UNIT-I

POWER-TRAIN FUNDAMENTALS
PART- A

1) Classify and write short note on Air intake process.

Air intake processes are classified into four types. They are:
(a)Naturally Aspirated: No intake air pressure boost system.
(b)Supercharged: Intake air pressure increased with the compressor driven off of the engine
crankshaft.
(c)Turbocharged: Intake air pressure increased with the turbine-compressor driven by the
engine exhaust gases.
(d)Crankcase Compressed: Two-stroke cycle engine uses the crank case as the intake air
compressor. Limited development work has also been done on design and construction of
four-stroke cycle engines with crank case compression.
2) List out the advantages of Electronic injection.
(i) Reduces fuel consumption and gives better mileage.
(ii) Reduces exhaust emission.
(iii) Improves engine power.
(iv) Prevents over heating of engine during braking and idling condition of the engine.

3)Differentiate between Two stroke and four stroke cycle engines.

Two stroke cycle engines Four stroke cycle engines

Lighter weight Heavier weight

Operates in many positions Operations in limited positions

Higher power to weight ratio Lower power to weight ratio

Engine oil usually mixed with fuel Engine oil in a reservoir

Louder operation Quiter operation

Higher engine speed Slower engine speed

More vibrations Smoother operations

 Rough idling operation Smooth idling operation

4) Draw the P-V & T-S Diagrams of Diesel cycle and name the processes take place.

5) The retarding of spark timing in a SI engine will reduce detonation. Justify the
statement.
By retarding the spark from optimized timing ie., having the spark closer to the TDC, the
peak pressure are reached further down on the power stroke. This might reduce knocking,
though this affect adversely the brake torque and power output of the engine.
For the same reason the spark should be retarded with low octane fuels.

6) Define Scavenging.
In an IC engine, scavenging is the process of replacing the exhaust gas in a cylinder with the
fresh air/fuel mixture (or fresh air, in the case of direct-injection engines) for the next cycle.
If scavenging is incomplete, the remaining exhaust gases can cause improper combustion for
the next cycle, leading to reduced power output.

7) What is a heat engine?

The engine which converts chemical energy of fuels into thermal energy and utilizes this
thermal energy to perform useful works is called as Heat Engines. i.e., IC engines, EC
engines, etc.,

8) How engines are classified?

Classification of Engines:
According to combustion place Engines are mainly classified into
1. Internal Combustion Engines and
2. External Combustion Engines.
According to the Ignition System engines are classified into
1. Spark Ignition Engines and
2. Compression Ignition Engines.
According to mechanism linkages Engines are classified into
1. Rotary type engines and
2. Reciprocating type engines
According to no. of strokes Engines are classified into
1. Two stroke Engines and
2. Four stroke Engines
According to fuels used Engines are classified into
1.Petrol engines,
2. Diesel Engines,
3. Gas Engines,
4. Bio-Fuel Engines,
5. Dual Fuel Engines
According to Thermodynamic Cycles of operations Engines are classified into
1. Otto Cycle Engines,
2. Diesel cycle Engines and
3. Dual cycle Engines
9) Draw any three types of engines according engine arrangement.

10) Write a short note on piston rings.

These are made of cast iron on account of their ability to retain bearing qualities and
elasticity indefinitely. The primary function of the piston rings is to retain compression and at
the same time reduce the cylinder wall and piston wall contact area to a minimum, thus
reducing friction losses and excessive wear.
 The other important functions of piston rings are the control of the lubricating oil,
cylinder lubrication, and transmission of heat away from the piston and from the cylinder walls.
Piston rings are classed as compression rings and oil rings depending on their function and
location on the piston.
Compression rings are usually plain one-piece rings and are always placed in the
grooves nearest the piston head. Oil rings are grooved or slotted and are located either in the
lowest groove above the piston pin or in a groove near the piston skirt. Their function is to
control the distribution of the lubricating oil to the cylinder and piston surface in order to
prevent unnecessary or excessive oil consumption ion.
11) Write a note on connecting rod.
This is the connection between the piston and crankshaft. The end connecting the piston is
known as small end and the other end is known as big end. The big end has two halves of a
bearing bolted together. The connecting rod is made of drop forged steel and the section is of
the I-beam type.
12) Write a short note on crank shaft.
A) This is connected to the piston through the connecting rod and converts the linear
motion of the piston into the rotational motion of the flywheel. The journals of the crankshaft
are supported on main bearings, housed in the crankcase. Counter-weights and the flywheel
bolted to the crankshaft help in the smooth running of the engine.
13) What is the function of a flywheel?
A) This is usually made of cast iron and its primary function is to maintain uniform
engine speed by carrying the crankshaft through the intervals when it is not receiving power
from a piston. The size of the flywheel varies with the number of cylinders and the type and
size of the engine. It also helps in balancing rotating masses.
14) What are the tools required to dismantle and assemble the given multi cylinder diesel
engine?
1. Double end spanners set
2. Ring spanners set
3. Tubular spanners
4. Box bit spanners set
5. Socket wrenches, torque wrenches
6. Nose plier
7. Circlip Plier
8. Ball peen hammer, pullers
9. Ratchet spanner
15) What are the main components of an engine?
Cylinder Block , Cylinder Head, Cylinder Liners, Oil Pan, Piston Rings & Wrist
Pin,Connecting Rod ,Crankshaft, Camshaft, Bearings (Main and Connecting rod), Caps
(main and Connecting Rod), Valves, Valve operating components (tappet, pushrod, rocker arm
and rocker shaft etc.), Flywheel Timing gear, Inlet and exhaust manifold, Air filter Gaskets.
16) What is the material used to build a cylinder block and why?
Normally a cylinder block is made of CAST IRON.
Due to the following reasons cast iron is used in a cylinder block
Strong and rigid
Wear resistance
Corrosion resistance
Self-lubricating
17) List out the parts of a piston.

18) What are the properties of a piston material?

Good Thermal Conductivity
High Strength-to-mass Ratio
Low Thermal Expansion
High Hot Strength
Good Resistance to Surface Abrasion and
Good Castability

19) Write the importance of pushrod.

