REVISED NINTH EDITION A Textbook of FLUID MECHANICS HYDRAULIC MACHINES Dr. R.K. BansalA TEXTBOOK OF FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINESWIN A CASH AWARD OF Rs. 500.00 It has come to our notice that some booksellers are fraudulently selling fake/duplicate copies of some of our fast. selling titles. In our sincere efforts to provide you with our genuine books and to protect you against these counterfeit books, Laxmi Publications (LP) has put a Hologram on the cover of some of its fast selling titles. The Hologram displays a unique 3D multi-level, multi-colour effect from different angles. It has the following three levels of flat graphics merged together. The background artwork ‘seems to be ‘under’ or ‘behind! the Hologram and gives the illusion of depth unlike the fake Hologram on the fake/duplicate books. (Preto ‘Channel 1 ‘Channel 2 Background Presently, only some titles have got the Holograms. In this ease, A Text Book of Fluid ‘Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines (2010 edition, priced at Rs. 450.00) has. got the Hologram. If you or any of your friends finds anywhere in India/abroad any book of this Edition without the LP Hologram, he/she is requested to write to us at M/s LAXMI PUBLICATIONS PVT. LTD., 113, Golden House, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002, giving the name and address of the bookseller from where he/she purchased this book, together with the photocopy of the cover and the 2nd page on which the price of the book and name of the printer are printed. He/She will be sent a cash award of Rs, 500.00. How to decide if the book is genuine or fake ? 1. The above information may or may not_be printed. 2. The counterfeit edition of the book may have no LP Hologram or ifit has, it will be without the illusionary depth as described above. ‘What is the harm in purchasing duplicate books ? — Poor quality of paper and printing which affect your eyes, — No royalty to authors who are scholars and have put their hard labour in writing the book, ‘thus depriving them of their intellectual rights. (Warning : Selling or buying pirated books is an offence. Legal action shall be taken against the| Dookseller(s) and student{s) or whoever found guilty of such an offence in any way.A TEXTBOOK OF FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES (in $.1. Units) [For Degree, U.P.S.C. (Engg. Services), A.M.LE. (India)] By Dr. R.K. BANSAL B. Sc. Engg. (Mech.), M.Tech. Hons. (I.L.T:, Delhi) Ph. D., M.LE. (India) Formerly Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dean (U.G. Studies), Delhi College of Engineering, Delhi LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD BANGALORE © CHENNAI © COCHIN — + GUWAHATI. + HYDERABAD JALANDHAR * KOLKATA © LUCKNOW + MUMBAI =» RANCHI NEW DELHIPublished by LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD 113, Golden House, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002 Phone : 011-43 53 25 00 Fax : 011-43 53 25 28 www laxmipublications.com {[email protected] Author : Dr. B.K. Bansal Compiled by : Smt. Nirmal Bansal © All rights reserved with Author and the Publishers. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. Price : Rs. 495.00 Only. First Edition : Sept. 1983 Ninth Edition ; 2005 Reprint : 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 Revised Ninth Edition : 2010 OFFICES © Bangalore 080-26 61 15 61 © Chenn 044-24 34 47 26 © Cochin —_ 0484-237 70 04, 405 13 03 = © Guwahati 0361-254 36 69, 25138 81 © Hyderabad 040-24 65 23 33 © Jalandhar 0181-222 12 72 © Kolkata 033-22 27 43 84 © Lucknow 0522-220 95 78 © Mumbai 022-24 91 54 15, 24 92 78 69 © Ranchi 0651-221 47 64 EFM-0559-495-FLUID MECHANICS & HM-BAN, Cc ‘Typeseted at : Shubham Composer, New Delhi Printed at : Repro India Ltd, MumbaiThe louing memory of ny daughter, CabléPREFACE TO THE NINTH EDITION ‘The popularity of the eighth edition and reprints of the book A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines amongst the students and the teachers of the various Universities of the country, has prompted the bringing out of the ninth edition of the book so soon, The ninth edition has been thoroughly revised and brought up-to-date. A large number of problems from different B.E. degree examinations of Indian Universities and other examining bodies such as Institution of Engineers and U.P.S.C. upto Summer 2002 examinations have been selected and have been solved at proper places on this edition. Most of these problems have been worked out in S.J. units. All of the text along with existing problems have been converted into S.1. Units In the ninth edition, a new chapter entitled Ideal Flow (or Potential Flow) has been added. Potential flow has been included in most of Indian Universities. This chapter has been written ina simple and easy-to-follow language so that even an average student can grasp the subject matter by self-study. Also a few new topics such as “Liquids in Relative Equilibrium” and “Pipe Network” have been added in this edition. The topic of Pipe Network has been included in the chapter of Flow Through Pipes. The pipe network is mostly used in city water supply system, Laboratory supply system or house hold supply of water and gas, ‘The objective type multiple-choice questions are often asked in the various competitive examinations. Hence a large number of objective type questions with answers have been added in the end of the book. With these additions, it is hoped that the book will be quite useful for the students of different branches of Engineering at various Engineering Institutions. Texpress my sincere thanks to my colleagues, friends, students and the teachers of differ- ent Indian Universities for their valuable suggestions and recommending the book of their students, ‘Suggestions for the improvement of this book are most welcome and would be incorporated in the next edition with a view to make the book more useful. ~ AuthorPREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION am glad to present the book entitled, A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines to the engineering students of mechanical, civil, electrical, aeronautical and chemical and also to the students preparing for the new scheme of Section B of A.M.LE. Examination of Institution of Engineers (India). The course contents have been planned in such a way that the general requirements of all engineering students are fulfilled. During my long experience of teaching this subject to undergraduate and post-graduate engineering students for the past 16 years, I have observed that the students face difficulty in understanding clearly the basic principles, fundamental concepts and theory without adequate solved problems along with the text. To meet this very basic requirement to the students, a large number of the questions taken from the examinations of the various Universities of India and from other professional and competitive examinations (such as Institution of Engineers and U.P.S.C. Engineering Service Examination) have been solved along with the text in M.K.S. and S.1 units. The book is written in a simple and easy-to-follow language, so that even an average stu- dents can grasp the subject by self-study. At the end of each chapter highlights, theoretical questions and many unsolved numerical problems with answer are given for the students to solve them. Tam thankful to my colleagues, friends and students who encouraged me to write this book. I am grateful to Institution of Engineers (India), various Universities of India and those authorities whose work have been consulted and gave me a great help in preparing the book. I express my appreciation and gratefulness to my publisher. Shri R.K. Gupta (as Mechanical Engineer) for his most co-operative, painstaking attitude and untiring efforts for bringing out the book in a short period. Mrs. Nirmal Bansal deserves special credit as she not only provided an ideal atmosphere at home for book writing but also gave inspiration and valuable suggestions. ‘Though every care has been taken in checking the manuscripts and proof reading, yet claiming perfection is very difficult. I shall be very grateful to the readers and users of this book for pointing any mistakes that might have crept in. Suggestions for improvement are most weleome and would be incorporated in the next edition with a view to make the book more useful. - AuthorChapter Chapter La 1.2. 13. Ma 1.5. 16, 4a. CONTENTS 1. Properties of Fluids Introduction Properties of Fluids 12.1. Density or Mass Density 122. — Specific Weight or Weight Density 123. — Specific Volume 124. Specific Gravity Solved Problems 1.11.2 Viscosity Units of Viseosity Kinematie Viscosity Newton's Law of Viscosity Variation of Viscosity with Temperature ‘Types of Fluids Solved Problems 1.3—1.19 ‘Thermodynamic Properties 1 Dimension of R 142. — Isothermal Process 14.3. Adiabatie Process 144. — Universal Gas Constant Solved Problems 1.20—1.22 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus Solved Problems 1.23—1.24 Surface Tension and Capillarity 1 Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet 16.2. Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble L ‘Surface Tension on_a Liquid Jet Solved Problems 1.25—1.27 164, Capillarity Solved Problems 1.28—1.32 Vapour Pressure and Cavitation Highlights Exercise Chapter 2. Pressure and Its Measurement 2a. 2.2. 23. Fluid Pressure at a Point Pascal's Law Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Solved Problems 2.1—2.7 @) Pages 134 24 35-68 35 35 37) 2.4. Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric and Vacuum. Pressures Solved Problem 2.8 2.5. Measurement of Pressure Manometers ‘Mechanical Gauges ple Manometers Piezometer U-tube Manometer Solved Problems 2.9—2.13 2.6.3. Single Column Manometer Solved Problem 2.14 2.7. Differential Manometers 2.7.1, U-tube Differential Manometer Solved Problems 2.15—2.17 2.7.2. Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer Solved Problems 2.18—2.21 2.8. Pressure at a Point in Compressible Fluid 28.1. Isothermal Process Adiabatic Process ‘Temperature at any Point in Compressible Fluid ‘Temperature Lapse-Rate (L) Solved Problems 2.22—2.26 Highlights Exercise Chapter 3. Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 3.1, Introduction 8.2, Total Pressure and Centre of Pressure 3.3. Vertical Plane Surface Sub-merged in Liquid Solved Problems 3.1—3.12 8.4, Horizontal Plane Surface Sub-merged in Liquid Solved Problem 3.13, 8.5. Inclined Plane Surface Sub-merged in Liquid Solved Problems 3.14(a)—3.21 8.6. Curved Surface Sub-merged in Liquid Solved Problems 3.22—3.31 8.7. Total Pressure and Centre of Pressure on Lock Gates Solved Problems $.32—3.33 8.8. Pressure Distribution in a Liquid Subjected to Constant Horizontal/Vertical Acceleration 3.8.1. Liquid Containers Subject to Constant, Horizontal Acceleration Solved Problems 3.34—3.36 3.8.2. Liquid Containers Subjected to Constant Vertical Acceleration Solved Problems 3.37—3.38, Highlights Exercise 107 109 2 12 115 120 122 124 125(ei) Chapter 4. Buoyancy and Floatation 4a. 4.2. 43. 44, 45. 46. Aa. 48. 49. Introduction Buoyancy Centre of Buoyancy Solved Problems 4.14.6 Meta-centre Meta-centrie Height Analytical Method for Meta-Centre Height Solved Problems 4.7—4.11 Conditions of Equilibrium of a Floating and ‘Sub-merged Bodies 4.7.1. Stability of a Sub-merged Body 4.72. Stability of a Floating Body Solved Problems 4.12—4.18 Experimental Method of Determination of ‘Meta-centrie Height Solved Problems 4.19—4.20 Oscillation (Rolling) of a Floating Body Solved Problems 4.21—4.22 Highlights Exercise Chapter 5. Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow Bal. 5.2. 5.3. 54. 5.5. 5.6. 5.7. 5.8. A. KINEMATICS OF FLOW Introduction ‘Methods of Deseribing Fluid Motion ‘Types of Fluid Flow 5.3.1, — Steady and Unsteady Flows 5.3.2. Uniform and Non-uniform Flows 5.3.3. Laminar and Turbulent Flows 5. Compressible and Incompressible Flows 5.3.5. Rotational and Irrotational Flows 5.3.6. One, two and Three-Dimensional Flows Rate of Flow or Discharge (Q) Continuity Equation Solved Problems 5.1—5.5 Continuity Equation in Three-Dimensions 5.6.1. Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Polar Co-ordinates Solved Problems 5.54. Velocity and Acceleration 5.7.1. Local Acceleration and Convective ‘Acceleration Solved Problems 5.6—5.9 Velocity Potential Function and Stream Function 5.8.1, Velocity Potential Function 5.82. Stream Funetion 5.8.3. Equipotential Line 5.84. Line of Constant Stream Function 181-162 131 131 131 131 136 136 137 138 43 143 143 44 154 155 156 158 159 160 163-258, 163 163 163 163 164 164 164 165 165 165 165 166 170 a. 173 44 175 175, 181 181 182 183 1835.9. 5.10, BAL. Bz, 5B. Bad. 5.15. 5.16. BAT. (aii) 5.8.5. Flow Net 5.8.6. Relation between Stream Function and ‘Velocity Potential Function Solved Problems 5.10—5.17 ‘Types of Motion 5.9.1. Linear Translation 5.9.2. Linear Deformation 5.9.3. Angular Deformation or Shear Deformation 5.9.4. Rotation 5.95. Vorticity Solved Problems 6.18—5.19 Vortex Flow 5.10.1. Forced Vortex Flow 5.10.2. Free Vortex Flow 5.10.3. Equation of Motion for Vortex Flow 5.10.4. Equation of Forced Vortex Flow Solved Problems 5.20—5.25 5.10.5. Closed Cylindrical Vessels Solved Problems 5.26—5.31 5.10.6. Equation of Free Vortex Flow Solved Problem 5.32 (B) IDEAL FLOW (POTENTIAL FLOW) Introduction Important Cases of Potential Flow Uniform Flow 5.13.1. Uniform Flow Parallel to x-Axis, 5.13.2. Uniform Potential Flow Parallel to y-Axis| Source Flow Sink Flow Solved Problems 5.33—5.85 Free-Vortex Flow ‘Super-Imposed Flow 5.17.1. Source and Sink Pair Solved Problems 5.36—5.37 5.17.2. Doublet Solved Problem 5.38 5.17.3. A Plane Source in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Half-Body) Solved Problems 5.39—5.41 5.17.4. A Source and Sink Pair in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past Rankine Oval Body) Solved Problem 5.42 5.17.5. A Doublet in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Circular Cylinder) Solved Problems 5.43—5.44 Highlights Exercise 184 184 184 191 191 191 192 192 192 192 193 193, 194 195 196 197 202 202 209 210 210 au 2 au 213 214 216 216 219 221 221 225 228 231 233 237 241 244 246 250 252 254(ii Chapter 6. Dynamics of Fluid Flow 61. 6.2. 63. 64. 6.5. 6.6. 6.7. 6.8. 6.9. 6.10. Introduction Equations of Motion Euler's Equation of Motion Bernoulli's Equation from Euler's Equation Assumptions Solved Problems 6.1—6.6 Bernoulli's Equation for Real Fluid Solved Problems 6.7—6.9 Practical Applications of Bernoulli's Equation 67.1, Venturimeter Solved Problems 6.10—6.21 6.7.2. — Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate Solved Problems 6.22 —6.23 6.7.3. — Pitot-tube Solved Problems 6.24—6.28 "The Momentum Equation Solved Problems 6.29—6.35 ‘Moment of Momentum Equation Solved Problems 6.36—6.37 Free Liquid Jets Solved Problems 6.38—641 Highlights Exercise Chapter 7. Orifices and Mouthpieces Ta. 7.2. 