Cite this article Research Article Keywords: admixtures/sustainable

Bhattacharjee J (2018) Paper 1700010 development

Deterioration of concrete structures along with case studies in India. Received 30/03/2017; Accepted 21/02/2018
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Forensic Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1680/jfoen.17.00010 ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Forensic Engineering

Deterioration of concrete structures along

with case studies in India
Jogatjyoti Bhattacharjee BE, MTech, MPhil, PhD
Professor and Advisor, Department of Civil Engineering, Amity University,
Noida, India; Former Chief Engineer and Jt. Director General, Military
Engineer Services/Ministry of Defence, India ([email protected])

Concrete is used extensively in various types of construction works. However, the deterioration of reinforced-
concrete structures is recognised as a major problem worldwide. Apart from requiring regular maintenance, many
structures require extensive repair, rehabilitation and retrofitting. Over a period of time, as these structures become
older, certain degradation or deterioration with resultant distress manifested in the form of cracking, splitting,
delaminating and corrosion is found in them. Such deteriorated structures can be rehabilitated and retrofitted by
using various types of admixtures and modern repair materials. This paper discusses the present state of concrete
structures and the major areas where improvement is needed during the service life stage for sustainable
development. It also discusses the method of carrying out repair, rehabilitation and retrofitting. This is detailed in
the paper along with various case studies compiled by the author based on his field experience of direct
involvement in the planning and execution of repair and rehabilitation jobs, which were successfully completed by
using the latest repair materials and techniques.

1. Introduction affairs is of great concern mainly for two reasons. Firstly, concrete
There is a growing global concern about the premature is, in essence a proven, durable and mostly maintenance-free
deterioration of structures, particularly concrete structures. Cement material. This is exemplified by a large number of structures
concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials constructed properly more than half a century back and still in
and has proven to be almost indispensable to the present-day good stead today. Secondly, the method of making concrete that
civilisation. Although concrete is quite strong mechanically, it is does not need major repair/rehabilitation is already well
highly susceptible to deterioration and thus gets damaged and can documented and is known to many. Nonetheless, the trend of the
even ultimately fail unless some measures are adopted to counter early deterioration of concrete structures continues unabated.
deterioration. Such measures enhance the durability of structures.
The maintenance of a building is a lifelong continuous process. It At present, in India there is no established existing procedure,
has been observed that the minimum maintenance of concrete mandatory or otherwise, for the periodic inspection of buildings/
structures requires an integral approach, which needs the adoption structures and the recording of structural defects and symptoms,
of preventive measures. Repair, rehabilitation and retrofitting is the such as cracks, spalling, corrosion and deflection of structure, in a
fastest-growing segment of the concrete industry. Across the globe, logical manner; nor is any record of structural repairs/rehabilitations
billions of dollars are spent annually in the repair and restoration of carried out maintained properly, even for public buildings, despite
distressed concrete structures. Thus, the selection and evaluation of the fact that some advanced countries have such established
repair materials and protective coatings is receiving more and more procedures. In India, people barge into a repair activity without
attention among civil engineers. The new technologies and new adequate preparation. Those involved in repair/rehabilitation/
repair materials, which have been extensively used by advanced retrofitting need to be better civil engineers. In fact, the repair/
countries, are also being tried in developing countries such as India. rehabilitation/retrofitting activity is a much more advanced
This paper highlights the present state of maintenance, particularly application of science and technology, which is the most difficult
in developing countries such as India, and the utilisation of those challenge for civil engineers. New techniques and materials need to
new techniques/materials for the repair/restoration of buildings/ be employed to resolve these difficulties. There are enough options
structures, for long-term sustainable development (Bhattacharjee, to select from various construction chemicals, minerals, methods
2016). for repairs/rehabilitations, economics and so on to set right the
damage. These all are to be considered in totality before deciding
2. Present state of maintenance, repair and on the repair/rehabilitation/retrofitting strategy (Marcotte et al.,
rehabilitation 1999; Varghese, 2014; Vidiivelli, 2014; Wodson, 2009); hence, this
It is a matter of serious concern for civil engineers that in some requires sufficient background preparation.
countries, the repair activities carried out on structures today
account for nearly half the total annual expenditure on total For the repair of any concrete structures, the use of construction
construction activities (Bhattacharjee, 2015). Such a state of chemicals to achieve long-term results is very common in

