Definition of conditional constructions

Trask sees the conditional clause as a kind of adverbial clause which expresses a condition
upon whose fulfillment the proposition expressed in the main clause depends, as in If we do
not water plants ,they will not grow.
Celce –Murcia and Larsen – Freeman define a conditional construction as a complex
sentence that consists of a main clause and a subordinate clause. The subordinate clause
initiates with the adverbial subordinators if, unless, etc. , as in If students study hard, they will
succeed in the examinations. Aarts cites that a conditional clause is a subordinate clause
which is dependent on the matrix (main) clause. If, which introduces a conditional clause, is
called a subordinating conjunction (a subordinator) as well as a complementizer. Miller views
the adverbial clause of condition as a clause which modifies the main clause. For instance, in
If Ann had left London, Kipps would have been sad, the adverbial clause of condition If Ann
had left London conveys the conditions under which a particular situation would have arisen.
The situation is Kipps being sad, and this situation did not really come about but would have
done; Ann’s leaving London would have brought it about. The fact is the relationship between
the two situations; Kipps’s being sad is conditional upon Ann’s leaving London. The clause of
condition modifies the main clause Kipps would have been sad. Valin (0229: 72) mentions
that two elements cooccur in a conditional construction: the dominant element is the matrix
(main) clause (i.e. the result clause) and the dependent (subordinate) clause (i.e. the condition
clause), as in If wishes were horses, beggars would ride. Radford points out that the
conditional clause is a kind of clause, which is typically introduced by if and unless ,and
which lays down conditions, as in Unless you work harder, you will fail.
Leech state that a conditional clause is a subordinate clause in a complex sentence. It is an
element in a„higher-up‟clause, such as If you grow, you will reap. Semantically classified, it
is a major type of adverbial clauses.
Teschner and Evans (0222:526,002) pinpoint that conditionality is a bi-clausal construction
in which the if- clause (protasis) expresses the condition that must exist before something else
can happen, while the result clause (apodosis) expresses the something else. For instance: We
can come at seven if it is necessary. The conclusion that can be drawn is that conditional
constructions are complex structures consisting of two clauses: the main clause involving the
result and the subordinate clause, introduced by if, unless,…, involving the condition. For
example: If you ask them, they may help you. 3. Classification of conditional constructions
3.1. Johnson and Thornley‟s classification (1950) Johnson and Thornley classify
conditional sentences into six kinds:
1. [If +Present Tense, + Present Tense]
This kind is the easiest and simplest conditional sentence. It makes a general statement. No
particular time is meant. The proposition is always true.If may be replaced by when. Both
verbs are in present tense. (1) If you heat ice, it turns into water. (=When you heat ice, it turns
into water.) (2) Water freezes if it snows. (=Water freezes when it snows.)
2. [If + Present Tense, +Future Tense] The supposition (the verb with if ) is likely or
probable. The time meant is future. The verb in the if-clause is in present tense, but the verb in
the main clause is in future tense (3) If it rains tomorrow, we shall stay at home. (4) Teachers
will be angry unless students study.
3. [If+ Past Tense, + Conditional] The supposition is impossible. The time meant is
present. The verb in the if-clause is in past tense, but the verb in the main clause is
conditional. (5) If I had wings, I should fly. (But I have no wings, and so I cannot fly).
(6) If wishes were horses, beggars would ride. (But wishes are not horses).
4. [If+ Past Tense,+ Conditional] The supposition is improbable or unlikely. The
time meant is future. The verb in the if-clause is in past tense, but the verb in the main clause
is conditional. (7) If it rained tomorrow, I should stay at home.
The speaker uses the past tense with tomorrow to show that he considers rain unlikely. Instead
of the past tense, were to and should may be used to show that the event is unlikely to happen.
rained (8) If it were to rain tomorrow, I should stay at home. should rain
5. [If+ Past Perfect Tense, + Perfect Conditional] The supposition is impossible.
Something is imagined that did not happen. The time meant is past. The verb in the if- clause
is in past perfect tense, but the verb in the main clause is perfect conditional. (9) If Jack had
studied, he would not have failed. (= Jack did not study and he failed.) (10) If Ann had had
time yesterday, she would have visited us. (= Ann did not have time yesterday and she did not
visit us.)
6. [If + Past Tense, + Past Tense] The supposition is possible. We do not know whether the
event happened or not. The time meant is past. Both verbs are in past tense. (11) The farmers
got poor crops if water was little. (12) If the writer was Shaw, the play was great.