73. 14. 15. 7.6. 11. 7.8. Introduction Classifications of Orifices Flow Through an Orifice Hydraulic Co-efficients 1. Covefficient of Velocity (C,) 742. Covefficient of Contraction (C,) 743. Covefficient of Discharge (C,) Solved Problems 7.1—7.2 Experimental Determination of Hydraulic Coefficients Toa Determination of Co-fixion of Dincharg (C7 Determination of Co-efficient of Velocity (C,) 752. Determination of Co-efficient of Contraction (C,) Solved Problems 7.3—7.10 Flow Through Large Orifices 7.6.1. Discharge Through Large Rectangular Orifice Solved Problems 7.11—7.13 Discharge Through Fully Sub-merged Orifice Solved Problems 7.14—7.15 Discharge Through Partially Sub-merged Orifice Solved Problem 7.16 259-316 259 259 260 261 261 261 265 266 268 268 270 281 283 285 286 288 289 298 298 301 303 307 309 317-354 317 317 317 318 318 319 319 319 320 320 321 321 321 327 328 828 330 331 331 38279. 710, 7a. 72, 713. 74. 715. xiv) ‘Time of Emptying a Tank Through an Orifice at its Bottom Solved Problems 7.17—7.18 ‘Time of Emptying a Hemispherical Tank Solved Problems 7.19—7.21 ‘Time of Emptying a Circular Horizontal Tank Solved Problems 7.22—7.23 Classification of Mouthpieces Flow Through an External Cylindrical Mouthpiece Solved Problems 7.24—7.25 Flow Through a Convergent-Divergent Mouthpiece Solved Problems 7.26—7.28 Flow Through Internal or Re-entrant on Borda's Mouthpiece Solved Problem 7.29 Highlights Exercise Chapter 8. Notches and Weirs 86. 8.7. 89. 8.10. aul. 82, 813. Introduction . Classification of Notches and Weirs . Discharge Over a Rectangular Notch or Weir Solved Problems 8.18.3 . Discharge Over a Triangular Notch or Weir Solved problems 8.48.6 5. Advantages of Triangular Notch or Weir over Rectangular Noteh or Weir Discharge Over a Trapezoidal Notch or Weir Solved Problem 8.7 Discharge Over a Stepped Notch Solved Problem 8.8 Effect on Discharge Over a Notch or Weir Due to Error in the Measurement of Head 88.1. For Rectangular Weir or Notch 882. For Triangular Weir or Notch Solved Problems 8.9—8.11 (a) Time Required to Empty a Reservoir or a ‘Tank with a Rectangular Weir or Notch (b) Time Required to Empty a Reservoir or a ‘Tank with a Triangular Weir or Notch Solved Problems 8.12—8.14 Velocity of Approach Solved Problems 8.15—8.19 Empirical Formulae for Discharge Over Rectangular Weir Solved Problems 8.20—8.22 Cipolletti Weir or Notch Solved Problems 8.23—8.24 Discharge Over a Broad-Crested Weir 332 333 335 338 366 367 368 370 370 374 374 376 377 378ad. 815. 816. (w) Discharge Over a Narrow-Crested Weir Discharge Over an Ogee Weir Discharge Over Sub-merged or Drowned Weir Solved Problems 8.25—827 Highlights Exercise Chapter 9. Viscous Flow 9.1. 9.2. 9.3. 9.4. 9.5. 9.6. 9.7. 9.8. Introduction Flow of Viscous Fluid Through Circular Pipe Solved Problems 9.19.6 Flow of Viscous Fluid between Two Parallel Plates Solved Problems 9.7—9.12 Kinetic Energy Correction and Momentum, Correction Factors Solved Problem 9.13 Power Absorbed in Viscous Flow 9.5.1. Viscous Resistance of Journal Bearings Solved Problems 9.14—9.18 9.5.2. Viscous Resistance of Foot-step Bearing Solved Problems 9.19—9.20 9.5.3. Viscous Resistance of Collar Bearing Solved Problems 9.21—9.22 Loss of Head Due to Friction in Viscous Flow Solved Problems 9.23—9.24 ‘Movement of Piston in Dash-pot Solved Problem 9.25 ‘Methods of Determination of Co-efficient of Viscosity 98.1. Capillary Tube Method Falling Sphere Resistance Method Rotating Cylinder Method Orifice Type Viscometer Solved Problems 9.26—9.32 Highlights Exercise Chapter 10. Turbulent Flow 10.1. 10.2. 10.3. 10.4. Introduction Reynolds Experiment, Frictional Loss in Pipe Flow 10.3.1. Expression for Loss of Head Due ‘to Frietion in Pipes 10.3.2. Expression for Co-efficient of Friction in Terms of Shear Stress Shear Stress in Turbulent Flow 10.4.1. Reynolds Expression for Turbulent Shear Stress 10.4.2. Prandtl Mixing Length Theory for ‘Turbulent Shear Stress 379 379 379 380 381 383 387-432 387 387 391 397 400 404 404 407 407 408 4 412 412 413 aut 415 417 418 419 419 420 421 422 423 427 429 433-464 433 433 434 434 436 437 437 43810.5. 10.6. (xvi) Velocity Distribution in Turbulent Flow in Pipes 10.5.1. Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Boundaries 10.5.2. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Smooth Pipes 10.5.3. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Rough Pipes Solved Problems 10.1—10.4 10.5.4. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Terms of Average Velocity Solved Problems 10.5—10.6 10.5.5. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Smooth Pipes by Power Law Resistance of Smooth and Rough Pipes Solved Problems 10.7—10.13 Highlights Exercise Chapter 11. Flow Through Pipes wa. 112. 1s. 4. 1s. 11.6. 17. 11.8. 19. 11.10. Introduction Loss of Energy in Pipes Loss of Energy (or head) Due to Friction Solved Problems 11.1—11.7 ‘Minor Energy (Head) Losses, 11.4.1. Loss of Head Due to Sudden Enlargement 11.4.2. Loss of Head Due to Sudden Contraction Solved Problems 11.8—11.14 11.4.8. Loss of Head at the Entranee of a Pipe 114.4. Loss of Head at the Exit of Pipe 11.4.5. Loss of Head Due to an Obstruction ina Pipe 11.4.6. Loss of Head Due to Bend in Pipe 11.4.7. Loss of Head in Various Pipe Fittings Solved Problems 11.15—11.21 Hydraulie Gradient and Total Energy Line 115.1. Hydraulic Gradient Line 11.5.2. Total Energy Line Solved Problems 11.22—11.26 Flow Through Syphon Solved Problems 11.27—11.29 Flow Through Pipes in Series or Flow Through Compound Pipes Solved Problems 11.30—11.30A. Equivalent Pipe Solved Problem 11.31 Flow Through Parallel Pipes Solved Problems 11.32—11.41 Flow Through Branched Pipes Solved Problems 11.42—11.44 438 440 441 442 442 446 450 450 453 461 462 465-558 465 465 465 467 an an 473 474 482 482 483 483 491 491 491 498 498 508 524 525wu 1.12. 11.13. 1.44. (wwii) Power Transmission Through Pipes 1111.1. Condition for Maximum ‘Transmission of Power 1.11.2. Maximum Efficieney of Transmission of Power Solved Problems 11.45—11.47 Flow Through Nozzles 11.2.1. Power Transmitted Through Nozzle 11.122. Condition for Maximum Power ‘Transmitted Through Nozzle 11.12.83. Diameter of Nozale for Maximum ‘Transmission of Power Through Nozzle Solved Problems 1148—11.51 Water Hammer in Pipes 11.13.1, Gradual Closure of Valve 11.132. Sudden Closure of Valve and Pipe is Rigid 11.13.8. Sudden Closure of Valve and Pipe is Elastic 11.134, Time Taken by Pressure Wave to Travel from the Valve to the Tank and from Tank to the Valve Solved Problems 11.52—11.55 Pipe Network 1114.1. Hardy Cross Method Solved Problem 11.56 Highlights Exercise Chapter 12. Dimensional and Model Analysis 12a. 122. 12.3. 124. 12.5. 12.6. 12.7. 12.8, Introduction Secondary or Derived Quantities Solved Problem 12.1 Dimensional Homogeneity ‘Methods of Dimensional Analysis, 12.4.1. Rayleigh's Method Solved Problems 12.2—12.7 12.4.2. Buckingham’s x-Theorem 12.4.3. Method of Selecting Repeating Variables 12.4.4. Procedure for Solving Problems by Buckingham's x-Theorem Solved Problems 12.8—12.14 ‘Model Analysis Similitude-Types of Similarities ‘Types of Forces Acting in Moving Fluid Dimensionless Numbers 12.8.1. Reynold’s Number (R,) 12.82. Froude’s Number (F,) 12.8.3. Euler's Number (£,) 12.8.4. Weber's Number (W,) 12.8.5. Mach’s Number (M) 530 581 537 537 538 539 BAL 542 542 543 545 545 BAT 549 552 554 559-610 559 559 560 561 561 561 562 565 566 566 568 578 579 580 581 581 582 582 58212.9. 12.10. 1211, Chapter 13.1. 13.2. 13.3, 13.4. 13.5. 13.6. 13.7. (wit) ‘Model Laws or Similarity Laws 12.9.1, Reynold’s Model Law Solved Problems 12.15—12.18 12.9.2. Froude Model Law Solved Problems 12.19—12.27 12.9.3. Euler's Model Law 12.9.4. Weber Model Law 12.9.5. Mach Model Law Solved Problem 12.28 Model Testing of Partially Sub-merged Bodies, Solved Problems 12.29—12.32 Classification of Models 12.1.1. Undistorted Models 12.11.2. Distorted Models 12.11.3. Seale Ratios for Distorted Models Solved Problem 12.33 Highlights Exercise 13. Boundary Layer Flow Introduction Definitions 13.2.1, Laminar Boundary Layer 13.2.2. Turbulent Boundary Layer 13.2.3. Laminar Sub-layer 13.2.4, Boundary Layer Thickness (5) 13.2.5. Displacement Thickness (3*) 13.2.6, Momentum Thickness (8) 13.2.7. Energy Thickness (5**) Solved Problems 13.1—13.2 Drag Force on a Flat Plate Due to Boundary Layer 13.8.1, Local Co-efficient of Drag [Cp*1 13.3.2. Average Co-efficient of Drag [Cp] 13.3.8, Boundary Conditions for the Velocity Profiles Solved Problems 13.3—13.12 Turbulent Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate Solved Problem 13.13 Analysis of Turbulent Boundary Layer Total Drag on a Flat Plate Due to Laminar and ‘Turbulent Boundary Layer Solved Problems 13.14—13.17 Separation of Boundary Layer 13.7.1. Effect of Pressure Gradient on Boundary Layer Separation 13.7.2. Location of Separation Point Solved Problem 13.18 583 583 584 587 590 595 596 596 597 598 600 604 604 605 605 608 606 607 611-656 eu 612 612 613 613 613 613 615 615 616 619 622 622 622 622 638 638 641 641 642 648 648 649 650(xix) 13.7.3. Methods of Preventing the Separation of Boundary Layer Highlights Exercise Chapter 14. Forces on Sub-merged Bodies 14a. 14.2. 14.3. 14.4. 145. 14.6. 147. 14.8, Introduction Force Exerted by a Flowing Fluid on a Stationary Body M421. Drag 14.22. Lift Expression for Drag and Lift 14.3.1, Dimensional Analysis of Drag and Lift Solved Problems 14.1—14.15 14.3.2. Pressure Drag and Friction Drag 14.3.3. Stream-lined Body 14.34. Bluff Body Drag on a Sphere Solved Problem 14.16 ‘Terminal Velocity of a Body Solved Problems 14.17—14.20 Drag on a Cylinder Development of Lift on a Circular Cylinder 14.7.1. Flow of Ideal Fluid Over Stationary Cylinder 14.7.2. Flow Pattern Around the Cylinder when a Constant Circulation T is Imparted to the Cylinder 14.7.3. Expression for Lift Foree Acting on Rotating Cylinder 14.74. Drag Force Acting on a Rotating Cylinder 14.7.5. Expression for Lift Co-efficient for Rotating Cylinder 14.7.6. Location of Stagnation Points for a Rotating Cylinder in a Uniform Flow-field 14.7.7. Magnus Effect Solved Problems 14.21—14.23, Development of Lift on an Airfoil 14.8.1. Steady-state of a Flying Object, Solved Problems 14.24—14.25 Highlights Exercise Chapter 15. Compressible Flow 15. 1522. Introduction ‘Thermodynamic Relations 15.2.1. Equation of State 15.2.2. Expansion and Compression of Perfect Gas 651 678 680 682 68215.3. 154. 15.5. 15.6, 15.7. 15.8, 15.9. 15.10. 15.11. x) Basie Equations of Compressible Flow 15.8.1. Continuity Equation 15.3.2. Bernoulli's Equation Solved Problems 15.1—15.3 15.3.3. Momentum Equations Velocity of Sound or Pressure Wave in a Fluid 15.4.1. Expression for Velocity of Sound ‘Wave in a Fluid 15.4.2. Velocity of Sound in Terms of Bulk Modulus 15.4.3. Velocity of Sound for Isothermal Process. 15.4.4. Velocity of Sound for Adiabatic Process Mach Number Solved Problems 15.4—15.7 Propagation of Pressure Waves (or Disturbances ) in a Compressible Fluid 15.6.1. Mach Angle 15.6.2. Zone of Action 15.6.3. Zone of Silence Solved Problems 15.8—16.10 Stagnation Properties 15.7.1. Expression for Stagnation Pressure (p,) 15.7.2. Expression for Stagnation Density (p,) 15.7.3. Expression for Stagnation Temperature (T,) Solved Problems 15.11—15.12 Area Velocity Relationship for Compressible Flow Flow of Compressible Fluid Through Orifices and Nozzles Fitted to a Large Tank 15.9.1. Value of n or 21 for Maximum Value Pa of Mass Rate of Flow 15.9.2. Value of V, for Maximum Rate of Flow of Fluid 15.9.3. Maximum Rate of Flow of Fluid Through Nozzle e 15.9.4. Variation of Mass Rate of Flow of Compressible Fluid with Pressure ratio (24) 15.9.5. Velocity at Outlet of Nozzle for Maximum Rate of Flow is Equal to Sonie Velocity Solved Problems 15-13—15.15 Mass Rate of Flow of Compressible Fluid Through Veaturimeter Solved Problem 15.16 Pitot Static Tube in a Compressible Flow Solved Problem 15.17 Highlights Exercise 695 695 695 697 702 702 702 704 705 705 705 706 708 709 710 710 710 m1 mu 715 75 716 718 79 a1 722 723 723 724 727 728 730 731 731 734(oxi) Chapter 16. Flow in Open Channels 137-802 16.1. Introduction 737 16.2. Classification of Flow in Channels os 737 16.2.1. Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow : 737 162.2. Uniform Flow and Non-uniform Flow 737 16.2.3. Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow 738 16.2.4. Sub-eritical, Critical and Super-Critical Flow 738 16.3. Discharge Through Open Channel by Chezy's Formula 739 Solved Problems 16.1—16.7 ” 740 16.4. Empirical Formulae for the Value of Chezy’s Constant 744 Solved Problems 16.8—16.12 os 145 16.5. Most Economical Section of Channels - 749 16.5.1. Most Economical Rectangular Channel 749 Solved Problems 16.13—16.15 ” 750 16.5.2. Most Economical Trapezoidal Channel 752 Solved Problems 16.16—16.22 - 54 16.5.3. Best Side Slope for Most Economical ‘Trapezoidal Section 762 Solved Problems 16.23—16.24 . 763 16.5.4. Flow Through Circular Channel 766 Solved Problems 16.25—16.29 ” 766 16.5.5. Most Economical Circular Section . 77 Solved Problems 16.30—16.32 - 115 16.6. Non-Uniform Flow through Open Channels TT 16.1. Specific Energy and Specific Energy Curve : 17 16.7.1. Critical Depth (A) c 779 16.7.2. Critical Velocity (V,) 5 779 16.7.3. Minimum Specific Energy in Terms of Critical Depth e 780 Solved Problems 16.33—16.35 : 780 16.7.4. Critical Flow 781 16.7.5. Streaming Flow or Sub-critical Flow or ‘Tranquil Flow 782 16.7.6. Super-Critical Flow or Shooting Flow or ‘Torrential Flow oe 782 16.7.7. Alternate Depths : 782 16.7.8. Condition for Maximum Discharge for a Given Value of Specifie Energy 782 Solved Problems 16.6—16.37 - 782 16.8. Hydraulic Jump or Standing Wave 783 16.8.1. Expression for Depth of Hydraulic Jump 784 16.8.2. Expression for Loss of Energy Due to Hydraulic Jump 786 16.8.3. Expression for Depth of Hydraulic Jump in Terms or Upstream Froude Number e 78716.8.4. (xii) Length of Hydraulic Jump Solved Problems 16.38—16.42 16.9. Gradually Varied Flow (G.V-F.) 16.9.1 16.9.2. 16.9.3. Equation of Gradually Varied Flow Solved Problems 16.43—16.44 Back Water Curve and Affux Expression for the Length of Back Water Curve Solved Problem 16.45 Highlights Exercise Chapter 17. Impact of Jets and Jet Propulsion 17.1. Introduction 17.2. Force Exerted by the Jet on a Stationary Vertical Plate 12.1. 