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 Forensic Engineering Deterioration of concrete structures
along with case studies in India
Bhattacharjee

advanced countries, while in India, it is still very much lacking. It during the late 1960s. Today one can say that these are an integral
is difficult to match the response of the non-repaired and part of many concretes. Broadly, polymers are chemical
the repaired areas in rehabilitated structures. In India, new compounds that essentially consist of repeating structural units.
technologies and materials have yet to be adopted on a large scale Although polymers have been in use in concrete for quite some
to resolve the difficulty of attaining durable repaired structures on time, they are primarily known by the respective roles they play
a long-term basis. In fact, normal periodic maintenance is often such as admixtures, bonding agents and sealants. Some of the
very much lacking, and thus the need for rehabilitation is also most commonly used polymer modifiers in concrete and mortar
increasing. are ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer, styrene–butadiene copolymer
and acrylic resins. Polymer–concrete composites display several
3. Major causes of deterioration of improvements in their mechanical properties, including substantial
structures increase in the strength and modulus of elasticity. In India,
Concrete normally provides excellent corrosion protection to although the use of polymers in the construction industry is
embedded reinforcement. The high alkaline environment in growing, particularly in repair, rehabilitation and maintenance field
concrete results in the formation of a protective oxide film on steel (CPWD, 2011; Vidiivelli, 2014), they do not have their own set of
bars. However, unless concrete is well compacted and dense, it is standards and codes yet, which can ably guide both the specifier
susceptible to carbonation and loses its capacity to protect and the customer in their proper use. There is a large number of
reinforcement. The deterioration of a typical concrete structure products available in the market. As such there is a requirement to
starts from the time it is exposed to the elements of nature, come up with general guidelines and standard evaluation
primarily under high-humidity, high-temperature conditions and techniques, which should enable users to make the best use of
variation in temperatures; thus, certain parts of structures including products available. All will gain from such standardisation.
roofs and structural elements directly exposed to weather Figure 2 (Bhattacharjee, 2016) shows how a typical technique is
conditions are more susceptible to deterioration. The deterioration used for the repair/rehabilitation of a concrete pier. Figure 3
of materials such as concrete and reinforcement reduces the (Bhattacharjee, 2016) shows how the partial jacketing of an
strength of the structural members. While elements such as
temperature variations, pollution, wind, rains and floods contribute
towards deterioration, sometimes, changes in environment after Existing pier with
deteriorated
construction and changes in functional requirement also contribute concrete
towards premature deterioration. The corrosion of embedded steel
is the prime cause of damage to reinforced-concrete structures.
It is like a ‘cancer’, which progresses with slow deteriorating
process and, if neglected or not attended to in time, may
spread over a large area and cause the extensive disintegration/ Form work
deterioration of structural elements. It may even lead to
catastrophic structural failure, in the absence of timely remedial
measures. The corrosion of reinforcement due to chloride ingress
is shown in Figure 1 (Bhattacharjee, 2016; Varghese, 2014).

4. Method of repair, rehabilitation and

Steel reinforcement
retrofitting Spacer
The materials and techniques used for repair, rehabilitation,
retrofitting and maintenance depend on the extent of deterioration.
Construction chemicals/polymers entered the world of concrete

Deterioration of concrete
Reinforcement

Form extends
below bed level
Corrosion of reinforcement

Chloride-contaminated concrete

Figure 1. Corrosion due to chloride ingress Figure 2. Typical techniques for repairing a concrete pier

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 Forensic Engineering Deterioration of concrete structures
along with case studies in India
Bhattacharjee

Partial
encasement
Existing
column

Partial Existing column

Existing encasement
Steel
column
jacketing

Figure 3. Partial jacketing of an existing column

existing column can be carried out. Figures 4(a) (Bhattacharjee,

2016) and 4(b) show how concrete jacketing techniques are used
for rectangular and circular columns. Figure 5 (Bhattacharjee,
Grout
2016) shows how the jacketing of an existing column can be Steel
carried out using steel jacketing. Figure 6 shows the various jacketing
stages/sequences of patch repair. Figure 7 (Bhattacharjee, 2016)
shows how a grouting process is carried out. Figure 8
(Bhattacharjee, 2016) shows how the gunite process is carried out.

