Synchronous Machines - Structure
Synchronous Machines - Structure
• rotates at constant speed. Non-salient pole generator
• primary energy conversion • high speed (2 - 4 poles)
devices of the word’s electric • large power (100 - 400 MVA)
power system. • steam and nuclear power plants
• both generator and motor
operations
Salient pole generator
• can draw either a lagging or a
leading reactive current from the • small and mid-size power ( 0 - 100 MVA)
supply system. • small motors for electrical
clocks and other domestic
devices
• mid size generators for
emergency power supply
• mid size motors for pumps
and ship propulsion
• large size generators in
hydro-electric power plants
Synchronous Generators – No-load
• excitation voltages
• frequency depends on the speed
np 120 f
f = n= Ef = 4.44 f Φ f NK w Ef ∝ nΦ f
120 p
• open circuit characteristics
• magnetization characteristics
Synchronous Generators - loaded
• the stator currents will establish a rotating field in the air-gap
• armature reaction flux Φa
• resultant air-gap flux
Φr = Φ f + Φa
Synchronous Machines – The Infinite Bus
Synchronous Machines – Paralleling with The Infinite Bus
• same
• voltage
1. Same f and phase sequence
• frequency
• phase sequence
• phase
2. Same V and phase sequence
• synchronizing lamps
1. Same V and f
Synchronous Motor - Starting
• high inertia of the rotor prohibits direct connection into supply net
• variable-frequency supply • start as an induction motor
Synchronous Machines – Per Phase Equivalent Circuit Model
• armature flux, armature reaction flux, armature leakage flux
Φa = Φar + Φal
Φr = Φ f ( I f ) + Φar ( I a )
Er = Ear + Ef
−Ear = jXar I a
Ef = I a jXar + Er
•magnetizing reactance Xar , (reactance of armature)
• synchronous reactance Xs =Xar + Xal
• synchronous impedance Zs =Ra + jXs
Synchronous Machines – Equivalent Circuit Model
• Norton equivalent circuit
Ef Xar 2 N re
I f′ = I f′ = nI f n=
Xs Xs 3 N se
Equivalent Circuit Model – Determination of the
Synchronous Reactance
• open circuit test
• synchronous speed
• stator open-circuited
• measure Vt(If)
• open-circuit characteristic
• air-gap line
• short circuit test
• synchronous speed
• stator short-circuited
• measure Ia(If)
• short-circuit characteristic
• straight line
• flux remains at low level
• Ia lags the Ef by almost 90 because Ra X s
Equivalent Circuit Model – Determination of the
Synchronous Reactance
• unsaturated value from the air-gap line
Eda Eda
Zs(unsat) = = Ra + jXs(unsat) Xs(unsat)
I ba I ba
Equivalent Circuit Model – Determination of the
Synchronous Reactance – Saturated
Er = Vt + I a ( Ra + jXal ) ≈ Vt
• at infinite bus operation the saturation level is defined by terminal voltage
• operation point c
• if the field current is changed the excitation voltage will change along
modified air-gap line OC
Eca
Zs(sat) = = Ra + jXs(sat)
I ba
Eca
Xs(sat)
I ba
Synchronous Machines – Phasor Diagram
• terminal voltage taken as the reference vector
• generator
• power angle positive
Ef = Vt + I a Ra + I a jXs = Ef δ
• motor
• power angle negative
Vt = Ef + I a Ra + I a jXs
Ef = Vt 0° − I a Ra − I a jXs
= Ef −δ
convention: generating current flows out of the machine
Synchronous Machines – Power and Torque
Vt = Vt 0°
Ef = Ef δ
Zs = Ra + jXs = Zs θ s
S = Vt I a*
* * *
⎛ Ef − Vt ⎞ E V
I a* = ⎜ ⎟ = f
− t
⎝ Zs ⎠ Zs* Zs*
Ef −δ Vt 0
= −
Zs −θ s Zs −θ s
Ef Vt
= θs − δ − θs convention: lagging reactive power positive
Zs Zs
Synchronous Machines – Power and Torque
• complex power
2
Vt Ef Vt
S= θs − δ − θs
Zs Zs
• real power
2
Vt Ef Vt
P= cos(θ s − δ ) − cosθ s
Zs Zs
• reactive power
2
Vt Ef Vt
Q= sin(θ s − δ ) − sin θ s
Zs Zs
Synchronous Machines – Power and Torque
• Ra neglected
• real power
3 Vt Ef
P3φ = sin δ = Pmax sin δ
Xs
• reactive power
2
3 Vt Ef 3 Vt
Q3φ = cos δ −
Xs Xs
• torque
P3φ 3 Vt Ef
T= = sin δ = Tmax sin δ N ⋅ m
ωsyn ωsyn Xs
Synchronous Machines – Complex Power Locus
2
3 Vt Ef 3 Vt Ef 3 Vt
P3φ = sin δ = Pmax sin δ Q3φ = cos δ −
Xs Xs Xs
Synchronous Machines – Capability Curves
• armature heating, length of OM
• field heating, length of YM
• steady-state stability δ
Synchronous Machines – Power Factor Control
• machine connected to an infinite bus
P = 3Vt I a cos φ
• for constant power operation
I a cos φ = const.