17.2.2. Force Exerted by a Jet on Stationary Inclined Flat Plate Force Exerted by a Jet on Stationary Curved Plate Solved Problems 17.1—17.6 17.8. Force Exerted by a Jet on a Hinged Plate Solved Problems 17.7—17.10 (a) 174. Force Exerted by a Jet on Moving Plates MALL 174.2. 1743. 14a. 1145. 1746. Force on Flat Vertical Plate Moving in the Direction of Jet Force on the Inclined Plate Moving in ‘the Direction of the Jet Solved Problems 17.11—17.13 Force on the Curved Plate when the Plate is Moving in the Direction of Jet Solved Problems 17.14—17.17 Force Exerted by a Jet of Water on an Unsymmetrical Moving Curved Plate when Jet Strikes Tangentially at one of the Tips Solved Problems 17.18—17.23 Force Exerted by a Jet of Water on a Series of Vanes Force Exerted on a Series of Radial Curved Vanes Solved Problems 17.24—17.26 17.5. Jet Propulsion 175.1. 17.5.2. Jet Propulsion of a Tank with an Orifice Solved Problems 17.27—17.28 Jet Propulsion of Ships Solved Problems 17.29—17.33 Highlights Exercise 787 787 790 790 792 793 794 795 796 799 ‘803-852 803 803 804 805 807 809 810 14 815 815 816 818 819 823 826 833(exit) Chapter 18, Hydraulic Machines—Turbines 18.1. 18.2. 18.3. 184. 18.5. 18.6. 18.7. 18.8. 18.9. 18.10. 18.11. 18.12. 18.13. Introduction Turbines General Layout of a Hydroelectric Power Plant Definitions of Heads and Efficiencies of a Turbine Classification of Hydraulic Turbines Pelton Wheel (or Turbine) 186.1. Velocity Triangles and Work Done for Pelton Wheel 186.2. Points to be Remembered for Pelton Wheel Solved Problems 18.1—18.10 18.6.3. Design of Pelton Wheel Solved Problems 18.11—18.13 Radial Flow Reaction Turbines 18.7.1. Main Parts of a Radial Flow Reaction Turbine 18.7.2. Inward Radial Flow Turbine 18.7.3. Degree of Reaction 18.7.4, Definitions Solved Problems 18.14—18.20 18.7.5. Outward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine Solved Problems 18.21—18.22 Francis Turbine 18.8.1, Important Relations for Francis Turbines Solved Problems 18.23—18.26 Axial Flow Reaction Turbine 18.9.1. Some Important Point for Propeller (Kaplan Turbine) Solved Problems 18.27—18.33 Draft-Tube 18.10.1. ‘Types of Draft Tubes 18.10.2, Draft-Tube Theory 18.103. Efficiency of Draft-Tube Solved Problems 18.33 (a)—18.35, Specific Speed 18.111, Derivation of the Specifie Speed 18.1.2. Significance of Specific Speed Solved Problems 18.36—18.41 Unit Quantities 18.12.1. Unit Speed 18.122. Unit Discharge 18.12.3. Unit Power 18.124. Use of Unit Quantities (N,, Qu, P.) Solved Problems 18.41 (a)—18.45 Characteristic Curves of Hydraulic Turbines 18.13.1. Main Characteristic Curves or Constant Head Curves 18.13.2, Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves ‘853-944 853 853 853 853 856 857 905 905 915 915 916 916 917 920 920 921 921 927 927 928 928 929 933 933 93418.14. (xxiv) 18.13.3. Constant Efficiency Curves or Muschel Curves or Iso-Efficieney Curves Governing of Turbines Highlights Exercise Chapter 19. Centrifugal Pumps 19.1. 19.2. 19.3. 19.4. 19.5. 19.6. 19.7. 19.8. 19.9. 19.10. 19.11. 19.12. 19.13. 19.14. Introduction Main Parts of a Centrifugal Pump Work Done by the Centrifugal Pump (or by Impfier) on Water Definitions of Heads and Efficiencies of a Centrifugal Pump Solved Problems 19.1—19.12 Minimum Speed for Starting a Centrifugal Pump Solved Problems 19.13—19.15 Multistage Centrifugal Pumps 19.6.1. Multistage Centrifugal Pumps for High Heads 19.6.2. Multistage Centrifugal Pumps for High Discharge Solved Problems 19.16—19.17 Specific Speed of a Centrifugal Pump (N,) 19.7.1. Expression for Specific Speed for a Pump Model Testing of Centrifugal Pumps Solved Problems 19.18—19.22 Priming of a Centrifugal Pamp Characteristic Curves of Centrifugal Pumps 19.10.1, Main Characteristic Curves 1910.2. Operating Characteristic Curves 19.10.3. Constant Efficiency Curves Cavitation 19.11.1. Precaution Against Cavitation 19.112. Effects of Cavitation 19.11.3. Hydraulic Machines Subjected to Cavitation 19.114. Cavitation in Turbines 19.115. Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps Solved Problem 19.23 Maximum Suction Lift (or Suction Height) Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) Cavitation in Centrifugal Pump Solved Problem 19.24 Highlights Bxereise Chapter 20. Reciprocating Pumps 20.1. 20.2. 20.3. Introduction Main Parts of a Reciprocating Pump Working of a Reciprocating Pump 935 936 937 939 945-992 945 945 947 948 951 965 966 968 968 969 969 971 971 972 973 978 978 978 979 979 980 980 981 981 981 981 982 983 985 985 986 987 989 993-1040 993 993 99420.4. 20.5. 20.6. 20.7. 20.8. 20.9. 20.10. oo) 20.3.1. Discharge Through a Reciprocating Pump 20.3.2, Work Done by Reciprocating Pump 20.3.3. Discharge, Work Done and Power Required to Drive a Double-acting Pump Slip of Reciprocating Pump 20.4.1. Negative Slip of the Reciprocating Pump Classification of Reciprocating Pumps Solved Problems 20.1—20.2 Variation of Velocity and Acceleration in the Suction and Delivery Pipes Due to Acceleration of the Piston Effect of Variation of Velocity on Friction in the Suction and Delivery Pipes Solved Problem 20.3 Indicator Diagram 20.8.1. Ideal Indicator Diagram 20.8.2. Bffect of Acceleration in Suction and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram Solved Problems 20.4—20.9 20.8.8. Bffect of Friction in Suction and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram 20.8.4. Biffect of Acceleration and Friction in Suction and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram Solved Problems 20.10—20.12 20.8.5. Maximum Speed of a Reciprocating Pump Solved Problem 20.13 Air Vessels Solved Problems 20.14—20.18 Comparison between Centrifugal Pumps and Reciprocating Pumps Highlights Exercise Chapter 21. Fluid System 21a. 21.2. 21.3. 214. 21.5. Introduction ‘The Hydraulic Press 21.2.1. Mechanical Advantage 212.2. Leverage of the Hydraulic Press 21.2.3. Actual Heavy Hydraulic Press Solved Problems 21.1—21.5 ‘The Hydraulic Accumulator 21.3.1. Capacity of Hydraulic Accumulator Solved Problems 21.6—21.11 21.3.2. Differential Hydraulic Accumulator ‘The Hydraulic Intensifier Solved Problems 21.12—21.18 ‘The Hydraulic Ram Solved Problems 21.14—21.15 994 995 995 996 997 997 997 998 1001 1001, 1003, 1003 1004 1004 1012 1013 1015 1019 1020 1021, 1030 1037 1037 1038 1041-1070 1041 1041 1042 1042 1042 1043, 1045, 1046 1047 1051 1051 1053 1053 1055(xvi) 21.6. The Hydraulic Lift 21.6.1. Direct Acting Hydraulic Lift 21.6.2. Suspended Hydraulic Lift Solved Problems 21.16—21.17 21.7. The Hydraulic Crane Solved Problems 21.18—21.20 21.8. The Fluid or Hydraulic Coupling 21.9. The Hydraulic Torque Converter 21.10. The Air Lift Pump 21.11. The Gear-Wheel Pump Highlights Exercise Objective Type Questions Appendix Subject Index 1056 1057 1057 1058 1060 1060 1063, 1064 1065 1066 1067 1068 1071-1094 1095-1096 1097-1102PROPERTIES OF rao tN > 1.1 INTRODUCTION Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of the fluids (liquids or ‘gases) at rest as well as in motion. Thus this branch of science deals with the static, kinematics and dynamic aspects of fluids. The study of fluids at rest is called fluid staties. The study of fluids in motion, where pressure forces are not considered, is called fluid kinematics and if the pressure forces are also considered for the fluids in motion, that branch of science is called fluid dynamics. > 1.2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 1.2.1 Density or Mass Density. Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the ‘mass of a fluid to its volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density. It is denoted by the symbol p (tho). The unit of mass density in SI unit is kg per cubic metre, i, kg/m®. The density of liquids may be considered as constant while that of gases changes with the variation of pressure and temperature. ‘Mathematically, mass density is written as Mass of fluid ‘Volume of fluid © ‘The value of density of water is 1 gm/cm? or 1000 kg/m>, 1.2.2. Specific Weight or Weight Density. Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio between the weight of a fluid to its volume. Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is called ‘weight density and itis denoted by the symbol w. Weight of fluid _ (Mass of fluid) x Acceleration due to gravity ‘Thus mathematically, " * Volume of uid Volume of fluid = Mass of fluid x g © Volume of uid cox { Mass of luid__ } ace Volume of fluid wpe (ay[2 Fluid Mechanics ] ‘The value of specific weight or weight density (w) for water is 9.81 x 1000 Newton/m* in SI units. 1.2.3 Specific Volume. Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied. by a unit mass or volume per unit mass of a fluid is called specific volume. Mathematically, it is expressed as Volume of fluid 1 1 volume Mass of fluid Mass of fluid“ 5 ‘Volume of fluid ‘Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It is expressed as m’/kg. It is commonly applied to gases. Speci 1.2.4. Specific Gravity. Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or density) of a fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard fluid. For liquids, the standard fluid is taken water and for gases, the standard fluid is taken air. Specific gravity is also called relative density. Itis dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the symbol S. Weight density (density) of liquid ‘Weight density (density) of water ‘Weight density (density) of gas Weight density (density) of air Sx Weight density of water X 1000 x 9.81 Nim? Sx Density of water = 5x 1000 kg/m’, (LIA) If the specific gravity of a fluid is known, then the density of the fluid will be equal to specific gravity of fluid multiplied by the density of water. For example, the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6, hence density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m’. Mathematically, S(for liquids) ‘S(for gases) = ‘Thus weight density of a liqui ‘The density of a liquid Problem 1.1 Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre of a liquid which weighs 7 N. Solution. Given : 1 1 ow 3 Volume = 1 tre = itre= ire = lume = 1 tire= 55m? (' Thte=—A morte = 1000 em) Weight = 7N Weight ___7N i), Specific weight (w a OE: CD) ‘Volume ( 1 a 1000 (i Density (p) = A = me kg/m? = 713.5 kg/m®. Ans. Density of liquid _ 7135 Density of water 1000 (Density of water = 1000 kg/m?} (iii) Specific gravity[ Properties of Fluids 3) Problem 1.2 Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one litre of petrol of specific gravity = 0.7 Solution. Given: Volume = 1 hie= 1 1000 em® = 02 m*= 0.001 m? Sp. gravity s=07 (0 Density (p) Using equation (1.14), Density (p) = 5 x 1000 kg/m? = 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m*, Ans. (id) Specific weight (w) Using equation (1.1), w= px g= 7009.81 Nim? = 6867 N/m’. Ans. (i) Weight (W) Weight We know that specific weight = a ete Volume or 6867 = ‘0007 0.001 W= 6867 x 0.001 = 6.867 N. Ans. > 1.3 VISCOSITY Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. When two layers of a fluid, a distance “dy” apart, move one over the other at different velocities, say u and u + du as shown in Fig. I.1, the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid layers, The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower ayer wie te lowe layer eases \ a shear stress on the adjacent top layer. This shear a stres is proportional tothe rate of change of ve- t [Lew locity with respect to y. It is denoted by symbol y a ft) A-veoory prone Mathematically, eo or 1.2) ‘where 1 (called mu) is the constant of proportionality and is known as the co-efficient of dynamic viscosity ony viscosity. represent thereof shear stn rate of shea efomatono velo grate du dy Thus viscosity is also defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain. 1.3.1 Units of Viscosity. The units of viscosity is obtained by putting the dimensions of the {quantities in equation (1.3) From equation (1.2), we have jt (1.3) Fig. 11 Velocity variation near a solid boundary.[4 Fluid Mechanics ] Shear stress Foree/Area Change of velocity EG. Tene), Change of distance (Time )* Length Force/(Length)*_ Force x Time 1 (Length) Time In MKS system, force is represented by kgf and length by metre (m), in CGS system, force is represented by dyne and length by cm and in SI system force is represented by Newton (N) and length by metre (m).. 1. MKS unit of viscosity = REESE m dyne-see em In the above expression N/m? is also known as Pascal which is represented by Pa, Hence N/m? = Pascal CGS unit of viscosity Sl unit of viscosity = Ns/m? = Pa s. Sl unit of viscosity Newion-see _ Ne ‘The numerical conversion of the unit of viscosity from MKS unit to CGS unit is given below : 981N-see one kgf-sec (1 kgf= 9.81 Newton) m m But one Newton = one kg (mass) x one ( ) (acceleration) wee (1000 gm) x (100 em) ~ sec 1000 x 100 © = 1000 x 100 dyne , dyne=am x $2} me KBE-SEE 9 81 109000 IEE « 0,81 x 100000 9H m = 100 x 100 x en = 98.1 HME 08.1 poise {: sneree, Poise} ‘Thus for solving numerical problems, if viscosity is given in poise, it must be divided by 98.1 to get its equivalent numerical value in MKS. one kgf-sec _ 981NS one Ns _ 981 LNs 8 poise = 10 poise or One poise = + NS m 981° a Pose 0 m But = 98.1 poise[ Properties of Fluids 5) Alternate Method. One poise = 2%°%S. (teste xo But dyne kg One poise m too 2-1 KS, ke sm 10 sm sm Note, (i) In SI units second is represented by ‘s’ and not by ‘sec’. 4i)_IE viscosity is given in pois, it must be divided by 10 to get its equivalent numerical value in SI unit. Sometimes a unit of viscosity as centipoise is used where 1 1 1 centipoise = 1 poise or 1eP=—- p [cP = Cemtipoise, P = Poise poise = 755 pol mm? & ip 1 ‘The viscosity of water at 20°C is 0.01 poise oF 1.0 centipoise 1.3.2. Kinematic Viscosity. It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid. It is denoted by the Greek symbol (v) called ‘nu’. Thus, mathematically, Viscosity _ a Density ~ p ‘The units of kinematic viscosity is obtained as Unitsof_ Force x Time ___ Force x Time Units of (Leng? x Mass" “Mass Teng)” — Length Length Mass x xTime = (Time)? b Mass Length (Length)? = Time” In MKS and SI, the unit of kinematic viscosity is metre”/sec or m*/sec while in CGS units it is written as em?/s. In CGS units, kinematic viscosity is also known as stoke. ts ; cette = ue 100 1.3.3. Newton's Law of Viscosity. It states that the shear stress (¢) on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the co- efficient of viscosity. Mathematically, itis expressed as given by equation (1.2) or as[6 Fluid Mechanics ] Fluids which obey the above relation are known as Newtonian fluids and the fluids which do not ‘obey the above relation are called Non-Newtonian fluids. 