5. Requirement and method of retrofitting

of structures
Retrofitting/strengthening is a technical option for improving the Figure 5. Jacketing of concrete columns with steel shapes
strength and other attributes of resistance of buildings to seismic
and other forces. The requirement of retrofitting of any structure
arises mainly due to the fact that old buildings, which were generated by the vibration of the building can be transmitted to the
designed as per old codal provisions (Al-Gadhib et al., 2009; BIS, members that have the ability to resist them. Further, the features
1993a; CPWD, 2011), may not have adequate strength as per that are sources of weakness or that produce concentrations of
the requirements of the latest codal provisions. Moreover, in certain stresses in some members are eliminated. Moreover, for avoiding
cases, the deterioration of concrete in foundation and other
structural elements takes place due to various reasons including the
settlement of soil strata. The objective of strengthening/retrofitting Chloride-
contaminated
is to increase lateral strength in one or more directions, by concrete Bonding
Epoxy
reinforcement, increasing the wall areas and the number of walls coating of bar
and columns, giving unity to the structure by proper connection
between its resisting elements, in such a way that inertia forces

(a) (b) (c)

Original
column
Polythene
Original Shotcrete Two or three
coats of
column Repair mortar surface
New treatment
New dowels
concrete Elevation
Footing

(a) Section (d) (e)

(b)
Figure 6. Sequence of patch repair: (a) prepare the surface;
Figure 4. Concrete jacketing techniques: (a) rectangular column (b) protect the steel; (c) apply bonding coat; (d) apply the repair
and (b) circular column material; (e) protect the surface with surface coating

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 Forensic Engineering Deterioration of concrete structures
along with case studies in India
Bhattacharjee

Provision of holes in
slab for vertical continuous
steel where necessary New vertical overlay. This is applied where an RCC slab is already constructed
reinforcing steel
and binders
but was found to have structural deficiencies. In India, due to
changes in codal provisions particularly for earthquake codes,
Gunite cover most of the existing old important buildings require retrofitting for
to new steel
structural safety against calamities such as earthquake, tsunami
New steel lapping
on to beam tied Existing concrete and cyclone. Figure 9 shows an increase of footing area using the
to beam steel and steel after preparation jacketing method. Figure 10 shows the method for strengthening
Elevation or anchored Plan
of piles (Takewaka and Kaneko, 2006). Figure 11 represents how
(a)
Hole and recess formed the underpinning of reinforced footing with piles is carried out.
stirrup lapped or welded