Mention should be made of the fact that verbs of conditional sentences deal with different
times, and so different tenses are used according to the meaning.
3.2 Thomson and Martinet‟s classification (1986)
Thomson and Martinet (5:7695:2-025) classify conditional constructions into three
types:
1. Probable to happen: Likely to happen: [If + Present Tense, + Future Simple] This type
implies that the action in the if- clause is quite probable (likely) to happen. The meaning here
is present or future. (13) If I run well, I will (shall) win. (14) If you try, you will (may) (can)
pass. )15) If he meets us, he will help us.
2.Improbable to happen: Unlikely to happen: [If +Past Tense, + Conditional ] Types 1 and
2 are not different in time. Both of them refer to the present or future. In Type 2, the past tense
in the if– clause is not a true past but a subjunctive, which shows unreality (e.g. 56) or
improbability (e. g. 52) (16) If I had money, I would lend you. (But I do not have money. The
meaning here is present).

(17) If you tried to insult me, I would tell the police. (But I do not expect anyone to insult me.
The meaning here is future). (18) If he had a permit, he could (might) get a job. (The meaning
here is expressing ability or permission).
3. Impossible to happen: [If+ Past Perfect Tense, + Perfect Conditional] Type 3 refers to
past time and the condition cannot be fulfilled because the action in the if-clause did not
happen. The action is impossible to take place. (19) If I had known you, I would have helped
you. (But I did not know you, so I did not help you). (20)If our passports had been with us, we
could (might) have left. (Ability or Permission).
3.3 Celce – Murcia and Larsen – Freeman‟s classification (1999) Celce – Murcia and Larsen
– Freeman (5:::9191-16:) classify conditional constructions into five kinds:
1. Future (Real) (Possible) Conditional: The action is likely (possible) to happen in the
future. (21) If he has money, he will buy a car.
2. Present (Unreal) Conditional: The past tense is used in type 0,but it refers to the present
time and not to the past time. The action is unlikely to happen.
(22) If he had money, he would buy a car.
3. Past (Hypothetical) Conditional: The time meant is past. The action is impossible to
happen. (23)If he had had money, he would have bought a car.
4. Present Simple Tense Conditional: This is the most frequent conditional sentence type in
English. It expresses general facts which are always true. No special time is meant. (24) If you
boil water, it vaporizes.
 5. Double „would‟ Conditional: The if – clause sometimes contains a would, and this
results in a double ‘would’ construction. This usage, which many prescriptive manuals
rule out as unacceptable in formal English, is found in informal North American
English. (25) If Ann would have time, she would go to France. Mention should be made
of the fact that Real Conditionals are the easiest to produce, but the most difficult to
comprehend; while Unreal Conditionals are the easiest to comprehend, but the most
difficult to produce.

3.4 Huddleston and Pullum‟s, and Matthews‟s classifications (2005/2007)

Huddleston and Pullum (0221992), and Matthews recognize three types of conditional
constructions:
1. Open Conditionals: The open type characteristically leaves it open (unknown) as to
whether the condition is or will be fulfilled. The examples (06 and 02) mean: she may love
him or she may not; you may leave or you may not. (26) If she loves him, she will marry him.
(27) If you leave now, you will arrive in time
2. Remote Conditionals: The remote type, by contrast, generally presents the fulfillment of
the condition as a more remote possibility. The examples (07 and 0:) mean :she dose not love
him and so she will not marry him; you do not leave now and so you will not arrive in time.
(28) If she loved him, she would marry him. (29) If you left now, you would arrive in time.
3. Exhaustive Conditionals: The exhaustive type uses interrogative clauses to express a set
of conditions that exhaustively cover the possibilities. That is, this type covers every
possibility (30) She will complain whether we meet on Sunday or Monday. (= … if we meet
on Sunday or Monday.)