Transmits the reciprocating movement of the valve lifter to the rocker.
The pushrod is a long, slender metal shaft or rod.
Placed between the valve lifter and the rocker on overhead valve engines.
One end is rounded to fit into a recess of equal design in the valve lifter.
The other end contains a round socket in which the ball-end of the adjusting screw on the
rocker fits.
20) What is the function of a rocker arm?
The function of the rocker is to transmit the reciprocating movement of the pushrod to the
engine valve.
21) What is the function of a valve spring?
Valve springs are used to ensure that valves are drawn tightly into their valve seats, to ensure
a gas-tight seal.
22) What are the effects of air motion in a CI engine?
The air motion inside the cylinder
1. Atomizes the injected fuel into droplets of different sizes.
2. Distributes the fuel droplets uniformly in the air charge.
3. Mixes injected fuel droplets with the air mass.
4. Peels off the combustion products from the surface of the burning drops as they
are being consumed.
 5. Supplies fresh air to the interior portion of the fuel drops and thereby ensures
complete combustion.
6. Reduces delay period.
7. Assists combustion of fuel droplets.
8. Reduces after burning of the fuel.
9. Better utilization of air contained in the cylinder.
23) Define Firing order in multi cylinder engine?
The firing order is the sequence of power delivery of each cylinder in a multi-cylinder
reciprocating engine. This is achieved by sparking of the spark plugs in a gasoline
engine in the correct order Or by the sequence of fuel injection in a diesel engine.

24) Draw the valve timing diagram of 4 –S Spark ignition engine?

25) Draw the valve timing diagram of 4 –S Compression ignition engine?

26) Draw the port timing diagram of 2-S Spark ignition engine?
27) Draw the port timing diagram of 2-S Compression ignition engine?

28) Name any four combustion products in exhaust gas?

a. CO
b. CO2
c. Unburnt hydrocarbons
d. NOx
e. Particulate matters
f. SOx
29) Name the components of transmission system?
a. Engine
b. Clutch
c. Gear box
d. Universal joint
e. Propeller shaft
f. Differential
30) Name any four pollution causing products present in exhaust gas?
a. CO
b. NOx
c. SOx
d. Unburnt hydrocarbon
31) What is the difference between BS IV and BS VI grade fuels?
BS6 grade petrol and diesel are limited to just 10 mg/kg of sulphur, compared to the 50
mg/kg content in BS4 fuels. Lower the sulphur content in the fuel, the cleaner it burns. Petrol
with lower sulphur emits less NOx, CO and HC, while the advantage of low sulphur diesel is
significantly lower PM emissions.
32) What do you understand by firing order of an ic engine
The firing order of an internal combustion engine is the sequence of ignition for the
cylinders. In a spark ignition (e.g. gasoline/petrol) engine, the firing order corresponds to
the order in which the spark plugs are operated.

33) What is the basic function of transmission system motor vehicles?

The most common use is in motor vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of
the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels.

PART-B&C

1) Explain with neat diagram the working of a four stroke petrol fuelled engine.

A) The four stroke-cycles refers to its use in petrol engines, gas engines, light, oil engine and
heavy oil engines in which the mixture of air fuel are drawn in the engine cylinder. Since
ignition in these engines is due to a spark, therefore they are also called spark ignition
engines. In four stroke cycle engine, cycle is completed in two revolutions of crank shaft or
four strokes of the piston. Each stroke consists of 1800 of crankshaft rotation. Therefore, the
cycle consists of 7200 of crankshaft rotation. Cycle consists of following four strokes 1)
Suction Stroke 2) Compression Stroke 3) Expansion or Power Stroke 4) Exhaust Stroke

SUCTION STROKE: In this Stroke the inlet valve opens and proportionate fuel-air
mixture is sucked in the engine cylinder. Thus the piston moves from top dead centre
(T.D.C.) to bottom dead centre (B.D.C.). The exhaust valve remains closed through out the
stroke.

COMPRESSION STROKE: In this stroke both the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed.
The piston moves towards (T.D.C.) and compresses the fuel-air mixture drawn in the suction
stroke. Just before the end of this stroke the operating plug initiates a spark which ignites the
mixture and combustion takes place at constant pressure.
POWER STROKE OR EXPANSION STROKE: In this stroke both the valves remain
closed during the start of this stroke but when the piston just reaches the B.D.C .the exhaust
valve opens. When the mixture is ignited by the spark plug the hot gases are produced which
drive or throw the piston from T.D.C. to B.D.C. and thus the work is obtained in this stroke.
EXHAUST STROKE: This is the last stroke of the cycle. Here the un-burnt gases after
completion of the expansion stroke are made to escape through exhaust valve to the
atmosphere. This removal of gas is accomplished during this stroke. The piston moves from
B.D.C. to T.D.C. and the exhaust gases are driven out of the engine cylinder; this is also
called scavenging.

2) Explain with neat diagram the working of a four stroke CI engine.

A) The power generation process in four stroke diesel engine is also divided into four parts.
Each part is known as piston stroke. In IC engine, stroke is referred to the maximum distance
travel by the piston in a single direction. The piston is free to move only in upward and
downward direction. In four stroke engine the piston move two times up and down and the
crankshaft move two complete revolutions to complete four piston cycles. These are suction
stroke, compression stroke, expansion stroke and exhaust stroke.
Suction stroke:
In the suction stroke or intake stroke of diesel engine the piston start moves from top end of
the cylinder to bottom end of the cylinder and simultaneously inlet valve opens. At this time
air at atmospheric pressure drawn inside the cylinder through the inlet valve by a pump. The
inlet valve remains open until the piston reaches the lower end of cylinder. After this inlet
valve closes and seal the upper end of the cylinder.
Compression stroke:
After the piston passes bottom end of the cylinder, it starts moving up. Both valves are closed
and the cylinder is sealed at that time. The piston moves upward. This movement of piston
compresses the air into a small space between the top of the piston and cylinder head. The air
is compressed into 1/22 or less of its original volume. Due to this compression a high
pressure and temperature generate inside the cylinder. Both the inlet and exhaust valves do
not open during any part of this stroke. At the end of compression stroke the piston is at top
end of the cylinder.