New stirrup
hooked round
New strrup
passed round
6. Repair, rehabilitation and retrofitting
expanding bolt beam materials and techniques
New steel at side
or below existing
New reinforcing steel 6.1 Classification of admixtures
(b)
Admixtures can be classified according to types of material
Existing slab
constituting the admixtures or to the characteristic effects of their use.
Figure 12 shows how admixtures used for repair/rehabilitation are
Gunite cover classified (BIS, 1993b; Raikar, 1996).
Steel hangers welded to existing Steel reinforcement tied to the to new steel
steel to provide support for steel hanger and then restored
new fabric steel mat to the required profile 6.2 Polymer
(c)
High-strength, resilient materials, which have high resistance to
attacks from chlorides and sulfates, are normally used as repair
Figure 7. Example of grouting process: (a) column, (b) beam and
(c) soffit of slab materials. The polymer-modified concrete (PMC)/polymer-
modified mortar, which is commonly used as a repair material,
has the following properties
the possibility of brittle mode failures, the proper reinforcement and
connection of resisting members is carried out. ■ high compressive strength at an early age
■ increased flexural and tensile strength
The foundation is a very important part of any building/structure. ■ watertightness
Whenever there is a need to increase any additional floor of a ■ adhesion
building due to an increase in floor area ratio and so on, ■ resilience, durability, impermeability and so on.
strengthening is required. Shoring and underpinning are important
in the repair/retrofitting of any foundation. Shoring is the form of The polymer to be used is latex. Styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR)
temporary support given above the foundation to the existing latex or another equivalent polymer should be used. SBR latex is
building to avoid any damage due to the collapse of the a carboxylated styrene–butadiene copolymer latex admixture, to
building during repair/retrofitting. Underpinning is the process of improve properties of cement. It imparts the following properties
strengthening the foundation of an existing building by repair. The to concrete
process of strengthening the foundation of an existing building is
called underpinning. The main objective of underpinning is to ■ high strength
transfer the foundation load to a lower, stronger depth. ■ resilience
■ impermeability
There are various methods available for underpinning; one is ■ resistance to carbonation and chloride ion penetration.
traditional methods; and others are needle and pile underpinning
of walls, angle piling and underpinning of column foundations The polymer is mixed in water prior to addition in cement
by the jack pile method. Further, there are also methods available concrete. The pH value of polymer should be more than 7·5. The
for improving foundations on expansive clays. The strengthening 28 d flexural strength should be at least 50 kg/cm2. The minimum
of reinforced-concrete beams, columns and slabs can be compressive strength is 150 kg/cm2 at 3 d and 350 kg/cm2 at 28 d.
carried out by plate bonding, reinforced concrete construction The split tensile strength should be at least 25 kg/cm2 at 28 d.
(RCC) jacketing and fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) systems.
The strengthening of columns and beams can also be done by 6.3 Epoxy mortar/grouting
RCC jacketing (Alcocer and Jirsa, 1993; CPWD, 2008, 2011). Epoxy mortars are used for the repair of spalled concrete in the
RCC jacketing is jacketing with an additional layer of steel underside of slab floors or roof slabs and sunshades having
and concrete (Al-Gadhib et al., 2009; BIS, 1993b; CPWD, damage of less than 75 mm depth. Epoxy grouting is used
2008). It is one of the simple methods of strengthening columns normally for the filling of cracks. Epoxy grouting systems have
and beams. RCC slab strengthening is carried out by concrete high mechanical strength. They obtain strength only in a few

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 Forensic Engineering Deterioration of concrete structures
along with case studies in India
Bhattacharjee

Cement Aggregate

Mixer

Water supply

Gunite
machine

Water
tank
Pressurised water

Water control valve

Air compressor

Wet concrete mix

sprayed from nozzle
Air-conveyed dry mix

Nozzle

Figure 8. Diagrammatic representation of gunite process

hours and are resilient in nature. Epoxy systems are immune to future ingress of air and harmful chlorides, sulfates and so on into the
sulfate and chloride attacks and are impermeable. They also have structure. It thus protects the entire structure from corrosion and
high compressive and tensile strengths. Since an epoxy grouting spalling. This protective coating involves a type of mastic, which
system can be injected into even hairline cracks, effective repairs ensures the sealing of microcracks in concrete. However, these coats
can be carried out with them. are to be applied periodically, normally with an interval of 5 years or
so, depending on the type of product being used.
6.4 Polymer coating
For enhancing the life of a structure, coatings such as an
7. Methodology of repair, rehabilitation and
interpenetrating network or other equivalent polymers may be applied
retrofitting
on all the concrete surfaces of the structure. The coating prevents any
7.1 Common guidelines
Floor
Whenever the corrosion of steel has not started but the
carbonation of concrete has taken place up to reinforcement
surface, a coating of required thickness can be applied to prevent/
Additional concrete retard the carbonation process. Depending on the severity of
Plain concrete layer carbonation, polymer or epoxy resins or polymer-modified mortar
concrete provides adequate protection. Such coating also stops the
penetration of chloride and other deleterious elements.

Dowel bar Whenever the process of corrosion has set in, the restoration
Figure 9. Strengthening by increasing the area of footing
techniques depend on the extent of damage to the concrete and or
steel. But the following guidelines are common.