(31) She will complain whatever you offer her (=… if you offer her anything.). It is worth
citing that the traditional types (52023) account for the most occurrences of if –forms. Really,
there is a link between the students’ purposes and needs to learn particular conditional forms.
For example, the traditional type If + Past Simple, would… occurs quite often in narratives.
4. Form of conditionals
4.1 Syntactic analysis of conditional constructions Celce – Murcia and Larsen – Freeman
(5:::9191-16:) state that conditional sentences are complex constructions consisting of two
clauses: a main clause and a subordinate clause. For example: (32) I will help you if I see
you. (33) If I see you, I will help you. In both (30) and (33), I will help you is the main clause,
and If I see you is the subordinate clause. Quirk and Greenbaum (5:239309-301) mention that
conditional sentences express the dependence of one clause (the result clause) on another (the
condition clause or the if- clause). Moreover, two clause orderings are possible, as in (30) and
(33). In either order, the if – clause sets up the condition, and the main clause provides the
result or the outcome. Therefore, the if- clause is regarded as an adverbial clause of condition.
Besides, as stated by Quirk et al. (5:71952:2) and Radford (0229a:9720229b:16), If and
Unless either introduce finite clauses, as in If I see you, I will greet you, or introduce nonfinite
clauses or verbless clauses, as in If watered, the trees will grow and The food has little taste,
unless hot. However, conditional clauses in final position can be analyzed as follows: Rose
will succeed if she

Semantics of conditionals Celce – Murcia and Larsen –Freeman (5:::: 191- 16:) point out that
English conditional sentences express three different types of semantic relationships:
1.Factual conditional relationships.
2.Future (Predictive ) conditional relationships.
3.Imaginative (Subjunctive ) conditional relationships. Figure (9) shows the semantic
hierarchy of conditional sentence types and subtypes:

Factual conditional sentences Celce- Murcia and Larsen –Freeman (5:::9191-16:)

recognize four subtypes of factual conditionals which occur frequently in everyday
English:

5.1.1 Generic factual conditionals

Generic factual conditionals deal with general facts or physical laws. They have
unchanging truth value. They express relationships that are unchanging and true. They are
frequently used in scientific writing because the sciences are concerned with such
relationships. If the condition is satisfied, the result is automatic. Generic factuals usually take
the simple present tense in both clauses. They are timeless since they are not bound in time.
(39) If oil is mixed with water, it floats.

5.1.2 Habitual factual conditionals Habitual factual conditionals deal with habits. They
express relationships that are based on habits instead of physical laws. They express present
or past relationships that are habitually true. They are frequently used in conversations.
Habitual factuals usually have the same tense in both clauses: simple present in both clauses if
the habitual relationship refers to extended present time; simple past in both clauses if the
sentence refers to a past habit. They are timeless since they are not bound in time. (41) If I
wash the clothes, she dries them. (Present) (42)IF Jack said, “Sing!” Jane sang. (Past)
However, it is possible for both generic factuals and habitual factuals to substitute when or
whenever for if and still express more or less the same idea. (43)When (ever ) oil is mixed
with water, it floats. (44)When (ever) I wash the clothes, she dries them.

5.1.3 Implicit inference factual conditionals Implicit inference factual conditionals express
inferences about specific time – bound relationships. They make use of a wide range of tense
and aspect markers. They also occur with certain modal auxiliaries. They tend to maintain the
same tense and aspect or the same modal in both clauses. They are frequently used in
conversations. (45)If it is freezing outside, my flowers are dying. (46)If it is Friday, it is
Ann‟s birthday.

However, when or whenever cannot substitute for if without changing in meaning and of
making the sentence ungrammatical or nonsensical. (47)? When (ever) it is Friday, it is
Ann‟s birthday.

5.1.4 Explicit inference factual conditionals Explicit inference factual conditionals

represent the only case where there is no strict parallelism of tense, aspect, or modal in both
clauses. This is because the conditional (the if- clause) is used as the basis for making an
explicit inference; the result clause thus contains an inferential modal, like must or should.
(48)If one is in the garden, it must be Helen. (49)If anyone has the solution, it should be Ann.