Power stroke:
At the end of the compression stroke when the piston is at top end of the cylinder a metered
quantity of diesel is injected into the cylinder by the injector. The heat of compressed air
ignites the diesel fuel and generates high pressure which pushes down the piston. The
connection rod carries this force to the crankshaft which turns to move the vehicle. At the
end of power stroke the piston reach the bottom end of cylinder.
Exhaust stroke:
When the piston reaches the bottom end of cylinder after the power stroke, the exhaust valve
opens. At this time the burn gases inside the cylinder so the cylinder pressure is slightly high
from atmospheric pressure. This pressure difference allows burn gases to escape through the
exhaust port and the piston move through the top end of the cylinder. At the end of exhaust
all burn gases escape and exhaust valve closed. Now again intake valve open and this process
running until your vehicle starts.
3) Explain the working of two stroke SI engine.
A) A two stroke cycle engine is a type of IC engine which completes a power cycle with two
strokes of the piston during only one crankshaft revolution.
Two-stroke cycle engine employs for small powers required in auto cycles, scooters,
motorcycles. In two-stroke engines, there is no suction and exhaust strokes. There are only
two remaining strokes the compression stroke and power stroke. These are usually called the
upward stroke and downward stroke. Also, instead of valves, there are inlet and exhaust
ports in two stroke cycle engines.

Fresh charge enters the cylinder at the end of the working stroke through the inlet port. And
then burnt exhaust gases are forced out through the exhaust port by a fresh charge.

The principle of two stroke cycle spark ignition engine is shown in the figure. Its two strokes
are as follows:

1. Upward Stroke
2. Downward Stroke

Upward Stroke:

During upward stroke, the piston moves upward from the bottom dead centre to top dead
centre. By compressing the charge air petrol mixture in the combustion chamber of the
cylinder. Due to upward movement of the piston, a partial vacuum is created in the
crankcase. And a new charge is drawn into the crankcase through the uncovered inlet port.
The exhaust port and transfer port are covered when the piston is at the top dead centre
position. The compressed charge is ignited in the combustion chamber by a spark given by
the spark plug.

Downward Stroke:

As soon as the charge is ignited the hot gases compress the piston which moves downward,
rotating the crankshaft thus doing the useful work. During this stroke, the inlet port is
covered by the piston and the new charge is compressed in the crankcase. Further downward
movement of the piston uncovers first the exhaust port and then the transfer port. and hence
the exhaust starts through the exhaust port.
As soon as transfer port is open, the charge through it is forced into the cylinder. The charge
strikes the deflector on the piston crown, rises to the top of the cylinder and pushes out most
of the exhaust gases. The piston is now at the bottom dead centre position.

The cylinder is completely filled with a fresh charge, although it is somewhat with the
exhaust gases. The cycle of events is then repeated, the piston making two strokes for each
revolution of the crankshaft.

4) Explain the working of two stroke CI engine.

A) A two stroke cycle engine is a type of IC engine which completes a power cycle with two
strokes of the piston during only one crankshaft revolution.

Two-stroke cycle engine employs for small powers required in auto cycles, scooters,
motorcycles. In two-stroke engines, there is no suction and exhaust strokes. There are only
two remaining strokes the compression stroke and power stroke. These are usually called the
upward stroke and downward stroke. Also, instead of valves, there are inlet and exhaust ports
in two stroke cycle engines.

Fresh charge enters the cylinder at the end of the working stroke through the inlet port. And
then burnt exhaust gases are forced out through the exhaust port by a fresh charge.

The principle of two stroke cycle spark ignition engine is shown in the figure. Its two strokes
are as follows:

1. Upward Stroke
2. Downward Stroke

Upward Stroke:
During upward stroke, the piston moves upward from the bottom dead centre to top dead
centre by compressing the air in the combustion chamber of the cylinder. Due to upward
movement of the piston, a partial vacuum is created in the crankcase and fuel is injected
through the fuel injector. Now, this fuel get mixed with the compressed air and self ignites.

Downward Stroke:

As soon as the charge is ignited the hot gases compress the piston which moves downward,
rotating the crankshaft thus doing the useful work. During this stroke, the inlet port is
covered by the piston and the new charge is compressed in the crankcase. Further downward
movement of the piston uncovers first the exhaust port and then the transfer port. and hence
the exhaust starts through the exhaust port.

As soon as transfer port is open, the air through it is forced into the cylinder. The air strikes
the deflector on the piston crown, rises to the top of the cylinder and pushes out most of the
exhaust gases. The piston is now at the bottom dead centre position.

The cylinder is completely filled with a fresh air, although it is somewhat with the exhaust
gases. The cycle of events is then repeated, the piston making two strokes for each revolution
of the crankshaft.

5) Define turbocharger and supercharger and explain the construction and working
with neat diagram and also give the advantages and disadvantages.
A) Turbocharger: A centrifugal blower driven by exhaust gas turbines and used to
supercharge an engine is called as a Turbocharger.
Supercharger: A device that increases the pressure of the fuel–air mixture in an internal
combustion engine, fitted in order to achieve greater efficiency.
Construction and working of Turbocharger

The turbocharger is an assembly of main three components:

• Compressor
• Turbine
• Housing
The function of the compressor is to compress the incoming air and is mounted on the same
shaft on which turbine is mounted. The turbine is rotated by the exhaust gas coming from the
engine which still hot and contains energy. As the internal energy is the function of
temperature, It can be further converted to rotating or mechanical energy. Thus, exhaust gas
rotates the turbine and along with turbine, the compressor also rotates at same speed via the
common shaft. This turbine is the prime mover for the compressor. Hence in the
turbocharger, no external power is required. It functions with the help of waste gas energy.
No extra cost.
Both turbine and compressor parts are lubricated by the forced lubricating oil from the
engine. It does two works. First, it provides the lubrication and second, it cools the
compressor and turbine parts.
The housing encloses the turbine and compressor with appropriate turbo passage which
enables the turbine to rotate and on the other side, it causes the incoming air to be
compressed.
The compressed air has the high temperature about 200-degree centigrade and it must be
cooled to room temperature before it enters the engine. Thus, a device called, 'Inter-cooler' is
used to pre-cool the compressed air and lowers its temperature to the specified level of
temperature and now the air is ready to go into the engine with high pressure and lower
temperature. The second way to reduce the air temperature is water injection before it enters
the engine cylinder. Water keeps air temperature lower.

Advantages of Turbocharger

Turbocharger utilizes the waste exhaust gas and does the following advantages:

⚫ Significant increase in horse power

⚫ Power vs size: allows for smaller engine displacements to produce much more power
relative to their size.
⚫ Better fuel economy
⚫ Higher efficiency

Dis-advantages of Turbocharger:

•Turbo lag: turbochargers, especially large turbochargers, take time to spool up and provide
useful boost.
•They typically do not operate across as wide an RPM range as superchargers.
•Power surge
•Oil requirement
Centrifugal Supercharger:
Roots type supercharger:

Advantages of supercharging

1. Higher power output

2. Greater induction of charge mass
3. Better atomization of fuel
4. Better mixing of fuel and air
5. Better scavenging products
6. Better torque characteristics over whole range
7. Quick acceleration of vehicle
8. Complete and smooth combustion
9. Even fuel with poor ignition quality can be used
10. Improved cold starting
11. Reduced exhaust smoke
12. Reduced specific fuel consumption
13. Increased mechanical efficiency
 14. Smooth operation and reduction in diesel knock tendency

Disadvantages of supercharging

1. Increased detonation tendency in SI engines

2. Increased thermal stress
3. Increased heat loss due to increased turbulence
4. Increased gas loading
5. Increased cooling requirements of the engine.