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 Forensic Engineering Deterioration of concrete structures
along with case studies in India
Bhattacharjee

Pile cap

Existing column
Striping footing

Existing footing

(a)
Floor

Additional concrete
Plain concrete layer

1· 5 m
(typical)
Dowel bar
Piles
(b)

Figure 11. Underpinning of reinforced footing by piles: (a) plan

and (b) section

(a) 8. Case studies

8.1 Case study 1: repair/rehabilitation of a jetty in
Floor Mumbai, India
The author has successfully used various admixtures for the major
rehabilitation of wharves along with other repair works to
caissons, dry docks and so on, costing approximately
Micropile Rs 50 million (Rs 1 = US$0·015), in Bombay (Mumbai), India.
The two wharves (contiguous with each other), being 16·45 m
Rebar wide and 500 m long, were constructed during 1957 and 1967
(one being 350 m long and the other 150 m long). The observed
damage to these included excessive spalling of concrete,
formation of wide cracks, excessive corrosion, falling of fenders,
shearing off of piles and so on. In general, it was observed that
after various structural elements had been exposed/chipped off,
(b) they showed much more deterioration than was observed at the
Figure 10. Strengthening by piles: (a) plan and (b) section time of the site survey.

The two wharves were composed of fender portals, bollard

portals, a curtain wall (on one side of wharf only), wailings
■ Remove all unsound concrete and expose reinforcing steel all (connecting piles at the bottom of the bracing level), a deck slab
round. (37·5 cm thick) and a wearing coat (17·5 cm thick) over the deck
■ Derust the steel by appropriate methods, namely, sand slab. Apart from a visual and dimensional survey, various other
blasting, brushing, applying rust removers and so on. tests were carried out to diagnose distresses: cover meter test, half-
■ Restore reinforcement with anchorages – that is, shear cell potential survey, ultrasonic pulse velocity test, petrography
connectors – wherever required. test, core test, water permeability test, chloride sulfate test and
■ Apply tack/binding coat of polymers or epoxy-based materials. porosity test. In addition, the analytical assessment of residual
■ Use one of the several stitching techniques to restore concrete strength was also made. The structure being very old, design
to the original surface level. calculation/details were not available. Using a computer, a
■ Inject cement slurry or polymer-modified slurry or epoxy of structural analysis was carried out that showed that all structural
suitable grade to fill up pores, internal cracks or segregation. members were adequately designed based on earlier codal
■ Apply suitable protective coating. provisions. Because of the extent of deterioration, repair/

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 Forensic Engineering Deterioration of concrete structures
along with case studies in India
Bhattacharjee

Accelerating Accelerating/water-reducing

Retarding Retarding/water-reducing

Water-reducing plasticising
(concrete/mortar)

Air-entraining (mortar plasticiser)

Damp-proofing (repellent)

Waterproofing Permeability reducing (pressure resisting)

Retarders
Accelerators
Grouting materials Water retainers
Pumping
Alkali–aggregate reducing Lithium/barium salts

Granulated iron
Expansion producing Sulfo-aluminous cements
Super-plasticisers Sodium benzoate
Corrosion inhibitors Sodium nitrite

Poly-halogenated phenols
Dieldren emulsion
Miscellaneous Fungicides Talc
Copper compounds
Tributyl-phosphate (TBP)
Air detainers Dibutyl-phohalate (DBP) Quartz

Aluminum
Magnesium
Gas former
Zinc
Bentonite
Flocculants Polyelectrolytes
Inert
Fly ash
Diatomaceous
Pozzolanic earth
Pigments

Finely divided minerals Cementitious Slag cement

Resins (bonding agents) PVC, PVA, acrylics, SB

Figure 12. Classification of admixtures

rehabilitation was required to the wharf portals frames, curtain ■ fixing of entry ports
wall, wailings, deck slab, wearing coat and fenders. ■ application of epoxy sealant
■ cleaning of grooves with compressed air
The repair methodologies adopted for different types of defects ■ injection of epoxy grout under pressure
are as follows. ■ cutting of entry ports
■ grinding of sealant.
■ All cracks at various locations were filled with epoxy grouting
under pressure. The stages involved in grouting are ■ Spalling of concrete was repaired by various methods depending
on locations. For the soffit of slabs and fenders where the depth
■ cutting ‘V’ grooves with pneumatic cutter of deterioration was less than 75 mm, epoxy mortars were used.
■ drilling of holes, at intervals The sequence of activities involved is as follows