Both explicit and implicit inference factual conditionals refer to more specific time – bound
events or states in the ifclause. Also both involve making inferences despite the fact that only
the explicit inference factual conditionals overtly mark the inferential process with a modal.
Moreover, explicit inference factual conditionals are more limited in range because they
cannot occur with the same tense and modal combinations that implicit inference factual
conditionals do. Both explicit and implicit inference factual conditionals can refer to present
and past time. The past inference with must and should is expressed by adding have. ..- en
after the modal. (50) If Eva was there, she saw Jill. (Past implicit inference ) (51) If Eva was
there, she must have seen Jill. (Past explicit inference)

Thus, the factual conditionals deal with inferences that are based on the speaker’s prior
knowledge. The use of must and should in the result clauses reinforces their inferential nature.

5.2 Future (Predictive ) conditional sentences Celce – Murcia and Larsen – Freeman
(5:::9191-16:) cite two subtypes of future conditionals: 5.2.1 Strong condition and result
These conditionals express future plans or contingencies. Normally, the conditional is simple
present tense in the if – clause, and some explicit indication of future time (e.g. will or be
going to ) in the result clause. (52)If it rains, I will stay indoors. (53)If you read, I am going
to give you books.

5.2.2 Degrees of weakened condition or result The way to weaken the condition
expressed in the if- clause of future conditional sentences is by using the modal should or the
verb happen or both of them together. (54) a. If it should rain, I will stay indoors. b. If it
happens to rain, I will stay indoors. c. If it should happen to rain, I will stay indoors. The way
to weaken the future outcome expressed in the result clause of future conditional sentences is
by using weaker modals (e.g. may, might, should ) instead of will and be going to. (55)If it
rains, I may stay indoors. (56)If you read, I might give you books.

5.3 Imaginative (Subjunctive ) conditional sentences Celce – Murcia and Larsen – Freeman
(5:::: 191-16:) mention two subtypes of imaginative conditionals:

1.3.5 Hypothetical imaginative conditional sentences Hypotheticals express what the speaker
perceives to be unlikely yet possible events or states in the if- clause. (57)If Jack had money,
he would go abroad. (Present hypothetical) In (57), the if – clause is not strongly negated.
There is an outside chance that Jack has (or will have) money. In hypotheticals, the negative
quality of the if - clause can be even further weakened so that possibility of the result
occurring becomes stronger. (58) a. If Jack should have money, he would go abroad. b. If
Jack happened to have money, he would go abroad. c. If Jack should happen to have money,
he would go abroad. Hypotheticals can refer to the present as well as the future (they are
open to change in the present or future): (59)If Jack had money, he would go abroad.
(Present) (60)If Jack were to have money, he would go abroad. (Future) Sometimes the
difference between using a future conditional and a hypothetical conditional is a matter of the
speaker’s choice. (61)If it rains, I will stay indoors. (Future) (62)If it { were to /should }
rain, I would stay indoors. (Hypothetical) The choice reflects the degree of confidence in
the speaker’s mind regarding the fulfillment of the condition. Thefuture conditional expresses
a greater degree of confidence than the hypothetical condition.

5.3.2 Counterfactual imaginative conditional sentences

Counterfactuals (contrary to fact or false) express impossible events or states in the if –
clause. (63) If Shaw were alive today, he would see a different world. (Present counterfactual)
In (63 ), the if – clause is strongly negated (i.e., Shaw is not alive today, nor will he be alive in
the future ). In counterfactuals, the negative quality of the if- clause cannot be weakened
since the if – clause is strongly negated and the condition remains impossible. (64) ? If
Shaw alive today, he would see a different world.

Counterfactuals, however, refer to impossibilities with reference to the present or the

past. (65)If Shaw were alive today, he would see a different world. (Present ) (66)If Shaw
had still been alive in 2000, he would have been 120 years old. (Past). Moreover, three
problems with imaginative conditional sentences arise:

Should

1.The tense used: the past tense refers to the present time, and the past perfect tense to the past
time, as in (65) and (66) respectively. 2.The use of were with singular first and third
person subjects where was is the expected form. (67) If I were rich, I would help you. (68)
If Oliver were here, he would be happy. 3. The occasional use of subjunctive be in present
imaginative conditional. (69) If it be inappropriate to have said this, I apologize.