• reactive current can be
controlled by field current
jXs I a = Vt − Ef
• also
Vt Ef
P=3 sin δ Ef sin δ = const
Xs
Synchronous Machines – Independent Generators
• purely inductive load (Isc is short-circuit current)
Vt = Ef − I a Xs
= I sc Xs − I a Xs
= Xs ( I sc − I a )
• purely resistive load
Ef Xs I sc
Ia = =
RL2 + Xs2 RL2 + Xs2
Vt = I a RL
• quarter ellipse
Vt2 I a2
+ =1 • control curves
( Xs I sc )2 2
I sc • constant terminal voltage
Salient Pole Synchronous Machines
• the field mmf and flux are along the d-axis
• stator current is in phase with the
excitation voltage
• armature mmf and flux are along the
q-axis
• stator current is lagging the
excitation voltage by 90 degrees
• armature mmf and flux act along the
d-axis, directly opposing the field
• the same magnitude of the armature
mmf produces more flux in d-
direction than that in q-direction
• magnetizing reactance is not unique
in a salient pole machine
Salient Pole Synchronous Machines
• the armature quantities can be resolved into two components – one acting along
the d-axis (Fd, Id), and the other acting along the q-axis (Fq, Iq),
• these components produce fluxes
along the respective axes (Φad, Φaq),
• d-axis armature reactance Xd
• q-axis armature reactance Xq
• leakage reactance Xal
• synchronous reactances
Xd = Xad + Xal
Xq = Xaq + Xal
Salient Pole Synchronous Machines – Phasor Diagrams
• the component currents (Id, Iq), produce component voltage drops (jIdXd, jIqXq)
Ef = Vt + I a Ra + Id jXd + I q jXq I a = Id + I q
• generator phasor diagram (Ia lagging)
• ψ internal power factor angle
• φ terminal power factor angle
• δ torque angle
• Ra neglected
Salient Pole Synchronous Machines – Phasor Diagrams
• motoring phasor diagram (Ia lagging)
• ψ internal power factor angle
• φ terminal power factor angle
• δ torque angle
Vt = Ef + Id jXd + I q jXq
ψ =φ ±δ
I a Xq cos φ
tan δ =
Id = I a sinψ = I a sin(φ ± δ ) Vt ± I a Xq sin φ
I q = I a cosψ = I a cos(φ ± δ ) Ef = Vt cos δ ± Id Xd
Power Transfer
S = Vt I a*
= Vt −δ ( I q − j Id )*
= Vt −δ ( I q + j Id )
Ef − Vt cos δ
Id =
Xd
Vt sin δ
Iq =
Xq
Power Transfer
2 2
Vt Vt Ef Vt
S= sin δ −δ + 90° − δ − cos δ 90° − δ = P + jQ
Xq Xd Xd
2
Vt Ef Vt ( Xd − Xq )
P= sin δ + sin 2δ = Pf + Pr
Xd 2 Xd X q
Vt Ef 2 sin 2 δ cos 2 δ
Q= cos δ − Vt +
Xd Xq Xd
• if Xd = Xq, then
2
Vt Ef Vt Ef Vt
P= sin δ Q= cos δ −
Xd Xd Xd
Power Transfer - Torque
2
Vt Ef Vt ( Xd − Xq )
P= sin δ + sin 2δ = Pf + Pr
Xd 2 Xd X q
Determination of Xd and Xq
• slip test
• rotor is driven at a small slip
• field winding open-circuited
• stator is connected to a balanced three phase supply
• stator encounters varying reluctance path
• amplitude of the stator current varies
Vt
Xd =
imin 2
Vt
Xq =
imax 2
Speed Control of Synchronous Motors
• open-loop frequency control
Speed Control of Synchronous Motors
• frequency control
3Vt Ef
P = Tω m = sin δ
Xs
4π f
ωm =
p
Xs = 2π fLs
• field current kept constant
Ef = K1 f
Vt
T = K sin δ
f
• voltage is changed with the frequency
Speed Control of Synchronous Motors
• self-controlled synchronous motor
• rotor position information is
used to decrease the stator
frequency
• open-loop / closed-loop control
Applications
• ac generator
• constant speed operation
• high efficiency
• motor-generator set, air compressor, centrifugal pump, blower, crusher, mill
• power factor control, synchronous reactor, -condenser