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 Forensic Engineering Deterioration of concrete structures
along with case studies in India
Bhattacharjee

■ square cutting the boundary of damaged concrete having a colder climate. They therefore require long-term testing
■ chipping the spalled surface by pneumatic chipper under a tropical climate. Moreover, such evaluation is also needed
■ removing rust from existing reinforcement by wire under the following situations.
brushing
■ welding of additional reinforcement after carrying out ■ Special types of cement are specified.
anticorrosive treatment and an epoxy coating; however, ■ More than one polymer is to be used, together.
epoxy coating, which gets damaged during welding, needs ■ Mixing and placing is done at temperatures well above or
to be repaired properly below the generally recommended concreting temperatures.
■ removing dust from the surface of concrete and
reinforcement using compressed air and drying of the The repair work needs to be executed in accordance with project
surface before applying the coating of epoxy documents. The repair process, particularly concrete removal and
■ applying an epoxy coat within an interval of 15–30 min reinforcing repair, may alter the load distribution of the structure
after mixing of resin and hardener and quartz sand, in the and the members being repaired. Proper shoring and bracing
proportion of 100, 50 and 800 by weight; air curing for needs to be provided throughout the construction. Quality control
48 h was required. throughout the repair process is essential to any successful
project. Appropriate inspection by the engineers and periodic
testing at the site and in the laboratory is to be performed on a
For piles, beams, wailings, bracings and fenders/soffit of slabs regular basis, to ensure a long-lasting solution.
(having a depth of deterioration greater than 75 mm), PMC was
used. The stages involved in the application of PMC are similar to The repair and rehabilitation work on the two wharves, costing
those of epoxy mortar, except for the mix of PMC and curing approximately Rs 30 million, carried out during 1993–1994 has
requirement. In polymer-modified mortar, the materials used were stopped the deterioration, and no further deterioration has been
cement, quartz sand, polymer and water in the proportion of 100, observed by visual inspection (Marcotte et al., 1999), after about
400, 15 and 30 by weight, for the damaged portion of structural more than 20 years since the work was carried out. It is expected
member having a shallow depth of up to 75 mm. However, where that this work will extend the service life of the facility for
the damaged portion is considerable and of a depth more than another 15–20 years, with normal periodic maintenance.
75 mm, cement, quartz sand, polymer, water and aggregate (20 mm
and down grade) were used, in the proportion of 100, 200, 15, 35 8.2 Case study 2: rehabilitation of RCC overhead
and 400 by weight. Further, in case of PMC, water curing is also reservoir at Siliguri, West Bengal, India
required. One pile that was sheared off (because of which the jetty A study was carried out in March–April 1996 on an overhead tank
was declared non-operational) was replaced by two piles after of 50 000 gallon (227 304·5 litres) capacity resting on a staging of
cutting the deck slab, lifting the slab using jacks and casting two 16 RCC columns braced together at different levels. The tank is
new piles underwater using the bored cast in situ method and located in North Bengal. The tank was constructed in the years
thereby restoring the structure to its original position. In other 1977–1978. The tank, having dimensions of 9·3 × 9·3 × 3·4 m3,
locations, only a wearing coat, a bonding coat of epoxy resin, rests on columns of size 300 × 300 mm2. The columns are
needed to be applied to the concrete. For repairs to the curtain wall interconnected at three different levels through bracings of size
(which is not a very important element of the structure), guniting 250 × 250 mm2; record contract agreement drawings were
was used. For enhancing the life of structure, a special penetrating not available. The distress in staging was noticed in the beginning
thermosetting polymer, interpenetrating polymer network, was of 1994. The distress was manifested in the form of cracks, spalling
applied over the entire concrete structure including the fender, after of concrete and rusting of steel in the bracings and columns. The
cleaning the structure by sand blasting. cover to reinforce the column and bracing was grossly inadequate.
The spalling of concrete happened due to carbon-induced corrosion.
The use of polymers in the execution of work requires precaution,
as will now be detailed. In most cases, the spalling of concrete occurred from the bottom
of bracings. Horizontal cracks were also observed at several
Presently, in India, there is no detailed codal provision for the places on a number of bracings. Exposed reinforcements were
utilisation of various construction chemicals/polymers, and badly rusted. At the zone of lapping of reinforcement, the
utilisation is restricted to a select few who are acquainted with the quantum of reinforcement was very high and there was
same. In the absence of a proper detailed codal provision, careful inadequate bonding between concrete and reinforcement at that
attention should be given to the instruction given by the zone. The spalling of concrete had occurred from the corner of
manufacturer of the polymers. A polymer should be employed column along with vertical cracks.
only after an appropriate evaluation of its effects, preferably by
using particular materials under the conditions of intended use. There was no sign of tilting or settlement of foundations.
Such an evaluation is particularly important in India, as However, some seepage from the bottom of the tank was
chemicals/polymers have mainly been developed in countries observed. The water container was otherwise found in sound