1.3.4 Variation of Viscosity with Temperature. Temperature affects the viscosity. The viscosity of liquids decreases with the increase of temperature while the viscosity of gases increases With the increase of temperature. This is due to reason that the viscous forces in a fluid are due to cohesive forces and molecular momentum transfer. In liquids, the cohesive forces predominates the molecular momentum transfer, due t0 closely packed molecules and with the increase in temperature, the cohesive forces decreases with the result of decreasing viscosity. But in case of gases the cohesive forces are small and molecular momentum transfer predominates. With the increase in temperature, molecular momentum transfer increases and hence viscosity increases. The relation between viscosity and temperature for liquids and gases are: .(— ay Trartpr where t= Viscosity of liquid at °C, in poise ‘iscosity of liquid at 0°C, in poise (0 For liquids, ©, B= Constants forthe liquid For water, Hy = 1.79 x 10° poise, «= 0.03368 and B = 0.000221. Equation (1.4) shows that with the increase of temperature, the viscosity decreases. (ii) For a gas, H= Hy +r - BP (1.48) where for air [ly = 0.000017, 0 = 0.000000056, f = 0.1189 x 10°°. Equation (1.48) shows that with the increase of temperature, the viscosity increases. 1.3.5 Types of Fluids. The fluids may be classified into the following five types : 1. Ideal fluid, 2. Real fluid, 3. Newtonian fluid, 4, Non-Newtonian fluid, and 5. Ideal plastie fluid. 1. Ideal Fluid. A fluid, which is incompressible and is having no viscosity, is known as an ideal fluid. eal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which exist, have some viscosity 2. Real Fluid. A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is known as real fluid. All the fluids, in actual practice, are real fluids. 3. Newtonian Fluid. A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient, is known as a Newtonian fluid. — vetoorry eraoienr ($3) 4. Non-Newtonian Fluid. A real fluid, in which the ‘yi shear stress is not proportional to the rate of shear strain (or ig. 1.2 Types of fluids. velocity gradient), known as a Non-Newtonian fluid. 5. Ideal Plastic Fluid. A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield value and shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as ideal plastic fluid. —+ shear srress: Problem 1.3. if the velocity distribution over a plate is given by u = z y =¥ in which w is the velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate, determine the shear stress at y = Ocand y = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.63 poises.[ Properties of Fluids 7) Solution. Given : u ),_.( w 863 Value of [= 8.63 poise SI units = 0.863 N sim? Now shear stress is given by equation (1.2) as t= #. (0 Shear suess at y= 0 is given by cas) setoroenasrmican (i) Shear stress at y= 0.15 mis given by ©, -01s=H (#) 7 088 0.367 = 03167 Nin. A Problem 1.4 A plate 0.025 mm distant from a fixed plate, moves at 60 cm/s and requires a force of 2N per unit area i.e., 2 N/m to maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between the plates. Solution. Given : 1 Distance between plates, dy = .025 mm B 025 x 107 m Velocity of upper plate, = 60 em/s = 0.6 mis Te N FIXED PLATE. Force on upper plate, e205 9 ‘This is the value of shear stress i.e., Let the fluid viscosity between the plates is 1. du Using the equation (1.2), we have t where 2 OX M2510" gy 495 BE = 8.33 x 10° x 10 poise = “ poise. Ans. Problem 1.5 A flat plate of area 1.5 x 10° mn’ is pulled with a speed of 04 mis relative 10 ‘another plate located ata distance of 0.15 mm from it Find the force and power required to maintain this speed, ifthe fluid separating them is having viscosity as I poise.[8 Fluid Mechanics ] Solution. Given : ‘Area of the plate, A= 15x 10° mm? = 1.5 m* Speed of plate relative to another plate, du = 0.4 m/s, Distance between the plates, dy = 0.15 mm = 0.15 x 10° m ec r a (2) Le dy 10 15x10 > im oO Shear force, F = 7X area = 266.66 x 1.5 = 400 N. Ans. (W Power* required to move the plate at the speed 0.4 m/sec = Fx w= 400 x 0.4 = 160 W. Ans. Problem 1.6 Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity = 1 poise. The oil is used {for lubricating the clearance between a shaft of diameter 10 em and its journal bearing. The clearance is 1.5 mm and the shaft rotates at 150 r.p.m. Solution. Given : w= 1 poise= + Ss 10 m Dia. of shaft, D=10em=0.1m Distance between shaft and journal bearing, dy = 1.5 mm=15x 10m Speed of shaft, N= 150rp.m, ‘Tangential speed of shaft is given by EDN _ KxX01X150 B= 0.785 mis Using equation (1.2), where d= change of velocity between shaft and bearing = « - 0 =u 10785 10" 15x10 Problem 1.7 Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is used for lubrication between a square plate of size 0.8 m x 0.8 m and an inclined plane with angle of inclination 30° as shown in Fig. 1.4. The weight of the square plate is 300 N and it slides down the inclined plane with a uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s. The thickness of oil film is 1.5 mm. Solution. Given : 52.33 Nim*. Ans. Area of plate, A= 0.8% 0.8 = 0.64 m? Angle of plane, @=30° Weight of plate, W=300N Velocity of plate, u=03 mis * Power= PxuNmis= Fx uW(: Nes = Watt)Properties of Fluids 9) Thickness of oil film, t= dy=15mm= 15109 m Let the viscosity of fluid between plate and inclined plane is Component of weight W, along the plane = W cos 60° = 300 cos 60° = 150 N ‘Thus the shear force, F, on the bottom surface of the plate = 150 N and shear stress, te OO Nm ‘Area 068 Now using equation (1.2), we have du dy where du = change of velocity = u—0 = w= 0.3 mis dy= 215% 10% m 150 03 ost" 15x10" p= ROIS AIO 117 N sim? = 1.17 x 10 = 11.7 poise. Ans. 064% 03 Problem 1.8 Two horizontal plates are placed 1.25 em apart, the space between them being filled with oil of viscosity 14 poises. Calculate the shear stress in oil if upper plate is moved with a velocity of 25 mis Solution. Given : Distance between plates, dy = 1.25 em = 0.0125 m 4 FI Viscosity, = 14 poise = 4 N sim? y w= 14 poise = 7 Velocity of upper plate, w= 2.5 m/sec. Shear stress is given by equ: du 12) as,t=4 (12) as, t= 4 where du = Change of velocity between plates = u ~ 2.5 misec. dy = 0.0125 m. 425 ; T= 19% pias = 280. Nim*. Ans. Problem 1.9 The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with oil. Each side of the late is 60 cm. The thickness of the oil film is 12.5 mm. The upper plate, which moves at 2.5 metre per sec requires a force of 98.1 N to maintain the speed. Determine : (i) the dynamic viscosity of the oil in poise, and (ii) the kinematic viscosity of the oil in stokes ifthe specific gravity of the oil is 0.95. Solution. Given : Each side of a square plate = 60.em = 0.60 m Area, A= 0.6 x 0.6 = 0.36 m? Thickness of oil film, dy = 12.5 mm = 12.5 x 10° m Velocity of upper plate, = 2.5 m/sec[10 Fluid Mechanics ] Change of velocity between plates, du = 2.5 mise = 981.N Force _F__981N Area A 0.36m* (i) Let 1 = Dynamic viscosity of oil Force required on upper plate, Shear stress, du | 981 25 Se ee dy” 036 125x10™ 981, 12.5%10" 036 25 3635 x 10 = 13.635 poise. Ans. Using equation (1.2), = cas 7 NS= 10 poise) (Gi) Sp. gr. of oil, $ = 0.95 Let v = kinematic viscosity of oi Using equation (1.14), Mass density of oil, p= Sx 1000 = 0.95 x 1000 = 950 kg/m? 1 360 *s) Using the relation, v= 4, we get y= ——™/ = 001435 m*ise 930 = 14,35 stokes. Ans. ( em?ls = stoke) Problem 1.10 Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 981 kg/m*. The shear stress at 44 point in oil is 0.2452 N/m? and velocity gradient at that point is 0.2 per second. Solution. Given : Mass density, Shear stress, Velocity gradient, Using the equation (1.2), 02452 “0.200 Kinematic viscosity v is given by we _ 1226 | = 1.226 Nsim? 125 x 10°? m/sec p 98L 0.125 x 10? x 10 em*/s = 0.125 x 10? emis = 12.5 cm/s = 12.5 stoke. Ans. (Cz em*Is = stoke) Problem 1.11 Determine the specific gravity of a fluid having viscosity 0.05 poise and kinematic viscosity 0.035 stokes. Solution. Given : soy = 005 pote = MS Nant[ Properties of Fluids 11) (0.035 stokes 0.035 em*/s = 0.035 x 10°* mis Kinematic viscosity, stoke = em*Is} Using the relation v= !., we get 0.035 x 104 e ° P 905 1 _ 3408.5 kein? 10 * 0.03510 of liquid _ 14285 _ Det of liquid = rece Density of water 1000 = 1.4285 = 1.43. Ans. Problem 1.12 Determine the viscosity of a liquid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes and specific gravity 19. Solution. Given : Kinematic viscosity V = 6 stokes = 6 em*/ Sp. gt. of liquid 9 Let the viscosity of Hiquid = yt _ Density of the liquid Density of water 6x10 ms Now sp. gr. of a liquid or 1.9 = Density of liquid 1000 kg “. Density of liquid = 1000 x 1.9 = 1900 “8 m :. Using the relation x 10" x 1900 = 1.14 Ns/m? -14 x 10 = 11.40 poise. Ans. Problem 1.13 The velocity distribution for flow over a flat plate is given by u = y—y* inwhich wis the velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate. Determine the shear stress, at y = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.6 poise. Solution. Given : At y=0.15, Viscosity,[12 Fluid Mechanics ] du _ 85 N Hy SONS ge = ORRRS Te Ams. Problem 1.14 The dynamic viscosity of an oil, used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve is 6 poise. The shaft is of diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 r.p.m, Calculate the power lost in the bearing {fora sleeve length of 90 mm. The thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mm. Solution. Given : $0 Viscosity H=6 poise Using equation (1.2), Dia. of shaft, Speed of shaft, Sleeve length, ‘Thickness of oil film, ‘Tangential velocity of shaft, w 60 Using the relation cep where di 98 mis Change of velocity =u — dy = Change of distance x 103m t=10x oe 592 N/m? 15x10° This is shear stress on shaft Shear force on the shaft, F = Shear stress x Area 1592 x RD x L= 1592 x rx 4x90 x 10°? = 180.05 N 04 Tonge onthe shat, T= Foxe x 2= 18005 x 84 =3601 Nm = 2RNT _ 2nx190%36.01 ~— 60 60 Problem 1.18 ifthe velocity profile ofa fluid over a plate is parabolic with the vertex 20 em from the plate, where the velocity is 120 emlsec. Calculate the velocity gradients and shear stresses at a distance of 0, 10 and 20 cm from the plate, ifthe viscosity of the fluid is 8.5 poise. Solution. Given : Distance of vertex from plate = 20 em Velocity at vertex, = 120 emisee “Power lost = 716.48 W. Ans. SSNs 10 m? Viscosity, H=85 poise * Power in $. uni[ Properties of Fluids 13) ‘The velocity profile is given parabolic and equation of velocity profile is, uray tbyte od) where a, b and ¢ are constants. Their values are determined from boundary conditions as : (@) aty=0,u=0 (®) aty = 20 em, u = 120 em/see du (© aty= 20m, = 0. Substituting boundary condition (a) in equation (i), we get Boundary condition (b) on substitution in (i) gives 120 = a(20)* + b(20) = 4000+ 200 Ai) Boundary condition (c) on substitution in equation (i) gives du Grete ii) or 0=2xax204D=400+b Solving equations (i) and (i) for @ and b From equation (iii), b=-40a Substituting this value in equation (i), we get 120 = 4000 + 20 x ( 40a) = 4000 - 8000 2023 =400 *~ 70 . b==40x(-03) = 120 ‘Substituting the values of a, b and ¢ in equation (i), u=—0.3y? + 12y. Ei a -03 Velocity Gradient == 03x 2y+ 12=-0.6y +12 aty = 0.6 x 0+ 12 = 124. Ans. at y= 10cm, 0.6 x 10 + 12=-6 + 12 = 6/s. Ans. at y= 20cm, 0.6 x 204 12 =~ 12+ 12=0. Ans. Shear Stresses Shear stress is given by,[14 Fluid Mechanics ] 0.85 x 12.0 = 10.2 Nim’. (@ Shear stress at (24) =08860=51 wm i) Shear stress at y = 10, w 5) ey (Gil) Shear stress at y= 20, Problem 1.16 A Newtonian fluid is filled in he clearance between a shaft and a concentric sleeve. The sleeve attains a speed of 50 cmd, when a force of 40 N is applied to the sleeve parallel to the shaft. Determine the speed if a force of 200 N is applied. Solution. Given : Speed of sleeve, uy = 50 em/s when force, F,=40N. Let speed of sleeve is te when force, F = 200 N. Using relation where t = Shear stress ‘du = Change of velocity dy = Clearance {¥ A,qand y are constant} Substituting values, we get 42 = 200 50 My 50x20 = 59 x5 50 cm/s. Ans. 40 Problem 1.17 A 15 cm diameter vertical cylinder rotates concentrically inside another eylinder of diameter 15.10 cm, Both cylinders are 25 em high. The space between the cylinders is filled with a liquid whose viscosity is unknown. If a torque of 12.0 Nm is required to rotate the inner cylinder at 100 r-p.m., determine the viscosity of the fluid. Solution. Given : Diameter of cylinder = 15 em = 0.15 m Dia. of outer cylinder = 15.10 em = 0.151 m Length of cylinders, 1 = 250m=0.25 m Torque, T = 12.0 Nm[ Properties of Fluids 15) Speed, Let the viscosity RDN _ rx 015x100 Tangential velocity of eylinder, «= = 0.7854 mis o SENS. 0 Cy Surface area of eylinder, A= RD XL= nx 0.15 x 0.25 = 1178 m? Now using relation ee ay where dus u-0=u= 7854 mis y= O1SI=0150 Fy - 0905 m 2 yx. 7854 [0005 Shear foree, D Torque, TeFxe 120 BME srg tS 12.0%.0005 2 9 s64 N gm? 7854 x 1178 15 = 0.864 x 10 = 8.64 poise. Ans. Problem 1.18 Two large plane surfaces are 2.4 em apart. The space between the surfaces is filled with glycerine. What force is required to drag a very thin plate of surface area 0.5 square metre between the two large plane surfaces at a speed of 0.6 ms, if (i) the thin plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces, and (ii) the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 em from one of the plane surfaces ? Take the dynamic viscosity of glycerine = 8.10 x 10"! N s/n? Solution. Given : Distance between two large surfaces = 2.4 em separa ‘Area of thin plate, A=05m? 12cm Velocity of thin plate, = 0.6 mis er Viscosity of glycerine, = 8.10 10" N sim? idem Case I. When the thin plate is in the midale of the two plane surfaces [Refer to Fig. 1.7 (a)] ooh Let F, = Shear force on the upper side of the thin plate Fig. 17 (@) F, = Shear force on the lower side of the thin plate F =Total force required to drag the plate Then FeF\+hy ‘The shear stress (t,) on the upper side of the thin plate is given by equation,[16 Fluid Mechanics ] ‘du dy}, where du = Relative velocity between thin plate and upper large plane surface 0.6 misee dy = Distance between thin plate and upper large plane surface 1.2 em = 0.012 m (plate isa thin one and hence thickness of plate is neglected) as n=si0x10"x( 26) 40.5 Nim? 012 Now shear force, hear stress x Area 1 XA= 40.5 x 0.5 = 20.25 N Similarly shear stress (,) on the lower side of the thin plate is given by 8.10 10 x { 2% 0012, ) = 40.5 im? Shear force, : 5x05 = 20.25N Total force, Fs F, + Fy= 20.25 + 20.25 = 40.5 N. Ans. Case I. When the thin plate is ata distance of 0.8 em from one of the plane surfaces [Refer to Fig. 1.7 (0)] yey ee Let the thin plate is at a distance 0.8 em from the lower plane surface. 