However, the verb forms added to the semantic taxonomy of conditional sentences can be
represented in Figure (5): SCHEMA

5.4. Some other semantic distinctions

5.4.1. Conditionals and related connectors Celce – Murcia and Larsen – Freeman (5:::9191-
16:) mention some other conditional adverbial connectors (subordinators) in addition to if:
1.Only if and Unless: Both only if and unless mark exclusive conditions, that no other
conditions will lead to the stated result. If and if... not express weaker or more neutral
conditions in that they do not exclude the possibility that other conditions may also lead to the
same result. (70)I will stay indoors if it snows. (71 ) I will stay indoors only if it snows. (72 )
Do not travel if you do not have money. (73 ) Do not travel unless you have money.
However, the following semantic relationships may be expressed by conditional adverbial
subordinators in Table (1):

Moreover, it is misleading to equate unless with if...not since such a substitution sometimes
causes ungrammaticality or a change of meaning. For instance : (74 ) a. If it hadn‟t
been for Jack‟s daring rescue, we wouldn‟t be here. b.*Unless it had been for Jack
‟s daring rescue, we wouldn‟t be here. (75 ) a. If I cannot go, I will phone you.
(= I think I can go, so I will not phone you ). b. Unless I can go, I will phone you.
(= I do not think I can go, so I will not phone you).

2. Even if: Even if is an emphatic counterpart to if. Even if can function emphatically
in explicit inference conditionals as in(76), as well as in hypothetical conditionals, as in (77 ).
(76 ) You should buy a car even if it is expensive. (77) I would not marry you even if you
were the last girl on earth.
 3. Whether. ..or not: Whether. .. or not is another adverbial subordinator which shows that
the condition can be explicitly removed from playing any role in deciding the outcome
expressed in the result clause. Thus, such cases may be referred to as „ irrelevant conditions
‟.

( 78 ) I will stay indoors whether or not it snows. With short conditionals, or not can also be
separated from whether. (79 ) I will stay indoors whether it snows or not. With long
conditionals, such a separation becomes less preferred. (80 ) ? I will be present whether Jack
gives the students a lecture on plants or not.

5.4.2. Conditionals and related verbs Celce – Murcia and Larsen – Freeman (5:::: 191 – 16:)
cite some verbs which are related to conditionals: 1. Hope: The verb hope is similar to
future conditionals in that the same clauses that follow hope can also function either as the if –
clause or the result clause of a future conditional. ( 81 ) I hope (that) . .
(82 ) If Ann studies hard, she will succeed. Both of these examples imply that it is
possible that Ann will study hard and that she will succeed.

2. Wish: The verb wish is similar to counterfactual conditionals in that the same clauses that
follow wish can also function either as the if – clause or the result clause of a counterfactual
conditional

(84 ) If Ann had studied hard, she could have succeeded. Both of these examples
imply that Ann did not study hard and she did not succeed. The verb wish can also be
followed by the subjunctive forms that can occur in imaginative if – clauses. (85 ) I wish I
were a doctor. (86 ) If I were a doctor, I would cure you.

3. Would that: The expression would that is used in exclamatory imaginative

conditionals to express wishes. (87) Would that I had a car ! ( = I wish I had car ! )

4.Verbs of imagination: The verbs of imagination (e.g. imagine, pretend,

suppose ) can be included in imaginative conditionals. (88 ) Let‟s imagine that we had a car.
( Present counterfactual ) (89 ) Suppose we went to London next year. How much would it
cost ? ( Future hypothetical ) 6. Functions of conditional
constructions 6.1 Functions of sentence – initial if – clauses

What is Mind Mapping? (and How to Get Started Immediately)

Amind map is a graphical way to represent ideas and concepts. It is a
visual thinking tool that helps structuring information, helping you to
better analyze, comprehend, synthesize, recall and generate new ideas.
Just as in every great idea, its power lies in its simplicity.
In a mind map, as opposed to traditional note taking or a linear text,
information is structured in a way that resembles much more closely how
your brain actually works. Since it is an activity that is both analytical and
artistic, it engages your brain in a much, much richer way, helping in all
its cognitive functions. And, best of all, it is fun!

So, how does a mind map look like? Better than explaining is showing you
an example.