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 Forensic Engineering Deterioration of concrete structures
along with case studies in India
Bhattacharjee

condition, as there was no visible sign of distress on external or ■ type of structure is a double-storeyed load-bearing structure
internal surfaces except the top slab cover of the tank (from ■ type of foundation was spread footing.
inside), which has exposed rusted steel. The process of the rusting
of reinforcement and the deterioration of concrete was observed to 8.3.1 Visual observations
be progressing at a rapid speed, compared with the distresses Extensive cracking and spalling of concrete in sunshades, staircase,
noticed at the beginning of 1994, due to severe weather beams and so on were observed. At some places, the reinforcement
conditions in that area. Any further delay in repair might have was exposed and corroded heavily. Major cracking was observed on
caused the sudden collapse of the structure due to external forces plastering on all faces. Severe seepage was seen in most of the roof
such as heavy wind and earthquake. slab and external walls. The waist slab of staircase and soffit of
beams exhibited delamination of over 50%.
8.2.1 Remedial measures
The following remedial/rehabilitation measures were suggested. 8.3.2 In situ evaluation and non-destructive tests
8.3.2.1 DELAMINATION SURVEY
All unsound concrete should removed by electric cutter, pneumatic Every column and beam was tapped by three different types of
chipper and reinforcement should be exposed all round. Existing hammer. The most effective was the medium hammer, which gave
steel should be derusted properly by brushing, applying rust delaminations of 15–25 mm depth. The hollow sound was
removers and so on. Wherever existing reinforcement is reduced by recorded as hollow, and the results of each structural member
20% or more, additional reinforcement that is duly cleaned should were recorded on an observation sheet and that area was
be provided and welded on both sides. Epoxy-based bonding evaluated for remedial measures. The delamination tool system
material should be applied on the old concrete surface (including works by using sounding technology; it makes the process of
old steel surface), after removing rust from the surface of the detecting, making, measuring and documenting delaminated areas
concrete. The surface should be dried properly before applying easier and faster with great accuracy.
bond epoxy coat, as per manufacturers’ instructions. PMC or
polymer-modified mortar should be applied. The materials to be 8.3.2.2 REBOUND HAMMER TEST
used for mortar are cement, quartz sand, polymer and water in the The rebound numbers are measured on concrete surfaces. This is the
proportion of 100, 400, 15 and 30 parts by weight. For the surface hardness method, which consists of impacting the concrete
damaged portion of a member having depth more than 75 mm, surface in a standard manner. Activating a mass by a given energy
cement, quartz sand, aggregate (20 mm and down grade), polymer and measuring the indentation or rebound achieves this. The test
and water in the proportion of 100, 200, 400, 15 and 35 parts by procedure consists of applying the hammer on a concrete surface and
weight should be used. Plaster (20 mm thick) in cement mortar observing the rebound reading indicated by a rider over a scale. The
(1:4) should be applied to overcome the deficiency of rebound value was mostly in the range 25–30.
reinforcement cover.
8.3.2.3 ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST
The sequence of repair was very important to the entire repair The objective of this method is basically to measure the velocity
scheme, because of the critical condition of the staging. It of the pulses of longitudinal vibrations passing through concrete.
was suggested that, initially, all bracings should be repaired in Values of the pulse velocity in this particular case varied in the
appropriate groups; then, the columns should be repaired, in range from 2·0 to 2·5 km/s.
groups of a maximum of four at a time, after transferring the load
through strong steel prop to the bracings (below)/ground. Further, 8.3.2.4 HALF-CELL POTENTIAL TEST
it was recommended that a minimum 3-year performance The corrosion of reinforcing steel is an electrochemical process
guarantee clause be included in the tender for repair and the behaviour of the steel can be characterised by measuring
works. Although a number of companies were manufacturing its half-cell potential. The greater the potential, the higher the risk
construction materials/chemicals, the products of some reputed that corrosion is taking place. An electrode forms one-half of the
companies were suggested for use. cell and the reinforcing steel in the concrete the other. The first
survey procedure step is to locate the steel and determine the bar
Based on this report, the work was carried out successfully in spacing using a cover meter. The cover concrete is removed
the year 1998 and the tank is fully functional even after about locally over a suitable bar and an electrical connection made to
18 years since the repair work was carried out. the steel. It is necessary to check that the steel is electrically
continuous by measuring the resistance between two widely
8.3 Case study 3: a double-storeyed load-bearing separated points. The reinforcing bar is connected to the half-cell
residential building at Mumbai, India by way of a digital voltmeter. Readings of half-cell potential are
The salient features are taken over a regular grid of points (say, 1/2 m apart) to give a
potential map of the area. Contour lines may be plotted between
■ year of construction was 1965 points of equal potential to indicate those areas that have the
■ investigation done in 1998 greatest risk of corrosion. Locally exposing and inspecting the