166m “Ten distance ofthe plate rom the upper plane sutace atm | =24-0.8= 16cm 16m Va (Nepecting thcknes ofthe pate) ‘The shear force onthe upperside of he thin pate, = Shear stress Area t,x vig 170) ay, ‘The shear force on the lower side of the thin plate, du axAcu |“) xa +(e), 06 087100 ‘Total force required = F, + F, = 15.18 + 30.36 = 45.54 N. Ans. Problem 1.19 A vertical gap 2.2 cm wide of infinite extent contains a fluid of viscosity 2.0 N s/m* and specific gravity 0.9. A metallic plate 1.2 m X 1.2 m X0.2 em is to be lifted up with a constant velocity of 0.15 m/sec, through the gap. If the plate is in the middle of the gap, find the force required. The weight of the plate is 40 N. Solution. Given : Width of gap = 2.2 em, viscosity, y= 2.0 N s/m? Sq. gr. of fluid 09 =n(“*) xa=8.10%107x 22) x05 = 15.18 | 0.016 Fy =810310 (28) x05=20366[ Properties of Fluids 17) Weight density of fluid 091000500 gt = 9009.8 Nim? (oD kgf = 9.81 N) Volume of plate = 1.2mx1.2mx0.2em 1.2 1.2 x 002 m*= 00288 m? ‘Thickness of plate 0.2em Velocity of plate = 0.15 m/sec Weight of plate 40N. ‘When plate is in the middle of the gap, the distance of the plate from vertical surface of the gap Fig. 18 . (wa of gap~Thickness of pie) . 2 C208) = em= 01m. 2 Now the shear force on the left side of the metallic plate, F, = Shear stress x Area =» (22) xam20s(28)xranian (cr Area = 1.2 x 1.2m?) Similarly, the shear force on the right side of the metallic plate, ‘Total shear force = 1+ Fy = 43.2 443.2 = 864 N, In this case the weight of plate (which is acting vertically downward) and upward thrust is also to be taken into account. ‘The upward thrust = Weight of fluid displaced (Weight density of fluid) x Volume of fluid displaced 81 x 900 x.00288 N (C+ Volume of fluid displaced = Volume of plate = .00288) = 2543 N, ‘The net force acting in the downward direction due to weight of the plate and upward thrust = Weight of plate ~ Upward thrust = 40 ~ 25.43 = 14.57 N Total force required to lift the plate up = Total shear force + 14.5 86.4 + 14.57 = 100.97N. Ans. > 1.4 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES Fluids consist of liquids or gases. But gases are compressible fluids and hence thermodynamic properties play an important role. With the change of pressure and temperature, the gases undergo[18 Fluid Mechanics large variation in density. The relationship between pressure (absolute), specific volume and temperature (absolute) of a gas is given by the equation of state as pV =RTor t RT (1.5) where p = Absolute pressure of a gas in N/m? VW = Specific volume = F Gas constant Absolute temperature in °K. Density of a gas. 1.4.1 Dimension of R. The gas constant, R, depends upon the particular gas. The dimension of R is obtained from equation (1.5) as (© In MKS units For air, Rin MKs = 293 “82m kg °K Rin s1=29.3x9.81 S® = 287 igrk 8 eek 1.4.2 Isothermal Process. If the change in density occurs at constant temperature, then the process is called isothermal and relationship between pressure (p) and density (p) is given by 6) 1.4.3 Adiabatic Process. If the change in density occurs with no heat exchange to and from the 288, the process is called adiabatic. And if no heat is generated within the gas due to friction, the relationship between pressure and density is given by 2 =Constant an where & = Ratio of specific heat of a gas at constant pressure and constant volume. = 1 for air.[ Properties of Fluids 19) 1.4.4. Universal Gas Constant Let ‘m= Mass of a gas in kg V = Volume of gas of mass m solute pressure solute temperature Then, we have p= mRT (1.8) where R = Gas constant. Equation (1.8) can be made universal, Z., applicable to all gases if itis expressed in mole-basis. Let n= Number of moles in volume of a gas V = Volume of the gas __ Mass of the gas molecules * “Mass of a hydrogen atom ‘m= Mass of a gas in kg Tenwepine nate Sting eve fmm qutin (1, ne poems? as) ‘pods Ms ld ergs const and sega 88 8s mo and 8314 J/kg-mole K in SI units. (One kilogram mole is defined as the product of one kilogram mass of the gas and its molecular weight. Problem 1.20 A gas weighs 16 N/m! at 25°C and at an absolute pressure of 0.25 N/mm. Deter- ‘mine the gas constant and density of the gas. Solution. Given : Weight density, w= 16 Nim’ Temperature, 125°C T= 273 4 1= 273 + 25 = 288°K p= 0.25 Nimm? (abs.) = 0.25 x 10° Nim? = 25 x 10 Nim? (0 Using relation w = pg, density is obtained as w_ 16 . JS 21.63 kg/m’. Ans. Pe ost ss (ii) Using equation (1.5), 2 = RT P P= 25x10" 539.55 NM ang pT 163x288 kek Problem 1.21. A cylinder of 0.6 m' in volume contains air at 50°C and 0.3 Ninn? absolute pressure. The air is compressed to 0.3 m*. Find (i) pressure inside the cylinder assuming isothermal process and (i) pressure and temperature assuming adiabatic process. Take k = 1.4 Solution. Given : Initial volume, y >[20 Fluid Mechanics ] ‘Temperature Pressure py = 03 Nimm? = 0.3 x 10° N/m? = 30 x 10* N/m? Final volume 3m? kod (@ Isothermal process + Using equation (1.6), 30x10" x06 0.6 x 10° N/m? = 0.6 N/mm?. Ans. (ii) Adiabatic process : Using equation (1.7), 3, (06) tot (28 nxt (2) = 0.791 x 10° Nim? = 0.791 Némm?, Ans. For temperature, using equation (1.5), we get pY = RT and also p W* = Constant P or rv! or Tw Constant Constant {+ Ris also constant} ) = 323x204 = 426.2°K Ans. Problem 1.22 Calculate the pressure exerted by 5 kg of nitrogen gas at a temperature of 10°C if the volume is 0.4 m’. Molecular weight of nitrogen is 28. Assume, ideal gas laws are applicable. Solution. Given : Mass of nitrogen =5kg ‘Temperature, 10°C o T=273+10= ‘Volume of nitrogen, v=04m? Molecular weight =28 Using equation (1.9), we have pV = nx Mx RT[ Properties of Fluids 21) where Mx R = Universal gas constant = s314 —Nm___ Kg-mole*K and one kg-mole = (kg-mass) x Molecular weight = (kg-mass) x28 for nitrogen = S314 956.9 _N™ 28 ke°K ‘The gas laws for nitrogen isp = mR, where R = Characteristic gs constant or px 0d = 5 x2969 x 283 p= 252969285 _ 1050283.7 Nim? = 1.08 Nim, Ans. 04 > 1.5 COMPRESSIBILITY AND BULK MODULUS Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of — = ‘elasticity, K which is defined as the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain, Consider a eylinder fited with a piston as shown in Fig. L9. ° Let V = Volume of a gas enclosed in the cylinder ‘p= Pressure of gas when volume is : Let the pressure is increased to p+ dp, the volume of gas CYLINDER decreases from WV to V~ dV. Fig. 19 ‘Then increase in pressure Ip ketim> Decrease in volume av Volumetric strain paral v ~ ve sign means the volume decreases with increase of pressure. Bulk modulus K = Inotease of pressure, Volumetric strain dp__-4dp 1 nae ay 1.10) ¥ 1 Compressibiit et ay pressibilty 3 Relationship between Bulk Modulus (K) and Pressure (p) for a Gas The relationship between bulk modulus of elasticity (K) and pressure for a gas for two different processes of compression are as () For Isothermal Process. Equation (1.6) gives the relationship between pressure (p) and density (p) of a gas as 2 = Constant Pp[22 Fluid Mechanics ] or pV = Constant Differentiating this equation, we get (p and V both are variables) pav+Vdp=0 or pdv=-Vdp or p Substituting this value in equation (1.10), we get K=p (a2) (ii) For Adiabatic Process. Using equation (1.7) for adiabatic process. - Constant or p V* = Constant Differentiating, we get pa(v*) + V'(dp) or px kx dv 4 VE dp or pa + dp 0 [Cancelling W*! to both sides} or ka =~ dp or pk Hence from equation (1.10), we have K= pk (1.13) = Ratio of specifie heat Problem 1.23 Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid, if the pressure of the liquid is increased from 70 Nicm? to 130 Néem?. The volume of the liquid decreases by 0.15 per cent. Solution. Given : Initial pressure = 70 Niem? Final pressure = 130 Nlem? dp = Increase in pressure = 130 - 70 = 60 N/em? Decrease in volume = 0.15% ous where K = Bulk modulus and 100 Bulk modulus, K is given by equation (1.10) as dp _ 60N/em* _ 60100 cdv IS aS v 100 Problem 1.24 Whar is the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid which is compressed in a cylinder ‘from a volume of 0.0125 m' at 80 Nem? pressure to a volume of 0.0124 m* at 150 Nien? pressure ? Solution. Given : Initial volume, ¥ = 0.0125 m* Final volume 0.0124 m?* s+ Decrease in volume, dV =.0125 ~.012: K 4x 10Niem?, Ans.[ Properties of Fluids 23) Initial pressure Final pressure Increase in pressure, dp = (150 ~ 80) = 70 N/em® Bulk modulus is given by equation (1.10) as v > 1.6 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas ‘or on the surface between two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a ‘membrane under tension, The magnitude of this force per unit length of the free surface will have the same value as the surface energy per unit area. It is denoted by Greek letter 6 (called sigma). In MKS units, itis expressed as kgf/m while in SI units as N/m. ‘The phenomenon of surface tension is explained by Pee coRrael Fig. 1.10. Consider three molecules A, B, C of a liquid in a mass of liquid. The molecule A is attracted in all directions equally by the surrounding molecules of the liquid. Thus the resultant force acting on the molecule A is zero, But the molecule B, which is situated near the free surface, is acted upon by upward and downward forces which are unbalanced, Thus a net resultant force on molecule B is acting in the downward direction. The molecule C, situated on the free surface of liquid, does experience a resultant downward force. All the molecules on the free surface experience a downward force. Thus the free surface of the liquid acts like a very thin film under tension of the surface of the liquid act as though it is an elastic membrane under tension. Fig. 110 Surface tension. 1.6.1 Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet. Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius ‘r’. On the entire surface of the droplet, the tensile force due to surface tension will be acting, Let @'= Surface tension of the liquid p = Pressure intensity inside the droplet (in excess of the outside pressure intensity) d= Dia, of droplet. Let the droplet is cut into two halves. The forces acting on one half (say left half) will be (0 tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cut portion as shown in Fig. 1.11 (b) and this is equal to = 6 x Circumference oxnd[24 Fluid Mechanics ] Rep ® ii) pressure force on the area ~ d? = p x ~ d® as shown in (i ps ier Fig. 1.11 (0). These two forces will be equal and opposite under equilibrium conditions, ée., MIDEORe I eeteAce rersion x x= Peoxnd ext , co ged 49 aay me 4 (©) PRESSURE FORCES Equation (1.14) shows that with the decrease of diameter Fig. 1.11 Forces on droplet. of the droplet, pressure intensity inside the droplet increases, 1.6.2 Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble. A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two surfaces in contact with air, one inside and other outside. Thus two surfaces are subjected to surface tension. In such case, we have pxt@ 2x(6x Rd) 2ond _ 86 crab (1.15) 4 1.6.3 Surface Tension on a Liquid Jet. Consider a liquid jet of diameter ‘a’ and length ‘L’ as shown in Fig. 1.12, Let p = Pressure intensity inside the liquid jet above the outside pressure {= Surface tension of the liquid A Consider the equilibrium of the sem jet, we have Z Force due to pressure 1p Xarea of semi jet Z pxLxd L of Force due to surface tension = 0X2. Z Equating the forces, we have Z pXLxd =0x2L j ett ay Fig. 112 Forces on liquid jet. Problem 1.25 The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is 0.0725 Nim. The pressure inside a droplet of water isto be 0.02 N/em? greater than the outside pressure. Calculate the diameter of the droplet of water. Solution. Given : Surface tension, 6 = 0.0725 Nim Pressure intensity, p in excess of outside pressure is oat % 7 Let of the droplet[ Properties of Fluids 25) d= ADO op m= 0085 100 = 148 mm. Ams. 0.02 x(10) Problem 1.26 Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm diameter when the inside pressure is 2.5 Nin? above atmospherie pressure. Solution. Given : Dia. of bubble, d= 40 mm = 40x 10m Pressure in excess of outside,p = 2.5 N/m? For a soap bubble, using equation (1.15), we get $o or 25 = SxO 40x10 25%40x10° o 8 Problem 1.27 The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04 mm is 10.32 N/ent (at- mospheric pressure). Calculate the pressure within the droplet if surface tension is given as 0.0725 Nim of water. Solution. Given : N/m = 0.0125 Nim. Ans. Dia. of droplet, d= 0.04 mm = .04 x 10 m Pressure outside the droplet = 10.32 N/em? = 10.32 x 10* N/m? Surface tension, = 00725 Nim The pressure inside the droplet, in excess of outside pressure is given by equation (1-14) or p= 49. -4%00725 _ 7959 nim? = 7250N. 0795 Nem? d= 04x10 10% cm? Pressure inside the droplet = p + Pressure outside the droplet 725 + 10.32 = 11.045 Niem?. Ans. 1.6.4 Capillarity. Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid. The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while the fall of the liquid surface i known as capillary depression. Itis expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid. Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of the tube and surface tension of the liquid. Expression for Capillary Rise. Consider a glass tube of small diameter ‘a’ opened at both ends and is inserted in a liquid, say water. ‘The liquid will rise in the tube above the level of the liquid. Let f= height of the liquid in the tube. Under a state of equilibrium, the weight of liquid of height 1 is balanced by the force atthe surface of the liquid in the tube. But the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube is due to surface tension. Fig. 143, Let 6 = Surface tension of liquid = Angle of contact between liquid and glass tube. ‘The weight of liquid of height iin the tube = (Area of tube x h) x p xg Capillary rise.