6) Briefly discuss about the performance characteristics of diesel engine.

A) Performance Characteristics

Brake power

Power is the rate at which the work is done. Power of an engine is usually measured using
dynamometer. The brake power is measured using dynamometer. The brake power is measured
at the crank shaft of the engine. The brake power is the usable power delivered by the engine.
During measuring the power of an engine, brake is applied as a load, so it is mentioned as
brake power.

The dynamometer is a device which absorbs the output of a rotating machine and
converts it into another form of energy. Dynamometer is coupled with engine, so that the
rotational output of the engine is converted into other form of energy. This conversion is done
using rotor and stator, the essential parts of a dynamometer. The rotor is directly coupled with
crank shaft of the engine, and it is the rotating part of the dynamometer. It rotates at an equal
speed of the engine. Stator is the stationary part of the dynamometer. It is kept stationary by
an external device such as spring, weight, electric load or pneumatic load. The brake power is
given by the product of angular speed (2πN) and torque (T).

Brake Power (in kW) = 2πNT/60000,

Where N is the speed of the engine in rpm and T is the applied torque in N-m

The factors that influence the brake power of a CI engine

• Optimizing the injection pressure optimizes the BP.
• Increasing the compression ratio of the engine increases the combustion chamber
temperature, and so the BP is increased.
• Fuel with lower calorific value produces relatively lower BP.
• Fuel with lower volatility and higher viscosity has a greater influence on compression
ratio than the fuel with higher volatility and lower viscosity, where BP increases with
the increase in compression ratio.
 • Admitting preheating vegetable oil produces higher brake power than the unheated
vegetable oil.
• Lower heating value of a fuel will lead to lesser BP than the fuel with higher heating
value.
• Higher lubrication property of fuel will lead to increase in BP.
• Brake power of an engine increases with the increase in engine speed.
• Brake power depends upon the combustion quality of the fuel and the calorific value
of the fuel.
• Fuel with high viscosity produces lower Brake power than the fuel with lesser viscosity.
• Increasing the turbulence inside the combustion chamber increases the brake power
and torque.

Fuel Consumption

Total fuel consumption (TFC)

To calculate BSFC time required to consume the known volume of fuel and density of the fuel
are the required factors. So, the BSFC is inversely proportional to the calorific value of the
fuel.

The total fuel consumption gives the value of mass of fuel consumed per hour. It is
mathematically given by
Total fuel Consumption (kg/hr) = [x/t] × 10-6 × 3600 × ρ,

Where:
x - Volume of the fuel consumed for the noted time (cc)
t - Time taken for x cc of fuel to be consumed (sec)
ρ - Density of the fuel (kg/m3).

So, it is derived by using the mass of fuel consumed per unit time.
Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC)
Brake specific fuel consumption represents the mass of fuel consumed by an engine to produce
unit power for unit time.

So, the ratio of total fuel consumption and BP gives the BSFC.

BSFC = TFC/BP (kg/kW-hr),

Where:
TFC = Total fuel consumption (kg/hr)
BP = Brake Power (kW)

The factors that influence the fuel consumption of a CI engine

 • If the fuel density and viscosity are higher, then the BSFC would also be relatively
high.
• Calorific value of the fuel and BSFC are inversely proportional to each other.
• BSFC decreases with the increase in load.
• Optimizing the injection pressure optimizes the BSFC.
• With constant load, the increase in speed of the engine leads to reduced volumetric
efficiency and increased BSFC.
• BSFC of vegetable oil is higher than that of diesel because of the higher density of
vegetable oil than diesel.
• With an increase in the engine load, BSFC decreases. The increase in percentage value
of BP is higher than that of the fuel supplied (due to the lesser heat loss at higher load).
• Advancing injection timing increases ignition delay, leading to increased BSFC.
• Reducing the viscosity of fuel will lead to better combustion, improved atomization
and improved vaporization. These reasons will direct to the better utilization of fuel
and reduce BSFC.
• Engines have the least BSFC at maximum torque.
• At high engine speed, BSFC increases because of the poor atomization of fuel.
• At high engine speed, the frictional loss is considerably high, and so BSFC is high.
• Fuel with higher density would have higher BSFC.
• Increasing the percentage of exhaust gas recirculation increases BSFC.
• Using the fuel with lower volatility and higher cetane number has greater influence of
compression ratio on BSFC than the fuel with higher volatility and lower cetane
number. BSFC decreases with increase in compression ratio.
• Installing selective catalytic reduction device has higher BSFC than the engine without
that device; this occurs because of the higher back pressure developed due to the
installation of selective catalytic reduction device.
• Low heat rejection engines have lesser BSFC than conventional diesel engines.

Brake thermal efficiency (BTE)

Brake thermal efficiency is the effectiveness of an engine to convert the consumed fuel into
useful work which is available at the crank shaft. It can also be said as the ratio of the energy
input given as fuel for combustion to the power output available at the crank shaft.

It is mathematically calculated using BP, TFC and C.V of the fuel [3N].