(click for larger image)

This is a mind map about – conveniently enough – mind mapping itself. It
presents, in a visual way, the core elements and techniques on how to
draw mind maps. Yes, I know this may look a little too messy initially, but
bear with me: once you break the ingrained habit of linear note taking,
you won’t look back.

Benefits and Uses

I think I already gave away the benefits of mind mapping and why mind
maps work. Basically, mind mapping avoids dull, linear thinking, jogging
your creativity and making note taking fun again.

But what can we use mind maps for?

 Note taking
 Brainstorming (individually or in groups)
 Problem solving
 Studying and memorization
 Planning
 Researching and consolidating information from multiple sources
 Presenting information
 Gaining insight on complex subjects
 Jogging your creativity

It is hard to make justice to the number of uses mind maps can have –
the truth is that they can help clarify your thinking in pretty much
anything, in many different contexts: personal, family, educational or
business. Planning you day or planning your life, summarizing a book,
launching a project, planning and creating presentations, writing blog
posts -well, you get the idea – anything, really.

How to Draw a Mind Map

Drawing a mind map is as simple as 1-2-3:

 Start in the middle of a blank page, writing or drawing the idea you intend
to develop. I would suggest that you use the page in landscape
orientation.
 Develop the related subtopics around this central topic, connecting each of
them to the center with a line.
 Repeat the same process for the subtopics, generating lower-level
subtopics as you see fit, connecting each of those to the corresponding
subtopic.

Some more recommendations:

 Use colors, drawings and symbols copiously. Be as visual as you can, and your
brain will thank you. I’ve met many people who don’t even try, with the
excuse they’re "not artists". Don’t let that keep you from trying it out!.
 Keep the topics labels as short as possible, keeping them to a single word – or,
better yet, to only a picture. Especially in your first mind maps, the
temptation to write a complete phrase is enormous, but always look for
opportunities to shorten it to a single word or figure – your mind map will
be much more effective that way.
 Vary text size, color and alignment. Vary the thickness and length of the lines.
Provide as many visual cues as you can to emphasize important points.
Every little bit helps engaging your brain.

Final Thoughts
Mind mapping is an absolutely fascinating and rich topic – this post only
scratches the surface. If you want more reference material
now, Wikipedia is always a good starting point.
Mind mapping is a passion for me, and it is one of the strongest drivers
behind this blog. I plan to explore it in much more depth – publishing
mind maps, providing tips, talking about computer mind mapping, and
much more. Just make sure to keep visiting

In the meantime, please give mind mapping a chance – try it out. Follow
these handy tips and see the results for yourself. Don’t worry too much
about doing it the "right" way – just make it fun.
What does “student-centered learning” actually mean?
Student-centered learning is based on the constructivist theories of education championed by
Swiss clinical psychologist Jean Piaget. Piaget observed that children
cognitively construct knowledge and meaning through new experiences and interactions, as
opposed to rote memorization. (Did this really come as a surprise to anyone?)
This approach to education is often juxtaposed to the old way of teaching. That is, the teacher
imparting all knowledge without regard to, or input from, the student. (Cue flashbacks of Ben
Stein in Ferris Bueller’s Day Off: “Bueller… Bueller”)
There are several different ways that an educator can attempt a more student-centered
approach. Here are a couple of strategies that are commonly confused with student-centered
learning:
 Personalized learning is a student specialized approach where the student’s interests and
culture are taken into consideration and incorporated into their education. While this may
certainly engage the student in the learning process, it is just one component of a fully
student-centered approach.
 Project based learning is yet another engaging strategy that is sometimes equated with
student-centered learning. While this encourages students to develop an array of skills that
can be applied anytime/ anywhere, this is not a completely student-centered approach.
Though, any student-centered program will certainly incorporate the generalization of skills
that project based learning promotes.
Although they are a step in the right direction, both of these approaches may still be firmly
rooted in a teacher-centered model if they grant full oversight of the learning process to the
educator, undermining the student’s ability to identify:
1. What they want to learn
2. How they are going to learn it
3. How to track their progress
4. What determines success
This type of learning is student directed and owned, meaning the student has a stake in their
education alongside parents and educators. True student-centered learning must also be
determined by success criteria. The instructor and student need to clearly articulate the criteria
of success when given an assignment. This ensures that students can identify, understand, and
track the quality of their work with the support of their educational community. This process
of formative assessment allows the student to essentially ‘grade’ themselves and discover
exactly what to do to improve their work. .