[26 Fluid Mechanics ] Pxhxpxe 0.17) where p = Density of liquid Vertical component of the surface tensile force = (6x Circumference) x cos ® xnd xcos 0 (1.18) For equilibrium, equating (1.17) and (1.18), we get FP xx p xe = Xd x cos 0 _ BX md xcosO _ 4.60080 or j= SARA X CSD _ Ao cos0 (1.19) Faxpxs pxgxd ‘The value of @ between water and clean glass tube is approximately equal to zero and hence cos @ is ‘equal to unity. Then rise of water is given by _ 49 “ pxexd Expression for Capillary Fall. Ifthe glass tube is dipped in mercury, the level of mercury in the tube will be lower than the general level of the outside liquid as shown in Fig. 1.14. Let = Height of depression in tube. ‘Then in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the mercury inside the tube. First one is due to surface tension acting in the downward direction and is equal to Gx rd x cos 0. Second force is due to hydrostatic force acting upward and is equal to intensity of pressure at a depth “I x Area h (1.20) =pxt@ pexhx Si ( p=pshh x 4 Equating the two, we get oxndxcos O=pghx Tf 4G .cos® ae 21) pad Value of @ for mercury and glass tube is 128°. MERCURY Fig. 114 Problem 1.28 Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 2.5 mm diameter when immersed vertically in (a) water and (b) mercury. Take surface tensions = 0.0725 N/m for water and o= 0.52 Nim {for mercury in contact with air. The specific gravity for mercury is given as 13.6 and angle of contact = 130°, Solution. Given : Dia. of tube, a Surface tension, 6 for water 6 for mercury Sp. gr. of mercury Smm=2.5x 10° m 0725 N/m 52. Nim 3.6[ Properties of Fluids 27) Density = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m’. (a) Capillary rise for water (@ = 0°) 4x 00725 pxgxd 1000x981x 25x10” = 0118 m= 1.18 em, Ans. Using equation (1.20), we get = () For mercury Angle of contact between mercury and glass tube, @ = 130° 4.0088 4 052 x €08 130° pxgxd 136x100 x981x25x10~ 004 m = - 0.4 em. Ans. ‘The negative sign indicates the capillary depression. Using equation (1.21), we get t= Problem 1.29 Calculate the capillary effect in millimetres in a glass tube of 4 mm diameter, when immersed in (i) water, and (ii) mercury. The temperature of the liquid is 20°C and the values of the surface tension of water and mercury at 20°C in contact with air are 0.073575 Nim and 0.51 Nim respectively. The angle of contact for water is zero and that for mercury is 130°, Take density of water ‘at 20°C as equal to 998 kg/m. Solution. Given : Dia. of tube, d=4mm=4x 10m ‘The capillary effect (i.¢., capillary rise or depression) is given by equation (1.20) as p= 45.6088 pxexd where 6 = surface tension in N/m @ = angle of contact, and p = density (i Capillary effect for water 6 = 0.073575 Nim, 8 = 0° p= 998 kg/m? at 20°C = 40073575 x 0080" 998 x981%4 x10 (ii) Capillary effect for mercury 6 =0.51 Nim, @= 130° and 3. gr. x 1000 = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m? _ 4051 608 130° "= 13600981 x4 x 10 ‘The negative sign indicates the capillary depression. =7.51 x 10? m=7.51 mm. Ans, .46 x 10° m= = 2.46 mm. Ans. Problem 1.30 The capillary rise in the glass tube is not to exceed 0.2 mm of water. Determine its ‘minimum size, given that surface tension for water in contact with air = 0.0725 N/m. Solution. Given: Capillary rise, h= 0.2 mm = 0.2 x 10° m Surface tension, 6 = 0.0725 Nim[28 Fluid Mechanics ] Let dia. of tube ‘The angle @ for water Density (p) for water = 1000 kg/m? Using equation (1.20), we get 40 3 _ 4x 00725 pxexd "97%! = Too x9Bixd 4x 00725 ‘1000 x 981x 2x10 Thus minimum diameter of the tube should be 14.8 em. = 0.148 m = 14.8 em. Ans. Problem 1.31. Find out the minimum size of glass tube that can be used 10 measure water level if the capillary rise in the tube is to be restricted to 2 mm. Consider surface tension of water in contact with air as 0.073575 N/m. Solution. Given : Capillary rise, f= 2.0 mm =2.0 10 m Surface tension, 6 = 0.073575 Nim Let dia. of tube a ‘The angle @ for water ‘The density for water, p= 1000 kg/m? Using equation (1,20), we get 40 9.9 x 19 = 4% 0.073575 pxgxd 1000 x 981 xd 4x 0073575, 4X 0075979 ___ = 0,015 m= 15 em. Ans. 1000 x 981 x 2.x 10™ ‘Thus minimum diameter of the tube should be 1.5 em. Problem 1.32 An oil of viscosity 5 poise is used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve. The diameter of the shaft is 0.5 m and it rotates at 200 r-p.m. Calculate the power lost in oil for a sleeve length of 100 mm. The thickness of ol film is 1.0 mm. Solution. Given : Viscosity, I= 5 poise = 0.5 N sim? 10 Dia. of shaft, D=05m Speed of shaft, N= 200 rpm. Sleeve length, L = 100 mm = 100 x 10 m=0.1 m Thickness of oil film, 121.0 mm=1x 10% m RDN _ ©x05x200 Tangential velocity of shaft, u = = BK05%200 _ 5.235 mis es y 7 7 du Using the relation, ne wy[ Properties of Fluids 29) where, du = Change of velocity = u ~ 0 = u = 5.235 mls dy = Change of distance 1x 103m 255235 _ 36175 Nin? et The he sear aes on te a 1 Stew force on esha, P= heat wren x Area = 2617S XXD XL (Ara aD XE) zasinsxx03%01 = 41098 ea or Bw 41095 eae eee! oo 10274 252200 950 W = 2.5 1 Ane > 1.7 VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION ‘A change from the liquid state to the gaseous state is known as vaporization. The vaporization (which depends upon the prevailing pressure and temperature condition) occurs because of continuous ‘escaping of the molecules through the free liquid surface. Consider a liquid (say water) which is confined in a closed vessel. Let the temperature of liquid is 20°C and pressure is atmospheric. This liquid will vaporise at 100°C. When vaporization takes place, the molecules escapes from the free surface of the liquid. These vapour molecules get accumulated in the space between the free liquid surface and top of the vessel. These accumulated vapours exert a pressure on the liquid surface. This pressure is known as vapour pressure of the liquid or this is the pressure at which the liquid is converted into vapours. Again consider the same liquid at 20°C at atmospheric pressure in the closed vessel. If the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced by some means, the boiling temperature will also reduce. If the pressure is reduced t0 such an extent that it becomes equal to or less than the vapour pressure, the boiling of the liquid will start, though the temperature of the liquid is 20°C. Thus a liquid may boil ‘even at ordinary temperature, if the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced so as to be equal or less than the vapour pressure of the liquid at that temperature. Now considera flowing liquid in a system. If the pressure at any point in this flowing liquid becomes. ‘equal to of less than the vapour pressure, the vaporization of the liquid starts. The bubbles of these vapours are carried by the flowing liquid into the region of high pressure where they collapse, giving rise to high impact pressure. The pressure developed by the collapsing bubbles is so high that the ‘material from the adjoining boundaries gets eroded and cavities are formed on them. This phenomenon is known as cavitation. Hence the cavitation is the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid falls below the vapour pressure and sudden collapsing of these vapour bubbles in a region of higher pressure. When the vapour bubbles collapse, a very high pressure iscreated. The metallic surfaces, above which the liquid is flowing, is subjected to these high pressures, which cause pitting action on the surface. Thus cavities are formed on the metallic surface and hence the name is cavitation, 20NT- ky, THe angular velocity w= 22%. 0,000 0 + Power ncasofSL. Unit Pxcwor 2 atFluid Mechanics 2 ). Bulk modulus of elasticity is given as K= HIGHLIGHTS ‘The weight density or specific weight of a fluid is equal to weight per unit volume. It is also equal to, w=pxe. 2. Specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. The shear sess is proportional tthe velocity gradient 1. Mathematically. x= we > ” Kinematic viscosity vis given by v= 5. Poise and stokes are the units of viscosity and kinematic viscosity respectively. 5. To convert the unit of viscosity from poise to MKS units, poise should be divided by 98.1 and to convert poise into ST units, the poise should be divided by 10. SI unit of viscosity is Ns/m” or Pa, where N/m = Pa = Pascal 1. For a perfect gas, the equation of state is = Rr Pp 293 ket ke°K where R= gas constant and for = 287 Ske °K. etre ete le cen tena ee ote eee ae paar w ¥ Compress ith sip of ak dl fey or = Surface esion isexpesed in Nino dynlem, The relation Bete face tension (6 an erence “ Of pressure (p) between the inside and outside of a liquid drop is given as p = 80 For aso buble, p= $8 20 Fen eee eet quid jt, p= 29 Copiary ie ofa of Hai i given by n= 252288 ‘The value of @ for water is taken equal to zero and for mercury equal to 128° EXERCISE (A) THEORETICAL PROBLEMS |. Define the following fluid properties Density, weight density, specific volume and specific gravity of af . Differentiate between : (?) Liquids and gases, (i) Real fluids and ideal fluids, (if) Specific weight and specific volume of a Mui. What is the difference between dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity ? State their units of ‘measurementsProperties of Fluids 31) 4. Explain the terms : (2 Dynamic viscosity, and (i?) Kinematic viscosity. Give their dimensions, '5. State the Newton's law of viscosity and give examples of its application, 66. Enunciate Newton's law of viscosity. Explain the importance of viscosity in fluid motion, What is the effect of temperature on viscosity of water and that of air? 7. Define Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids. 8. What do you understand by terms : (7) Isothermal process, (i) Adiabatie process, and (iit) Universal-gas constant, 9. Define compressibility. Prove that compressibility fora perfect gas undergoing isothermal compression is + white for a perfect gas undergoing isentropic compression is 10, Define surface tension Prove that he lationship Betcen surface tenson and presse inside a droplet of iil nese foie presi given byp= 11 Expat leaner of pili Oi a ees or apy a gi 12 sing acne Ill ls Ep tp of ceil ad aoe (Deine he te: ey, se vole, spe ri aa prt, compete a comes fs (ah Vsmopte, Bhopal $200) 13 tins spn Now's yf iso 14 Comet kpkin aoe sce aoe 18 Wipe von ves hens onperse wile a ld deer wi ina nnn? 16) How oe vaca of i vay wh epr (iw oxmpier ne src nn cs fas ponent. NTU, Arba § 2002) 17. () Denson expen freon fern ogee Pins dpe gd nd te see nn (op de owing Nwtonan and NowNewona Bis vps pes, ad somes (REPL, opt $2001 (B) NUMERICAL PROBLEMS 1, One litre of crude oil weighs 9.6 N. Calculate its specific weight, density and specific gravity, Ams. 9600 Nim’, 978.6 kg/m", 0.978] velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate. Determine the shear stress at y = 9 em, Assume dynamic viscosity as 8 poise (Nagpur University) (Ans. 0.839 N/m?) A plate 0,025 mm distant from a fixed plate, moves at 50 ems and requires @ force of 1.471 Nim* to ‘maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between the plates in the poise. (Ans. 7.357 x 10°] 4. Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity = 1.2 poise and is used for lubrication in the clearance between a 10 cm diameter shaft and its journal bearing. The clearance is 1.0 mm and shaft rotates at 200 rpm. Ans. 125.56 Nim’) ‘Two plates are placed at a distance of 0.15 mm apart. The lower plate is fixed while the upper plate having surface area 1.0 m* is pulled at 0.3 mS. Find the force and power required to maintain this speed, if the fluid separating them is having viscosity 1.5 poise Ans. 300 N, 89.8 W] 66. Anil film of thickness 1.5 mm is used for lubrication between a square plate of size 0.9 m>0.9 m and an inclined plane having an angle of inclination 20°, The weight ofthe squate is 392.4 N and it slides down the plane with a uniform velocity of 0.2 m/s. Find the dynamic viscosity of the oil. [Ans. 12.42 poise]Fluid Mechanics ] 10. 12 1a. 16. 1. wv. aL 2. In a stream of glycerine in motion, ata certain point the velocity gradient is 0.25 metre per see per metre. ‘The mass density of fluid is 1268.4 kg per cubie metre and kinematic viscosity is 6.30 x 10~ square metre per second. Calculate the shear stress at the point. [Ans, 0.2 Nim?) Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 980 kg/m? when ata certain point in the ol, the shear Pennine Nadeniteseieeen ios [amor eesao wis . Determine the specific gravity of a Muid having viscosity 0.07 poise and kinematic viscosity 0.042 stokes. {Ans 1.667) Determine the viscosity ofa lguid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes and specific gravity 20. TAs. 11.99 poise) It the velocity distribution ofa fuid over a plates given by w= (3/4) yy", where wis the velocity in metre per second ata distance of y metres above the plate, determine the shea sess at y = 0.15 mete. Take dynamic viscosity of the fluid as 8.5 x 10 kg-sec/m’. (Ans, 3.825 x 10° kgffm"] ‘An oil of viscosity 5 poise is used for Ibriation between a shaft and sleeve. The diameter of shaft is 05 m and it oates at 200 rpm. Calculate the power lost inthe il fora sleeve length of 100 mm. The thickness ofthe ol lm is 1.0 mm, {Ans.2.15 kW) distance of y m above the plate, Determine the shear stess at y = 0,0.1 and 0.2 m. Take H = 6 poise. [Ams. 0.4, 0.028 and 0.159 Nim?) 1. In question 13, find the distance in metres above the plate, at which the shear stress is zero, [Ans, 0.333 m) ‘The velocity profile of a visous fd over a plat is parabolic with vertex 20m from the Pate, where the velocity is 120 m/s Calculate the velocity gradient ad sheat sess at distances of, 3 and 15 em fom the plate, given the viscosity of the fluid = 6 poise. [Ans. 12/8, 7.18 Ném?; 9/8, 5.385 Nim? ; 3/8, 1.795 Nim?) ‘The weight of a gas is given as 17.658 N/m’ at 30°C and at an absolute pressure of 29.43 N/m’, Deter- [ase Late, 29550 n] m "kek A cylinder of 0.9 m? in volume contains air at 0°C and 39.24 Niem? absolute pressure. The air is compressed t0 0.45 m'. Find (i) the pressure inside the cylinder assuming isothermal process, (pressure and temperature assuming abate process. Take f= 1 fora (Ans. (i) 78.48 Néem’, (ii) 103.5 N/m’, 140°C] Calculate the pressure exerted by 4 kg mass of nitrogen gas at a temperature of 15°C ifthe volume is 0.35 m?. ‘mine the gas constant and also the density of the gas. Molecular weight of nitrogen is 28. Ans. 97.8 Nem] ‘The pressure ofa liquid is increased from 60 N/cm? to 100 N/em? and volume decreases by 0.2 per cent Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity, [Ans. 2 « 10" Nim’) |. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a fluid which is compressed in a eylinder from a volume of 0.009 mat 70 Nlem? pressure to a volume of 0.0085 m? at 270 Nécm* pressure. (Ans. 3.6 10° Nem] The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is given as 0.0716 Nim. The pressure inside @ droplet of water is to be 0.0147 Nlem? greater than the outside pressure, calculate the diameter of the droplet of water. (Ans. 1.94 min) Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 30 mm diameter when the inside pressure is 1.962 Nim? above atmosphere [Ans. 0.00735 Nim] ‘The surface tension of water in contact with ai is given as 0.0725 Nim. The pressure outside the droplet of| water. [Ans. 1.77 Neem?)Properties of Fluids 33) 24. Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 3.0 mm diameter when immersed vertically in (a) water, and (b) mercury. Take surface tensions for mercury and water as 0.0725 N/m and 0.52 Nim respectively in contact with ai, Specific gravity for mercury is given as 13.6. [ns. 0.966 em, 0.3275 em} 25, The capillary rise in the glass tube used for measuring water level is not to exceed 0.5 mm, Determine its ‘minimum size, given that surface tension for water in contact with air= 0.07112 Nim. [Ans. 5:8 cm] 26. (SI Units). One litre of crude oil weighs 9.6 N, Calculate its specific weight, density and specific gravity. [Ans. 9600 Nim’; 979.6 kg/m’ ; 0.9786] 27, (SI Units). A piston 796 mm diameter and 200 mm long works in a cylinder of 800 mm diameter. Ifthe annular space is filled with a lubricating oil of viseosity 5 ep (centi-poise), calculate the speed of descent of the piston in vertical position. The weight ofthe piston and axial load are 9.81 N. Ans. 7.84 m/s} 28, (SI Units). Find the capillary rise of water in a tube 0.03 cm diameter. The surface tension of water is 0.0735 Nin, [Ans. 9.99 em] 29. Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of two lites ofa liquid which weight 15 N. [Ans. 7500 Nim’, 764.5 kg/m’, 0.764] 30. A 150 mm diameter vertical cylinder rotates concentrically inside another cylinder of diameter 151 mm. Both the eylinders are of 250 mm height. The space hetween the eylinders i filled witha liquid of viscos- ity 10 poise. Determine the torque required to rotate the inner cylinder at 100 rpm, (Ans. 13.87 Nm} AM. A shaft of diameter 120 mm is rotating inside a journal bearing of diameter 122 mm ata speed of 360 rpm. The space between the shaft and the bearing is filled with a lubricating oll of viscosity 6 poise. Find the power absorbed in oil ifthe length of bearing is 100 mm, [Ans. 115.73 W] A shaft of diameter 100 mm is rotating inside a journal bearing of diameter 102 mm at a space of 360 rpm. The space between the shaft and bearing is filed with a lubricating oil of viscosity 5 poise. The length of the bearing is 200 mm. Find the power absorbed in the lubricating oil. [Ans. 111.58 W] Assuming that the bulk modulus of elasticity of water is 2.07 x 10° kN/m? at standard atmospheric conditions, determine the increase of pressure necessary to produce 1% reduction in volume at the same temperature, (Hint. K z 07 x 10" KNim? Increase in pressure (dp) 34, A square plate of size I m1 m and weighing 350 N slides down an inelined plane with a uniform velocity of 1.5 ml. The inclined plane is laid on a slope of 5 vertical to 12 horizontal and has an oil flm of 1 mm thickness. Calculate the dynamic viscosity of oil UNI, Hyderabad, S 2002] (Hint, A= 11 =1 mW =350N, «= 15més, tan 6= 2 = BC ¢, 12 AB Component of weight along the plane = W x sin @ le 2 AC=fAB+ BC where sin @ = PC= 5 13) s ac" 13 =Vites=13 te-ssan FeWsin@=350% 5 = 134615 Fig. 1.5 Now 1%, where de = uO = 1.5 mv/sand dy= 1 mm-= 1% 102m cy Fy dy 134615, 1x10 Ns or ae = 0.0807 *S 0,897 poise) BT 15 m Ga| Logs) UNL Ie MEASUREMENT > 2.1 FLUID PRESSURE AT A POINT Cone sl ae nema of fi eis stony, he x xe by the surrounding fluid on the area dA will always be perpendicular to the surface dA. Let dF is the force tng nt ae a nth ol ston. Tent ato ot hk ate ney of pressure or simply pressure and this ratio is represented by p. Hence mathematically the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is ae oe If the force (F) is uniformly distributed over the area (A), then pressure at any point is given by EF _ Fovee a A” Arca’ + Force or pressure force, F'= p XA. The units of pressure are : (i) kgfim? and kgfiem ? in MKS units, (if) Newton/m ? or Nim? and N/mm? in SI units. N/m? is known as Pascal and is represented by Pa. Other commonly used units of pressure are : kPa= kilo pascal = 1000 Nim? bar = 100 kPa = 10° N/m?, » 2.2 PASCAL'S LAW It states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal in all directions. This is proved as : ‘The fluid element is of very small dimensions ie., dx, dy and ds. Consider an arbitrary fluid element of wedge shape in a fluid mass at rest as shown in Fig. 2.1. Let the width of the ‘element perpendicular to the plane of paper is unity and p,, Fig. 2.1 Forces om a fluid element. 35[36 Fluid Mechanics ] Py and p, are the pressures or intensity of pressure acting on the face AB, AC and BC respectively. Let -ZABC = 8. Then the forces acting on the element are : 1, Pressure forces normal to the surfaces, and 2. Weight of element in the vertical direction, ‘The forces on the faces are Force on the face AB =p. Area of face AB x dy x Similarly force on the face AC = p, x dx 1 Force on the face BC x ds x 1 Weight of clement (Mass of clement) x ¢ = (Volume x p) x ¢ = (2x4E x1) xpxe, where p= density of fluid Resolving the forees in x-direction, we have dy 1~ p (ds 1) sin (90° — 8) or p.xdy x1 ~p, ds% 1 608 8 But from Fig. 2.1, ds cos 8 = AB= dy : pexdy t= ppxdyx1 =0 or Pe 21) Similarly, resolving the forces in y-direction, we get gy. aexdy Py x dx = pexds 1 605 (90? - 0) - 2% xt xp xg=0 or Py Xd — pds sin @-AD xp xg =0. But ds sin 0 = dx and also the element is very small and hence weight is negligible. s pyle px de or Ps 22) From equations (2.1) and (2.2), we have panier 2.3) ‘The above equation shows that the pressure at any point in x, y and z directions is equal. Since the choice of fluid element was completely arbitrary, which means the pressure at any point is the same in all directions. > 2.3 PRESSURE VARIATION IN A FLUID AT REST ‘The pressure at any point ina fluid at rest is obtained by the Hydro- static Law which states that the rate of increase of pressure in a ve cally downward direction must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at that point. This is proved as : Consider a small fluid element as shown in Fig, 2.2 Let A4= Cross-sectional area of element AZ= Height of fluid element p= Pressure on face AB Z= Distance of fluid element from free surface. ‘The forces acting on the fluid element are : FREE SURFACE OF FLUID Fig. 22. Forces on a fluid element.[ Pressure and its Measurement 37) 1. Pressure force on AB = p X AA and acting perpendicular to face AB in the downward direction. direction. 3. Weight of fluid element = Density x g x Volume = p x g x (AA x AZ). 4, Pressure forces on surfaces BC and AD are equal and opposite. For equilibrium of fluid ‘element, we have par (p+ a7] ats pxex (aa xa o aa pas - 2 az or pda paa- 2 azaas pxexadxzZ =0 or ~ Bazan ep xe asaz =0 uw xe * or 2B azaa = 2 =pXxgXxAAAZ of pg [cancelling AAAZ on both sides} az az Bapxgew pxgew) 2.4) where w= Weight density of fluid. Equation (2.4) states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction density of the fluid at that point. This is Hydrostatic Law. By integrating the above equation (2.4) for liquids, we get equal to weight or 25) where p is the pressure above atmospheric pressure and Z is the height of the point from free surfaces. From equation (2.5), we have Z=—P— 2.6) Here Z is called pressure head. Problem 2.1 A hydraulic press has a ram of 30 cm diameter and a plunger of 4.5 em diameter. Find the weight lifted by the hydraulic press when the force applied at the plunger is 500 N. Solution. Given : Dia. of ram, D Dia. of plunger, a Force on plunger, F Find weight lifted x Area of ram, (03) = 0.07068 m? x Area of plunger, = 7 (0.045)? = 00159 m?[38 Fluid Mechanics Pressure intensity due to plunger _ Force on plunger _ F _ 500 ‘Area of plunger @ 00159 Nim’ |-PLUNGER. Due to Pascal’s law, the intensity of pressure will be equally transmitted in all directions. Hence the pressure intensity at the ram. 500 “00159 = 314465.4 Nim? But pressure intensity at ram Creactram =a 7 DIO ae 07068 Weight ‘= 314465.4 x.07068 = 22222 N = 22.222 KN. Ans. Problem 2.2 A hydraulic press has a ram of 20 em diameter and a plunger of 3 cm diameter. Itis used for lifting a weight of 30 KN, Find the force required at the plunger. Solution. Given : Dia. of ram, D=200m= 144654 2m ‘Area of ram, Dia. of plunger ‘Area of plunger, Weight lifted, See Fig. 2.3. 10 KN = 30 x 1000 N = 30000 N. Fore _ F rea a By Pascal's Law, this pressure is transmitted equally in all directions Pressure intensity developed due to plunger = F Hence pressure transmitted at the ram = — Force acting on ram = Pressure intensity x Area of ram Fg Fx0314 a 7.068 x10 But force acting on ram = Weight lifted = 30000 N 30000 = 2 %.0314 7.068 x10 = 30000%7.068 x10" _ Gog 9y Ans, 0314 Problem 2.3 Calculate the pressure due to a column of 0.3 of (a) water, (b) an oil of sp. gr. 0.8, and (c) mercury of sp. gr. 13.6. Take density of water, = 1000 kg/m’. Solution. Given : Height of liquid column,[ Pressure and its Measurement 39) ‘The pressure at any point in a liquid is given by equation (2.5) as eZ 1000 kg/m® 19Z = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.3 = 2943 Nim? (@) For water, (®) For oil of sp. gr. 0.8, From equation (1-14), we know that the density of a fluid is equal to specific gravity of fluid ‘multiplied by density of water. Density of ol, p. gt. of oll x Density of water (p= Density of oil) 8X p= 0.8 x 1000 = 800 kg/m? Now pressure, 0 8 XZ, = 8009.81 03 = 23544 3, = BEN (©) For mercury, sp. gr =136 From equation (1.14) we know that the density of a fluid is equal to specific gravity of fluid ‘multiplied by density of water Density of mercury, P. pecific gravity of mercury x Density of water = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m? P=D.XEXZ = 13600 x9. x 03 = 40005 $0025 = an, ns. 10° em’ Problem 2.4 The pressure intensity at a point in a fluid is given 3.924 N/cm?, Find the correspond- ing height of fluid when the fluid is: (a) water, and (b) oil of sp. gr. 0.9. Solution. Given : Pressure intensity, p= 3.924 X= 3.92410, The corresponding height, Z, of the fluid is given by equation (2.6) as gee exe (a) For water, p= 1000 kg/m? p__ 3924 x10" TO ET Amat water Ans. (6) For oil, sp. gr 9 «. Density of oil 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m* z= P= S410" _ 4.44 m of ol. Ans. PoXe 900x981[40 Fluid Mechanics ] Problem 2.5 An oil of sp. gr. 0.9 is contained in a vessel. At a point the height of oil is 40 m. Find the corresponding height of water at the point. Solution. Given : Sp. gr. of oil, S209 Z,= 40m Po = Sp. gr. of oil x Density of water = N Height of oil, Density of oil, .9 x 1000 = 900 ke/m® Intensity of pressure, P= PoX@X Zy= 900 x 9.81 x 40 p Corresponding height of water = ————?_ Ponding height of water = 7 sity of water Xe 900 x 981% 40 AOKOSTAO _ 0.9 x 40 = 36 m of water. Ans. 1000 x 9.81 ona Problem 2.6 An open tank contains water upto a depth of 2 m and above it an oil of sp. gr. 0.9 for ‘a depth of I m. Find the pressure intensity (i) at the interface of the two liquids, and (ii) at the botiom of the tank. Solution. Given : Height of water, m Height of oil, m Sp. gr. of oll, $= 0.9 Density of water, 1000 kg/m? Density of oil, p. gr. of oll x Density of water = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m? Pressure intensity at any point is given by P=pXexZ (0 Atimterface, ie., at A 0.8829 N/em?. Ans. (i) At the bottom, ie, at B P= 2 aZz + 9, X XZ, = 900 X 9.81 x 1.0 + 1000 x 9.81 x 2.0 = 8829 + 19620 = 28449 Nim? = Problem 2.7 The diameters of a small piston and a large piston of a hydraulic jack are 3m and 10 em respectively. A force of 80 N is applied on the small piston. Find the load lifted by the large Piston when : (a) the pistons are at the same level. (b) small piston is 40 em above the large piston. The density of the liquid in the jack is given as 1000 kg/m’ Solution. Given : Dia. of small piston, a em Rak 5 ‘Area of small piston, a= 2 @= 2x Gy =7.068em? ist Fe = ExOy[ Pressure and its Measurement 411) Dia of arg piston, D= lem Area of larger piston, A= 2 x (10)? = 78.54 em* Fore on smal piston, Fe s0n Lette loa ie w. re (@) When the pistons are at the same level Pressure intensity on small piston | sanoe ||] suas ow Lace Fe) Nem? a” 7068 ‘This is ansmited equally on the lrg piston Pressure intensity onthe large piston vig is %0 7068 Force onthe large piston = Pressure x Area 0 SO 5.78.54 N = 888.96 N. Ans. gg 7854 N = 988.96 () When the small piston is 40 cm above the large piston Pressure intensity on the small piston a” 708 Pressure intensity a section AA = 4 Pressure intensity due to height of 40 em of liquid, But pressure intensity due © 40 em of quid =p gx k= 1000 x 9.81 x 0.4 Nim? 10° Pressure intensity at Seton A-A ae 80. Os ose24 7.068 1.32 + 0.3924 = 11.71 Niem? Pressure intensity transmit tothe lrg piston = Nlem? = 0.3924 Nlem? 1.71 Nic Force on the large piston = Pressure x Area of the large piston SILTLX A= 1171 X 78.54 = 919.7 N. > 2.4 ABSOLUTE, GAUGE, ATMOSPHERIC AND VACUUM PRESSURES ‘The pressure on a fluid is measured in two different systems. In one system, it is measured above the absolute zero or complete vacuum and it is called the absolute pressure and in other system, pressure is measured above the atmospheric pressure and it is called gauge pressure. Thus : 1. Absolute pressure is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to absolute ‘vacuum pressure. 2. Gauge pressure is defined as the pressure which is measured with the help of a pressure mea- suring instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero.(42. Fluid Mechanics ] (GAUGE PRESSURE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE iesoure meson J . or Pas= Par + Peage ‘ABSOLUTE ZERO PRESSURE (ii) Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure ~ Absolute pressure Note. () The atmospheric pressure at sea level at 15°C is 101.3 kN/m? or 10.13 Néem* in SI unit In case of MKS units it 8 equal to 1.033 kgtlem’ (Gi) The atmospheric pressure head is 760 mm of mercury oF 10.33 m of water Problem 2.8 What are the gauge pressure and absolute pressure at a point 3 m below the free surface of a liquid having a density of 1.53 x 10° kg/m if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent 10 3. Vacuum pressure is defined as the pres- sure below the atmospheric pressure. ‘The relationship between the absolute pressure, ‘gauge pressure and vacuum pressure are shown in Fig. 2.7. Mathematically : (0 Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure ——+ pressure Fig. 2.7 Relationship between pressures. 