BTE%= (BP × 3600 × 100%)/ (TFC × CV) × %

CV = Calorific value of fuel used (kJ/kg)

The factors that influence the brake thermal efficiency of a CI engine

• Preheating the vegetable oil reduces the viscosity, and so the atomization property is
improved; so, BTE increases.
 • Oxygenated fuels have better combustion property, so the BTE is higher for
Oxygenated fuel.
• The injected fuel droplet sizes have an influence on BTE. If the droplet size is higher,
the BTE would get reduced.
• High fuel viscosity of fuel leads to lower BTE.
• Optimizing the injection pressure optimizes the BTE.
• Increasing the load of the engine increases the BTE.
• With increase in the load, BTE increases. This is of lesser heat loss at higher load.
• Fuel with lower calorific value will produce lower BTE than the fuel with higher
calorific value.
• With the increase in engine speed, BTE decreases.
• Low heat rejection engines have high BTE than standard diesel engines.
• Highly viscous fuels have good BTE at high load because at high load the combustion
temperature is higher; at this high temperature, if the viscosity is reduced, BTE is not
affected at higher load.
• Blending of alumina nano particles with diesel increases evaporation rate of the fuel
and increases BTE.
• Increasing the compression ratio from 14 to 18 increases BTE because of reduced
ignition delay.
• BTE of vegetable oil is close to diesel at high load conditions.
7) Describe the emission characteristics of a CI engine and mention the factors
influence these emissions on CI engine.
A) Emission characteristics:

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) emission

The exhaust gas from internal combustion engine contains oxides of nitrogen. NO and NO2
are collectively known as NOx. The NOx formation does not depend on the combustion
reaction of the fuel. It is mainly dependent on the combustion temperature. Higher combustion
temperature leads to higher NOx formation. During the expansion stroke, the reaction
involving the formation of NOx freezes, and NOx formed is sent along with the exhaust gas.

NOx is higher near the region of stoichiometric condition. Atmospheric nitrogen is the main
source in the formation of NOx. The NOx can be significantly reduced by exhaust gas re-
circulation. The mixture which burns at the initial stage is the main reason for the formation of
NOx, because it is the source for high pressure and high temperature inside the cylinder, since
this occurs just after top dead center. On retarding the injection timing, the starting of
combustion is retarded, and so the peak temperature and peak pressure is reduced; so, the NOx
formation is reduced. At higher load, NOx increases because more fuel is injected at high load
(so higher stoichiometric region is present) than at a lower load condition, which leads to the
formation of higher NOx at a higher load than at lower load. So, this indicates that the amount
of NOx production roughly depends on the mass of the fuel injected. In the case of indirect
injection, the NOx formation mainly occurs inside the pre-chamber, where this NOx is
transferred to main chamber. The quantity of NOx production is higher for indirect injection,
because the stoichiometric region is higher in indirect-injection engine than the one with direct
injection. The NOx reaction freezes as the combustion mixture enters the main chamber. The
NOx can be significantly reduced by diluting the intake air by EGR or by nitrogen or argon.

Mechanism in formation of NO.

O + N2 → NO + N temperature range (2000-5000K)
N + O2 → NO + O temperature range (300-3000K)
N + OH → NO + H temperature range (300-2500K)
Mechanism in formation of NO2.
NO + HO2 → NO2 + OH

The factors that influence the NOx emission of a CI engine

• NOx production will be extremely accelerated above the temperature of 1800k.
• Higher oxygen and higher combustion duration lead to higher NOx emission.
• NOx increases with the increase in load because, at higher load, the combustion
temperature is higher.
• Fuel with lower cetane number results in higher cylinder peak pressure and higher
cylinder temperature, which leads to higher NOx emission.
• Fuel with higher latent heat of vaporization reduces the combustion temperature and
NOx emission.
• Presence of oxygen content in the fuel increases NOx emission.
• Fuel with lower cetane number led to high ignition delay; in other words, it causes
accumulation of more fuel in the combustion and will lead to burn all the fuel together,
which increases the peak cylinder temperature and NOx emission.
• Air surplus coefficient has direct influence in the formation of NOx.
• High temperature is the main factor in the formation of NOx from diesel engine, where
oxygen content and resident time are the supporting factors in the formation of NOx.
• Engine operating under relatively higher BSFC may produce higher NOx.
• Fuel with high latent heat of vaporization produces lower NOx .
• Exhaust gas recirculation leads to reduced NOx emission; this is because of the
availability of lesser oxygen content which reacts with nitrogen.
• Increasing compression ratio from 14 to 18 increases NOx emission.
• Fuel with higher cetane number has lower premixing combustion; this reduces NOx
emission.
• Using cerium oxide as an additive with biodiesel reduces the NOx emission.
• Use of anti-oxidative (L-ascorbic) with cotton seed oil methyl ester reduces NOx
emission.
• Fuel with higher viscosity produces lesser NOx than the fuel with lesser viscosity.

Unburned hydrocarbon (UBHC) emission

UBHC is produced by many causes in the functioning mechanism of an IC engine. The most
notable of among them is that the fuel, while entering the cervices, escapes from primary
combustion process. UBHC is produced due to incomplete combustion. Some UBHC
produced from IC engines cause cancer, so they fall under the category of carcinogens. The
mechanism in the formation of HC can be broadly divided into two stages: first one is the fuel
injected before starting of the combustion, and the second one is fuel injected after the starting
of combustion.

UBHC is due to locally over-lean mixture or locally over-rich mixture. At light load and idling
conditions, the main source of UBHC is because of the over-lean mixture that occur during
that condition. After the injection, a small volume of fuel remains in the nozzle sac; This fuel
escapes for the combustion process, thus becoming a source of UBHC .The charge with
equivalence ratio lesser than 0.3 can’t get self-ignited because they are too lean to get self-
ignited. The fuel with higher ignition delay period will produce higher HC than the fuel with
lower ignition delay. The higher percentage of UBHC in the exhaust gas from CI engine with
over leaning condition is produced when the fuel is injected before the ignition delay.

After the injection of the fuel, some of the sac volume of the injector is left with filled fuel.
This fuel gets vaporized during combustion and expansion, and the vaporization process
remains slow; a part of fuel escapes the primary combustion process, and it is emitted as
UBHC.

As the sac volume of the injector increases, the quantity of UBHC in the exhaust increases.
When comparing the UBHC produced from the source of over leaning and that from the fuel
from sac volume of the injector , the UBHC from the sac volume is very much higher than the
over leaning condition.

The other source of UBHC from CI engine is over-fueling of the engine during acceleration.
In CI engine, the overall equivalence ratio is mostly below one, but if the locally rich mixture
reduces the availability of oxygen to the fuel, UBHC is produced. The local-rich mixture up to
equivalence ratio of 0.9 it’s not significantly higher, and it’s not affected at the range, but
equivalence ratio above 0.9 increases the UBHC emission dramatically.

In indirect injection, the UBHC products through over lean and locally over rich mixture during
the acceleration act in a similar way to that of direct injection engine. But, the indirect injection
produces lesser UBHC due to the sac volume from the injector than the direct injection engine.