The most ideal education incorporates the learning needs and interests of the student, while
simultaneously enabling the student to track, guide, and have a stake in the process of their
education.

How can a child’s interests be incorporated into their education?

There are a myriad of ways that interests can be incorporated. That interest in their favorite
video game or cartoon can easily be incorporated into a points sheet, reward system, or other
instructional materials. Have a student with a taste for all things Minecraft? You can make
Minecraft themed flashcards to review common reading and spelling rules. This helps students
buy into their learning process.
Fascinations and interests easily lend themselves to fun projects and reward systems, just as
they lend themselves to the development of literacy via an ever-present thirst for knowledge.
Educational and research tasks can be centered around topics that a child already holds a high
amount of interest in. This is the sort of student specific attention that I have applied in my
experience with students for a number of years.
What does it mean for a student to have a stake in their education?
It has become resoundingly clear to me that students have the ability to identify their academic
strengths, as well as their weaknesses. When students come to their instructors, many of them
know what it is that they want to learn, or what it is that they may struggle with in school.
Education should be centered around the process of discovering strategies that are going to
help them succeed academically and beyond.
Students can and should track their own learning goals. When they can see that success is
within reach, they become more self-motivated. Creating and tracking their own goals provides
the student access to a stake in the outcomes of their education.
The problem is that not all educational programs may be offering students this opportunity. If
that is what you are looking for, it’s important to know what to expect.
Why is student-centered learning important?
Aside from a growing body of research that praises the benefits of putting students at the
center of their learning process, we invite you to consider what a paradigm shift this is for a
child.
Imagine that you are, say, a third grader who encounters a teacher who wants to sit down one-
to-one with you and learn more about you as a person. What if that same teacher who
discovered your love of comic books incorporates images of your favorite characters into your
learning materials the next day; how would you feel? Now, imagine that your teacher designed
a personalized goal tracker, and asks you for input on your learning goals. What would it be
like to be able to track and see your own progress visually, without relying primarily on input
from your teacher? After some time, your teacher meets with you to review your strategies and
success, while also encouraging you to brainstorm new ways to improve. This style of
instruction gradually develops independent thinkers, endowed with the tools necessary for
lifelong learning.

Defining lesson aims is the first step to prepare an effective lesson. When you set a clear aim,
it is easier to make decisions about materials, procedures and the stages that should be present
in the lesson. Setting aims and assessing whether you were able to achieve them or not is also
a useful tool for professional development.

n the video, we talk about SMART aims. SMART aims are Specific, Measurable, Attainable,
Realistic and Time-bound. Here are some examples of SMART Lesson Aims:

Linguistic aims:

Linguistic aims focus on the systems of the language: grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation
and discourse. If you set a linguistic aim, remember to also state the context in which
language is going to be used. Here are some examples:
 By the end of the lesson, students will be better able to understand and use the present
perfect in the context of past experiences
 This lesson aims at helping learners to understand and use comparisons to compare and
contrast the cities they live in
 By the end of this lesson, students will be better able to use vocabulary to express likes and
dislikes
 This lesson aims at helping students use contrastive sentence stress to give opinions on
controversial topics

Skills aims:

Skills aims focus on the systems of language: reading, writing, listening and speaking. Here
are some examples:
 This lesson aims at helping students develop their reading skills for gist and specific
information in the context of sports
 By the end of this lesson, students will have developed their speaking skills by talking about
their last holiday
 This lesson aims at helping learners become better able to write the introductory paragraph
of an essay on the topic of higher education in Brazil

Communicative aims:

Communicative aims usually help students develop their communicative competence to be

better able to use language in real-life situations:
 By the end of this lesson, students will be better able to talk about their daily routine
 This lesson aims at helping learners become better able to ask for directions when travelling
abroad
 This lesson will help learners to talk about their future plans
 In this lesson, students will become better able to write a post and give their opinion on
social media