a cement which does not change its
volume due to drying shrinkage (and thus to
avoid cracking) or, in special cases, even
expands on hardening.
39

4.12 high-alumina cement (HAC)

5- cementitious materials:

The various materials that contribute to the

strength of concrete either by chemical or
physical action, are collectively referred to as
cementitious materials. Thus, when fly ash,
silica fume or slag is used with cement to make
concrete main factor is the water/cementitious
material (w/c) ratio.
40

6- differentiate: (self-study)

6.1 differentiate between density and

specific gravity.

Specific gravity refers to the ratio between the

density in proportion to the density of a
standard or reference. Water is usually used as
a benchmark. Density, on the other hand, is
measured in weight units relative to size. It's
worth noting that specific gravity is a one-
dimensional number with no dimensions. The
ratio of mass to volume is used to calculate
density, which is a specific attribute of matter.
Specific gravity, often known as relative density,
is the measurement of density in comparison to
the density of pure water.
41

Density is a feature of matter that may

alternatively be defined as the ratio of mass to a
unit volume of a substance. It is usually
expressed in grams per cubic centimeter or
kilogram per cubic meter units. The mass per
unit volume is used to calculate it. As a result,
density is a measurement of how dense material
or object is. It is a scalar quantity since it lacks
direction. Its measurement is a method of
determining mass in a continuous system.

Difference Between Density and Specific

Gravity:

Density Specific gravity

The mass of a It's the weight of a
substance divided by substance divided by
42

its volume is the mass- the weight of the

to-volume ratio. same volume of
water.
The weight and To get the specific
volume of the given gravity of a substance,
substance must be divide its density by
known in order to the density of water.
calculate the density.
it is a measure of an It is a measure of a
absolute term relative term.
Unit of density is Dimensionless
Kg/m3 quantity
It has the SI unit. No SI unit

Density is, in fact, only slightly less

than the specific gravity in number.
Pure water has a density of about 1
gram per cubic centimeter.
The specific gravity of a single
material cannot be calculated.
43

Specific gravity will change with

reference, but density has a fixed
value.
The density of any substance can be
changed when we give external
temperature to it.

How do you calculate specific gravity and

density?
➢ Given that the reference substance is
water, the formula for specific gravity is the
object's density divided by the density of
the water.

➢ Density is calculated using the formula d

= M/V, where d represents density, M is
mass, and V is volume. The density of a
44

substance is usually measured in grams per

cubic centimeter

What is specific gravity in concrete?

➢ The specific gravity of cement is

calculated by dividing the mass of cement
by the mass of water in the same volume of
cement. It can alternatively be described as
the ratio of cement density to water
density for a given volume. Cement has a
specific gravity ranging from 3.1 to 3.17

6.2 differentiate between mass and

volume.
Mass and volume are two units used to
measure materials. Mass is the amount of
45

matter an object contains, while volume is how

much space it takes up.
Mixing:
The concrete mix is the proportion
of each constituent (cement: sand: aggregate).
Mixes can be prepared by weight or by volume.
Of the two, mixing by weight is more accurate.
(This is usually called ‘weigh batching’).
If large weighing scales are not available, then
mixing by volume is usually the only practical
option. When mixing by volume, use containers
of known volume to measure the proportions.
A bucket levelled off with a straight edge or a
prefabricated gauge box is best.
Where there is a relationship between the mass
and volume of materials used in the formation
of concrete represented by density and specific
gravity.
46

6.3 some physical properties of construction

materials:
Material Density (Kg/m3) Specific gravity
Concrete 2400 3.1-3.17
Cement 1440 3.1-3.16
Steel 7750-8050 7.8
Fine 1450-2082 2.65
Aggregate
Coarse 2850-2960 2.5-3
aggregate
Dry Sand 1602 2.65-2.67
gypsum 1050 2.32
pozzolana 1430 1.9-2.4

6.4 The effect of pozzolana on workability:

From the results it can be seen that as the
percentage replacement of OPC with pozzolana
increases, the workability of concrete decreases.
47

Replacing cement by an equal mass of pozzolana

causes an increase in volume since the density
of cement is higher than that of pozzolana. This
therefore increases the water demand and as
the pozzolana content increases the workability
reduces since the quantity of water remains the
same for all mixes. The results also showed the
interrelationship between the results of the
compacting factor test and the slump test.

#Refrances:
1- Concrete technology A.M.NEVILLE (
CHPTER -2- CEMENT ALL PAGES.
48

2- LECTEAR NOTES FOR DOCTOR

BASIL.
3- PCA PAGE 57
4- https://www.cement.org/cement-
concrete/how-cement-is-made.
5- https://collegedunia.com/exams/dif
ference-between-density-and-
specific-gravity-definition-and-
sample-questions-physics-articleid-
2602.