The factors that influence the UBHC emission of a CI engine

• High viscosity of the fuel reduces the air fuel mixing, which leads to local-rich mixture
and incomplete combustion. This process leads to higher HC emission.
• Increasing the load in CI engine increases UBHC, this is because at high load more
amount of fuel is injected where the amount of air intake is constant; this leads to rich
air–fuel mixture.
• Fuel with oxygen content produces lesser UBHC than the fuel without oxygen content.
 • Fuel with higher cetane number produces lower UBHC emission than the fuel with
lesser cetane number.
• Preheated vegetable oil produces lesser UBHC than the unheated vegetable oil as fuel.
This was because of better spray characteristics, and this led to a better distribution of
the fuel inside the chamber.
• At low load, HC emission is higher than at high load because at low loads more amount
of fuel reaches very lean mixture condition and escape from the combustion process;
at the same time, combustion temperature is lesser at low load.
• Use of anti-oxidative (L-ascorbic) with cotton seed oil methyl ester reduces UBHC
emission.
• Blending of alumina nano particles with diesel increases the surface area of the fuel
exposed to combustion, so UBHC emission gets reduced.

Carbon monoxide emission

Carbon monoxide emission is determined by the equivalence ratio. For equivalence ratio
higher than one, CO increases dramatically, and for equivalence ratio lesser than one, the CO
emission decreases very little in the order of 10−3 mole fractions. CI engine mostly operates
with an overall equivalence ratio lesser than one; the CO production is due to the local-rich
mixture. So, the CO production from CI engine is significantly lesser than S.I engine. The CO
in the exhaust fluctuates according to the load condition, since the quantity of injected fuel is
changed according to the load condition.

The factors that influence the CO Emission of a CI engine

• Fuels with high viscosity are difficult in atomizing, so they produce high CO than the
fuel with lower viscosity.
• High viscosity of fuel reduces the fuel air mixing; poor air fuel mixing increases CO
emission.
• Preheated vegetable oil produces lesser CO than unheated vegetable oil; this is because
of the lower viscosity of preheated vegetable oil than unheated vegetable oil.
• CO is produced as a result of incomplete combustion.
• Engine load has wide range of effect on CO emission; at high load, the ratio of air-fuel
mixture gets reduced, so the CO emission increases steadily with the increase in load
whereas, with increase in engine load at constant speed, engine combustion temperature
increases, so CO emission decreases.
• Oxygen content in the fuel increases the oxidation process and leads to reduced CO
emission.
• Increase in the equivalence ratio increases CO emission.
• Increasing the engine speed increases the turbulence, so the CO emission decreases.
• Advancing injection timing increases combustion temperature and increases the
combustion duration, which reduces CO emission.
• CO emission decreases with the increase in chain length of the fuel.
 • Usage of diethyl ether as an additive with fish oil bio diesel reduces CO emission up to
91% when compared to diesel.
• Increasing the compression ratio from 14 to 18 increases cylinder temperature, and so
the combustion temperature is higher and more complete combustion occurs which
leads to reduced CO emission.
• Fuels with higher cetane number have lower ignition delay, lower ignition delay
reduces the accumulation of more fuel, and this avoids rich-mixture condition during
combustion and reduced CO emission.
• At low speed engine operation, injected fuel is not homogenous, which leads to a lesser
combustion chamber temperature which results in higher ratio of incomplete
combustion and leads to higher CO emission.
• At higher engine speeds the duration of combustion is lesser when compared to lesser
speed; the reason for the formation of CO at high speed is the lesser combustion
duration.
• Presence of in built oxygen content in the fuel reduces CO emission in the exhaust.
• Lesser air fuel ratio in the cylinder increases CO emission.
• Partial oxidation and incomplete combustion lead to CO emission.
• At a higher engine speed, the quality of combustion is better than that at lower engine
speed. This is because of the high turbulence at higher engine speed than at lower speed;
these result in lower CO emission at higher engine speed.

Smoke

Smoke may also be referred as particulate matter. Particulate matter is mostly produced as a
result of incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. Lubrication oil contributes minor source of
particulate matter. As a result of combustion process, the combustion residue particles above
500 °C which contain carbon and little amount of hydrogen club together and form a small
spear. The diameter arranges between 15 to 30nm. As the exhaust gas temperature reduces to
less than 500°C, oxygenated hydrocarbons, hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, Sox, NOx
and sulphates get coated on the spear. The smoke produced is unstable. Due to collation and
through chemical reaction with other molecules in the exhaust, shape and size of the smoke
particle are modified. So, the measurement is referred in unit mass produced to the power
output or the total exhaust volume.

The factors that influence the smoke emission of a CI engine

• Poor atomization of the fuel leads to high smoke.
• Higher viscosity of fuel oil leads to higher smoke emission.
• Oxygenated fuel produces lesser smoke density than the fuel with less or fuel without
oxygen.
• Using preheated vegetable oil as fuel produces lesser smoke than the unheated vegetable
oil.
• Smoke emission is high during acceleration, full load operation and overloading. This is
because more fuel is injected during these times and leads to high combustion temperature,
 where, at high temperature, thermal cracking occurs rather than normal oxidation process.
• Smoke density increases with the increase in load.
• Engine with worn out piston rings leads to mixing of lubrication oil with the fuel during
combustion process and results in increased smoke emission.
• Higher viscosity and poor volatility of fuel will lead to higher smoke emission.
• Reducing viscosity and improving spray characteristics will reduce smoke emission.
• Fuel with high oxygen content will produce lesser smoke than the fuel without oxygen or
fuel with less oxygen content.
• Smoke emission occurs due to the thermal cracking of HC at oxygen deficient environment

8) What are the factors that influence the Brake thermal efficiency and Brake power of
a CI engine?