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 Forensic Engineering Deterioration of concrete structures
along with case studies in India
Bhattacharjee

reinforcement in areas where both high and low risks of corrosion carry out the repair/rehabilitation work when a structure has
are indicated can be used to calibrate approximately the potential already undergone major structural damages/deterioration. As
readings for the structure with respect to its present corrosion and such, there is a requirement of periodic/timely assessment and
the need for further investigation or repair. The range of corrosion maintenance with the latest available techniques and materials as
potential measured was from −350 to −450 mV, where the described in this paper. This will go a long way to arrest the
probability of corrosion assessed was more than 90%. Electrical deterioration and extend the lease of life of the structure. As
potential values indicated that severe corrosion had taken place in time passes, many more concrete structures will come up for
some areas, as observed during the visual survey. major rehabilitation. The time has come to have a structural
auditing of all old concrete buildings/structures that were
8.3.2.5 CARBONATION TEST constructed during the 1960s and earlier. Depending on the
The carbonation test allows the measurement of depth of severity of the environmental effects, the restorative measures/
carbonation through the surface of concrete. During the test, the retrofitting, considering current codal provisions, needs to be
broken or cored surface is sprayed with phenolphthalein solution done. In developing countries such as India, money cannot afford
to detect the loss of alkalinity associated with carbonation. The to be spent on replacing the building, which is also against the
test result reveals that the carbonation has taken place beyond the implementation of green building concepts. As such, the selection
reinforcement levels. and evaluation of the right repair materials and protective
coatings will save enormous amounts money and time by
8.3.3 Findings reducing the frequent repair costs of already repaired concrete
The main causes of early distress causing crack and spalling of buildings/structures. Further, repair/rehabilitation works should
concrete and plaster are as follows be undertaken only after ascertaining properly the cause of
deterioration. It is imperative that the engineer understands the
■ excessive chloride content in concrete reasons that led to damage and/or deterioration prior to developing
■ high level of humidity in air combined with hot climate a repair programme. The underlying causes should be corrected,
almost throughout the year although it is a difficult process. The polymers/admixtures should
■ environment is highly acidic due to the presence of form a permanent part of original construction and repair/
atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) combined with other rehabilitation/retrofitting and maintenance of concrete structures in
polluting gases, causing the accelerated carbonation of coming years for long-term sustainable development.
concrete and corrosion of reinforcement
■ quality of cover concrete and inadequacy of its thickness is
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