A) The factors that influence the brake thermal efficiency of a CI engine

• Preheating the vegetable oil reduces the viscosity, and so the atomization property is
improved; so, BTE increases.
• Oxygenated fuels have better combustion property, so the BTE is higher for
Oxygenated fuel.
• The injected fuel droplet sizes have an influence on BTE. If the droplet size is higher,
the BTE would get reduced.
• High fuel viscosity of fuel leads to lower BTE.
• Optimizing the injection pressure optimizes the BTE.
• Increasing the load of the engine increases the BTE.
• With increase in the load, BTE increases. This is of lesser heat loss at higher load.
• Fuel with lower calorific value will produce lower BTE than the fuel with higher
calorific value.
• With the increase in engine speed, BTE decreases.
• Low heat rejection engines have high BTE than standard diesel engines.
• Highly viscous fuels have good BTE at high load because at high load the combustion
temperature is higher; at this high temperature, if the viscosity is reduced, BTE is not
affected at higher load.
• Blending of alumina nano particles with diesel increases evaporation rate of the fuel
and increases BTE.
• Increasing the compression ratio from 14 to 18 increases BTE because of reduced
ignition delay.
• BTE of vegetable oil is close to diesel at high load conditions

The factors that influence the brake power of a CI engine

• Optimizing the injection pressure optimizes the BP.
• Increasing the compression ratio of the engine increases the combustion chamber
temperature, and so the BP is increased.
 • Fuel with lower calorific value produces relatively lower BP.
• Fuel with lower volatility and higher viscosity has a greater influence on compression
ratio than the fuel with higher volatility and lower viscosity, where BP increases with
the increase in compression ratio.
• Admitting preheating vegetable oil produces higher brake power than the unheated
vegetable oil.
• Lower heating value of a fuel will lead to lesser BP than the fuel with higher heating
value.
• Higher lubrication property of fuel will lead to increase in BP.
• Brake power of an engine increases with the increase in engine speed.
• Brake power depends upon the combustion quality of the fuel and the calorific value
of the fuel.
• Fuel with high viscosity produces lower Brake power than the fuel with lesser viscosity.
• Increasing the turbulence inside the combustion chamber increases the brake power
and torque.
9) Derive an expression for the air standard efficiency of an Otto cycle and also draw
the P-V & T-S diagrams.
10) Derive an expression for the air standard efficiency of a Diesel engine and also draw
the P-V & T-S diagrams.
A)
11) Why we need firing order in multi-cylinder engine?
As we all know a 4-stroke engine which we are using today works on an Otto cycle or a diesel
cycle in which a cycle that includes suction, compression, power and exhaust is completed in
4 strokes or 4 movements of the reciprocating piston and when it comes to the engine having
more than 1 cylinder the process becomes quite complex, so a pre-defined sequence of
combustion or firing of fuel is required as-
• When it comes to more than 1-pistons the load over the crankshaft increases as all the
pistons are connected to the single crank shaft and if the proper firing order is not
provided to the engine than there will be the chances of the crankshaft failure.
• The proper firing order of the engine provides maximum power, smooth running and
high life to the engine and also prevents the engine from unwanted vibrations.
• Out of the all 4-strokes (suction, compression, power and exhaust) required to complete
an engine’s cycle, power stroke is the strongest and generates various stresses
(mechanical or thermal both) that can cause engine failure like knocking, so it is
essential for a multi-cylinder engine that the power strokes in any 2 adjacent cylinders
must not occur at the same time due to which an engine must have a pre-defined and
proper firing order.
• The improper firing order can affect the engine and crankshaft balancing due to the
generation of uncontrolled stresses due to which harsh running, unwanted sound and
unwanted vibration can be obtained from the engine which can suddenly break any
component of the engine and is quite dangerous for the operator or the people nearby.
• Improper firing order of an engine directly affects the fuel economy of the engine due
to the improper combustion caused by the improper firing order.
• Operator faces engine starting problem because of the disturbed spark timing caused
by the improper firing order of an engine.

12) Explain in brief the methods of improving the efficiency of IC engine?

• Regenerative braking: As braking a car or automobile wastes the kinetic energy in the
form of heat, regenerative braking is ideal method when you want to brake your vehicle
to control speed (like when going downhill). In this electromagnetic braking is done as
small motors absorb the energy and convert it into battery energy.
• Variable Injection Timing: This is already used in Maritime engines. At low loads and
speeds, the injection is advanced allowing same mean effective pressure to be
maintained. This not only increases the efficiency of the engine as the scavenge
pressure is maintained, it also allows for lower quality fuel to be burnt.
• Variable valve timing: In this method the exhaust and inlet valves opening and closing
time can be varied, affecting the efficiency of the engine. This method can increase the
efficiency by 4 to 5%.
• Cutting off cylinders: In large engines in cruising or going downhill, half of the
cylinders can be cut off thus reducing fuel demand. It cannot be done on small engines
 as the engine would become rough.
• Turbochargers: A turbocharger is an exhaust gas recovery device that increases boost
air pressure thereby optimizing combustion. It increases efficiency by 7 to 8%.
• Direct Fuel Injection: In previous engines, the fuel was mixed with air and injected, but
nowadays fuel is directly injected into the combustion chamber and mixing takes place
according to the profile of the combustion chamber. It increases efficiency by 11 to
13%.
• Twin spark plugs and multiple injectors: As the flame front starts from the spark plug
and proceeds outward, some fuel remains unburnt as ejected before the flame front can
reach it. In a twin spark plug cylinder two flame fronts are created, causing better
combustion.
• Using the correct viscosity of lubricating oil, as viscous oil can result in losses due to
friction.
• Integrated starter and generator systems: In this system the engine is immediately
stopped when idling and started when the accelerator is pressed.

13) With neat sketch explain power transmission system in automobile?

The mechanism that transmits the power developed by the engine of automobile to the
engine to the driving wheels is called the TRANSMISSION SYSTEM (or POWER
TRAIN).It is composed of –
Clutch
The gear box
Propeller shaft
Universal joints
Rear axle
Wheel
Tires
CLUTCH
A clutch is a mechanism which enables the rotary motion of one shaft to be transmitted at
will to second shaft ,whose axis is coincident with that of first. Clutch is located between
engine and gear box. When the clutch is engaged, the power flows from the engine to the
rear wheels through the transmission system and the vehicle moves . when the clutch is
disengaged ,the power is not transmitted to the rear wheels and the vehicle stops, while
the engine is still running. Clutch is disengaged when starting the engine, b) Shifting the
gears, c) Idling the engine
clutch is engaged only when the vehicle is to move and is kept engaged when the vehicle
is moving.
THE GEAR BOX
It's main function is to varry the torque and speed according to the driver's need.
When vehicle is on bump or a speed breaker then at that time vehicle's speed is slow
by the application of breaks so at that time we needs more torque pick-up the vehicle
otherwise it will stop due to low torque so we have to shift gear from higher to lower
to get the required amount of torque that's why gear box needed in our vehicle. One
more and important thing , without it we can't drive our vehicle in reverse direction.
With the help of gear box we can switch our vehicle in neutral mode.

PROPELLER SHAFT
Propeller shaft is a mechanical component for transmitting torque and rotation,
usually used to connect other components of a drive train that cannot be connected
directly because of distance or the need to allow for relative movement between
them. Propeller shaft make any machine move. Drive shafts are carriers of torque:
they are subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to the difference between the
input torque and the load. They must therefore be strong enough to bear the stress,
whilst avoiding too much additional weight as that would in turn increase their
inertia.

UNIVERSAL JOINTS
A universal joint is a joint or coupling in a rigid rod whose axis are inclined to each
other, and is commonly used in shafts that transmit rotary motion . It consists of a
pair of hinges located close together, oriented at 90° to each other, connected by a
cross shaft. The universal joint is not a constant-velocity point.

REAR AXLE
Rear axle is the last member of power train. In most of automobiles, real axle is the
driving axle. It lies between the driving wheels and the differential gear and transmit
power from the differential to the driving wheels. It consists of two half shaft connected
to the differential gear, one for one wheel. The inner end of the each half shaft connected
 to the sun gear of the differential and the outer end to the wheel. The rear axle and
differential gear are completely encloses in a housing which protecting them from water,
dust and injury.
Function of rear axle:
The rear axle mainly performs following two functions.
1. It carries the weight of the vehicle.
2. It rotates and transmits the power from the engine to the wheels.

WHEEL
A wheel is a device that allows heavy objects to be moved easily through rotating on an
axle through its centre, facilitating movement or transportation while supporting a load
(mass),or performing labor in machine

TYRE
While tyre is the outer part of the wheel made up with rubber and mostly use in vehicles
for smooth movement

14) Draw the valve timing diagram of 4 –S Spark ignition engine explain in brief?

The diagram which shows the position of crank of four stroke cycle engine at the
beginning and at the end of suction, compression, expansion and exhaust of the engine are
called as valve timing diagram. The extreme position of the piston at the bottom of the cylinder
is called Bottom dead centre (BDC). The extreme position of the piston at the top of the
cylinder is called Top dead centre (TDC).In an ideal engine, the inlet valve opens at TDC and
closes at BDC. The exhaust valve opens at BDC and closes at TDC. But in actual practice it
will differ.
INLET VALVE OPENING AND CLOSING: In an actual engine, the inlet valve begins
to open 35° before the piston reaches the TDC during the end of exhaust stroke. This is
necessary to ensure that the valve will be fully open when the piston reaches the TDC. If the
inlet is allowed to close at BDC, the cylinder would receive less amount of air than its capacity
and the pressure at the end of suction will be below atmospheric pressure. To avoid this inlet
valve is kept open for 35° after BDC.
EXHAUST VALVE OPENING AND CLOSING: Complete clearing of the burned gases
from the cylinder is necessary to take in more air into the cylinder. To achieve this exhaust
valve is opened at 35° before BDC and closes at 10° after the TDC. It is clear from the diagram,
for certain period both the inlet valve and exhaust valve remains in open condition. The crank
angles for which the both valves are open is called overlapping period.

15) Draw the valve timing diagram of 4 –S Compression ignition engine explain in
brief?

The diagram which shows the position of crank of four stroke cycle engine at the
beginning and at the end of suction, compression, expansion and exhaust of the engine are
called as valve timing diagram.
The extreme position of the piston at the bottom of the cylinder is called Bottom dead
centre (BDC). The extreme position of the piston at the top of the cylinder is called Top dead
centre (TDC).In an ideal engine, the inlet valve opens at TDC and closes at BDC. The exhaust
valve opens at BDC and closes at TDC. The fuel is injected into the cylinder when the piston
is at TDC and at the end of compression stroke. But in actual practice it will differ.
INLET VALVE OPENING AND CLOSING: In an actual engine, the inlet valve begins
to open 5° to 20° before the piston reaches the TDC during the end of exhaust stroke. This is
necessary to ensure that the valve will be fully open when the piston reaches the TDC. If the
inlet is allowed to close at BDC, the cylinder would receive less amount of air than its capacity
and the pressure at the end of suction will be below atmospheric pressure. To avoid this inlet
valve is kept open for 25° to 40° after BDC.
EXHAUST VALVE OPENING AND CLOSING: Complete clearing of the burned gases
from the cylinder is necessary to take in more air into the cylinder. To achieve this exhaust
valve is opened at 35° to 45° before BDC and closes at 10° to 20° after the TDC. It is clear
from the diagram, for certain period both the inlet valve and exhaust valve remains in open
condition. The crank angles for which the both valves are open is called overlapping period.

16) Draw the port timing diagram of 2-S Spark ignition engine explain in brief?

In the case of two stroke cycle engines the inlet and exhaust valves are not present.
Instead, the slots are cut the cylinder itself at different elevation and they are called ports. There
are three ports present in the two stroke cycle engine.
1) Inlet port 2) Transfer port 3) Exhaust port
 The extreme position if the piston at the bottom of the cylinder is called Bottom dead
centre (BDC). The extreme position of the piston at the top of the cylinder is called Top dead
centre (TDC).In two stroke petrol engine the inlet port opens when the piston moves from BDC
to TDC and is closed when the piston moves from TDC to BDC. The transfer port is opened
when the piton moves from TDC to BDC and the fuel enters into the cylinder through this
transfer port from the crank case of the engine. The transfer port is closed when the piston
moves from BDC to TDC. The transfer port opening and closing are measured with respect to
BDC. The exhaust port is opened, when the piston moves from TDC to BDC and is closed
when piston moves from BDC to TDC. The exhaust port opening and closing are measured
with respect to the BDC.

17) Draw the port timing diagram of 2-S Compression ignition engine explain in brief?

In the case of two stroke cycle engines the inlet and exhaust valves are not present.
Instead, the slots are cut the cylinder itself at different elevation and they are called ports. There
are three ports present in the two stroke cycle engine.
1) Inlet port 2) Transfer port 3) Exhaust port
The extreme position if the piston at the bottom of the cylinder is called Bottom dead
centre (BDC). The extreme position of the piston at the top of the cylinder is called Top dead
centre (TDC).In two stroke petrol engine the inlet port opens when the piston moves from BDC
to TDC and is closed when the piston moves from TDC to BDC. The transfer port is opened
when the piton moves from TDC to BDC and the fuel enters into the cylinder through this
transfer port from the crank case of the engine. The transfer port is closed when the piston
moves from BDC to TDC. The transfer port opening and closing are measured with respect to
BDC. The exhaust port is opened, when the piston moves from TDC to BDC and is closed
when piston moves from BDC to TDC. The exhaust port opening and closing are measured
with respect to the BDC.