750 mm of mercury ? The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6 and density of water = 1000 kg/m’. Solution. Given : Depth of liquid, 223m Density of liquid, 53 x 10° ke/m? Atmospheric pressure head, 50 mm of Hg 750 = RR = 075 m of He Atmospheric pressure, Pam = Py % 8 X Zp where py = Density of Hg = Sp. gr. of mercury x Density of water = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m? and Zy= Pressure head in terms of mercury. Pam = (13.6 X 1000) x 9.81. 0.75 N/m? %= 0.73) = 100062 Nim? Pressure at a point, which is at a depth of 3 m from the free surface of the liquid is given by, P=PLXEXZ 1.53 x 1000) x 9.81 x 3 = 45028 Nim* 15028 Nim?. Ans. Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure 15028 + 100062 = 145090 N/m?. Ans. > 2.5 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE Gauge pressure, Now absolute pressure The pressure of a fluid is measured by the following devices : 1. Manometers 2. Mechanical Gauges. 2.5.1 Manometers. Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at 4 point ina fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of the fluid. They are classified as : (@) Simple Manometers, (0) Differential Manometers.[ Pressure and its Measurement 43 2.5.2. Mechanical Gauges. Mechanical gauges are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure by balancing the fluid column by the spring or dead weight. The commonly used mechani- cal pressure gauges are : (a) Diaphragm pressure gauge, (0) Bourdon tube pressure gauge, (©) Dead-weight pressure gauge, and (@) Bellows pressure gauge. » 2.6 SIMPLE MANOMETERS A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends connected to a point where pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to atmosphere. Common types of simple ma- nometers are: 1. Piezometer, 2. U-tube Manometer, and 3. Single Column Manometer. 2.6.1, Piezometer. Its the simplest form of manometer used for measuring gauge pressures. One end of this manometer is connected to the point where pressure i to be measured and other end is open to the atmosphere as shown in Fig. 2.8. The rise of liquid gives the pressure head at that point. If at a point A, the height of liquid say water is Jin Piezometer tube, then pressure at A N pxgxh m ig. 28 Piezometer. 2.6.2 U-tube Manometer. It consists of glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is connected to a point at which pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to the atmosphere as shown in Fig. 2.9. The tube generally contains mercury or any other liquid whose specific gravity is greater than the 2pocific gravity of the liquid whose pressure is to be measured. (2) For gauge pressure (©) For vacuum pressure Fig. 2.9 U-tube Manometer. (a) For Gauge Pressure. Let B is the point at which pressure is to be measured, whose value is p. ‘The datum line is A-A. Let Jy, = Height of light liquid above the datum line ‘hy = Height of heavy liquid above the datum line S) = Sp. gr. of light liquid 1, = Density of light liquid = 1000 x 5, Sy = Sp. gr. of heavy liquid = Density of heavy liquid = 1000 x 5,[44 Fluid Mechanics ] [As the pressure isthe same for the horizontal surface. Hence pressure above the horizontal datum line 4-A in the let column and in the right column of U-tube manometer should be same. Pressure above A-A in the left column D+ pix eX, Pressure above A-A in the right column 2X8 Xp Hence equating the two pressures p+ pth = pushy 5 P= ath ~ Py X 8 ¥hy)- (2.7) (6) For Vacuum Pressure. For measuring vacuum pressure, the level of the heavy liquid in the ‘manometer will be as shown in Fig. 2.9 (b). Then Pressure above A-A in the left column = pass + pyeh, +p Pressure head in the right column above A-A = 0 Pash, + pygh + p=0 5 =~ (Pash + pigh). 2.8) Problem 2.9. The right limb of a simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is open to the atmosphere while the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of sp. gr. 0.9 is flowing. The centre of the pipe is 12 cm below the level of mercury in the right limb. Find the pressure of fluid in the pipe if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 20 cm. Solution. Given : Sp. of Mui, s,=09 Density of fluid, P, = S, x 1000 = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 ke/m* eae eae 7 Density of mercury, 3.6 x 1000 kgim* 200m Difference of meeury vel, y= 20.em = 02 m | Height of fluid from A-A, hy —12= 8 cm = 0.08 m Let p = Pressure of fluid in pipe Equating the pressure above A-A, we get P+ Pishy = Pgh, or +900 x 9.81 x 0,08 = 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x.2 p= 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x .2 ~ 900 x 9.81 x 0.08 16683 - 706 = 25977 Nim? = 2.597 Niem*. Ans. Problem 2.10 A simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is connected to a pipe in which a Aluid of sp. gr. 0.8 and having vacuum pressure is flowing, The other end of the manometer is open to ‘atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in pipe, ifthe difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 40 cm and the height of fluid in the left from the centre of pipe is 15 em below Solution. Given : Sp. gr. of fluid, Fig. 2.10 0.8 Sp. gr. of mercury, 136 Density of fluid, 800 Density of mercury, 13.6 x 1000 Difference of mercury level, y= 40 em = 0.4 m. Height of liquid in left limb, /, A = 15 cm = 0.15 m. Let the pressure in pipe line A-A, we get Fig. 211 Pash, + pyehy + p= 0[ Pressure and its Measurement 45] [pres + pishil 113.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x 0.4 + 800 x 9.81 x 0.15] [53366.4 + 1177.2] = ~ $4543.6 N/m? = ~ 5.484 N/em®. Ans. Problem 2.11 A U-Tube manometer is used to measure the pressure of water in a pipe line, which is in excess of atmospheric pressure. The right limb of the manometer contains mercury and is open to atmosphere. The contact between water and mercury is in the left limb. Determine the pressure of water in the main line, if the difference in level of mercury in the limbs of U-tube is 10 em and the free surface of mercury isin level with the centre of the pipe. Ifthe pressure of water in pipe line is reduced to 9810 N/m’, calculate the new difference in the level of mercury. Sketch the arrangements in both cases. Solution. Given : Difference of mercury = 10 em = 0.1 m The arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.11 (a) Ist Part Let py = (pressure of water in pipe line (ce, at point A) ‘The points B and C lic on the same horizontal line. Hence pressure at B should be equal to pressure at C. But pressure at B = Pressure at A + Pressure due to 10 em (or 0.1 m) of water =patpxexh where p = 1000 kg/m? and fr = 0.1 m = pg + 1000 x 9.81 x 0.1 = py + 981 Nim? amo) Pressure at C = Pressure at D+ Pressure due to 10 em of mercury = 04 pyX8% hy where pp for mercury = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m* and fig = 10 em = 0.1 m Pressure at C = 0+ (13.6 1000) x 9.81 0.1 = 133416 N ii) But pressure at B is equal to pressure at C. Hence equating the equa- tions (and (i), we get Pa + 981 = 133416 Fig. 2.11 (@ 4 = 133416 - 981 = 123606 IInd Part Given, py = 9810 Nim? Find new difference of mercury level. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.11 (b). In this case the pressure at A is 9810 Nim? which is less than the 12360.6 Nim?. Hence mercury in left limb will rise. ‘The rise of mercury in left limb will be equal to the fall of mercury in right limb as the total volume of ‘mercury remains same, Let x= Rise of mercury in left limb in em ‘Then fall of mercury in right limb = x cm ‘The points B, C and D show the initial conditions whereas points B*, C+ and D* show the final conditions.[46 Fluid Mechanics ] ‘The pressure at BY = Pressure at C or Pressure at A + Pressure due to (10 ~ x) cm of water = Pressure at D* + Pressure due 1 (10 ~ 24) em of mercury OF Pg +P x8, = Pot + PX hy 10-x (=) ise of =0 + (136 x 1000) x981 x (2=24) * Dividing by 9.81, we get or 1000 + 100 ~ 10x = 1360 ~ 272 or 272x~ 10x= 1360 ~ 1100 or 262x = 260 x= 200. 9.992 em 262 New difference of mercury = 10 - 2x em =10 ~ 2 x 0.992 Fig. 211 (6) 8.016 em. Ans. Problem 2.12 Fig. 2.12 shows a conical vessel having its outlet at A to which a U-tube manometer is connected. The reading of the manometer given in the figure shows when the vessel is empty. Find the reading of the manometer when the vessel is completely filed with water. Solution. Vessel is empty. Given Difference of mercury level fy = 206m Let ft, = Height of water above XX Sp. gr. of mercury, = 6 Sp. er. of water, S,= 10 Density of mercury, py = 13.6 x 1000 Density of water, p, = 1000 Equating the pressure above datum line X-X, we have Pa Xe Xs =p) XB xy or 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x 0.2 = 1000 x 9.81 fy hy = 2.72 m of water. Vessel is full of water. When vessel is full of water, the Fig. 2:2 pressure in the right limb will increase and mercury level in the right limb will go down, Let the distance through which mercury goes down in the Fight limb be, y cm as shown in Fig. 2.13. The mercury will rise in the left by a distance of y em. Now the datum line is 7-Z. Equating the pressure above the datum line Z-Z. Pressure in left limb = Pressure in right limb 13.6 x 1000 x9.81 (0.2 + 29/100) = 1000 x 9.81 x (3 + hy + y/100)[ Pressure and its Measurement 47) or 13.6 x (0.2 + 29/100) = (3 +2.72 + y/100) (2 fy = 272 em) or 2.12 + 27.2y/100 = 3 + 2.72 + y/100 or (27.2y - y100 = 3.0 or 262y = 3 x 100 = 300 300 300 = 145 em 362 71145 The difference of mercury level in two limbs = (20 + 2y) em of mercury = 2042x1145 = 20+22.90 = 42.90 em of mercury + Reading of manometer = 42.90 em. Ans, Problem 2.13 A pressure gauge consists of wo cylindrical bulbs B and C each of 10 sq. cm cross- sectional area, which are connected by a U-tube with vertical limbs each of 0.25 sq. cm cross-sectional area. A red liquid of specific gravity 0.9 is filled into C and clear water is filled into B, the surface of separation being in the limb attached to C. Find the displacement of the surface of separation when the Pressure on the surface in C is greater than that in B by an amount equal to 1 cm head of water. Solution. Given : Area of each bulb Band C, A= 10 em? ‘Area of each vertical limb, Sp. gr. of red liquid Let XX ie= Height of red liquid above X-X ig = Height of water above X-X Pressure above X-X in the left limb = 1000 x 9.81 X hip Pressure above X-X in the right limb = 900 x 9.81 x lic Equating the two pressure, we get 1000 X 9.81 x hip = 900 X 9.81 X hic p= 09 he @) Its density = 900 kg/m* initial separation level When the pressure head over the surface in C is increased by 1 cm of water, let the separation level falls by an amount equal to Z. Then Y-Y becomes the final separation level. Now fall in surface level of C multiplied by cross- sectional area of bulb C must be equal to the fall in separation level multiplied by cross-sectional area of limb. FINAL SEPARATION LEVEL. SEPARATED LEVEL Fall in surface level of C = Fall in separation level xa A[48 Fluid Mechanics Zxa _Zx025_ Z A 10 40 Also fall in surface level of C ise in surface level of B ze 40 ‘The pressure of 1 cm (or 0.01 m) of water = pgh = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.01= 98.1 Nim? Consider final separation level ¥-¥ “ Psa sve FY nie b= 100981 (2h +2) ton 091 (24422) = (22h Z) 00981 «84 ° e40. 40. " 100 (2h + 2) =a (24-2) 210 = = Dig yt. wet Zhe Z 209 (24-2) +01 40 40, But from equation i), ig =0.9 hic 2409 net & = 09409 he+ 0.01 0-40 or 42 3B x 974 01 40 ~ 40 or 2(H-2*2) 01 or (4 40 40 7= R208) «9.0678 m = 6.78 cm. Ans. 2.6.3 Single Column Manometer. Single column manometer is a modified form of a U-tube ‘manometer in which a reservoir, having a large cross-sectional area (about 100 times) as compared to the area of the tube is connected to one of the limbs (say left limb) of the manometer as shown in Fig. 2.15. Due to large cross-sectional area of the reservoir, for any variation in pressure, the change in the liquid level in the reservoir will be very small which may be neglected and hence the pressure is given by the height of liquid in the other limb. The other limb may be vertical or inclined, Thus there are two types Of single column manometer as : 1. Vertical Single Column Manometer. 2, Inelined Single Column Manometer. 1. Vertis -al Single Column Manometer Fig. 2.15 shows the vertical single column manometer. Let X-X be the datum line in the reservoir and in the right limb of the manometer, when it is not connected to the pipe. When the manometer is[ Pressure and its Measurement 49] connected to the pipe, due to high pressure at A, the heavy liquid in the reservoir will be pushed downward and will rise in the right limb. Let Ah = Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir ise of heavy liquid in right limb Height of centre of pipe above X-X Pq = Pressure at A, which is to be measured A= Cross-sectional area of the reservoir Cross-sectional area of the right limb 5S, = Sp. gr. of liquid in pipe 5p. gf of heavy liquid in reservoir and right limb Density of liquid in pipe Fig. 245. Vertical single column manometer. Density of liquid in reservoir Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir wil cause arise of heavy liquid level in the right limb. AX Ah = aX, A Now consider the datum line ¥-¥ as shovin in Fig. 2.15. Then pressure in the right limb above Y-¥. = 2x x (Ah + hy) 12 x (Ah + hy) + Pg Ah i) Pressure in the left limb above ¥-Y Equating these pressures, we have 2X gx (Ah + hy) = 18 x (Ah + hy) + Pa or a= Pa (Ah + hy) — pg(Ah+ hy) = Ahlp 2g - pig] + hyPog — hype. But from equation (i), ahs Oh axhy Pa= 2 [Pag — Pig + MnP 28 — hiPis (2.9) AS the area A is very large as compared to a, hence ratio “ becomes very small and can be neglected. Then P, = h2P2g — Iypis. (2.10) From equation (2.10), it is clear that as hy is known, and hence by knowing rz or rise of heavy liquid in the right limb, the pressure at A can be calculated. 2. Inclined Single Column Manometer Fig. 2.16 shows the inclined single column manom- eter. This manometer is more sensitive. Due to inclina- tion the distance moved by the heavy liquid in the right ‘Fig. 2.16 Inclined single column limb will be more. ‘manometer.(50. Fluid Mechanics Let = Length of heavy liquid moved in right limb from X-X inclination of right limb with horizontal Vertical rise of heavy liquid in right limb from X-X = Lx sin @ From equation (2.10), the pressure at A is Pa = hoPoe — IPs Substituting the value of ftp, we get Pa = sin 8X p29 ~ hypyg- 2.41) Problem 2.14 A single column manometer is connected to a pipe containing a liquid of sp. gr. 0.9 as shown in Fig. 2.17. Find the pressure in the pipe if the area of the reservoir is 100 times the area of the tube for the manometer reading shown in Fig. 2.17. The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6. Solution. Given : Sp. gr. of liquid in pipe, Density Sp. gt of heavy liquid, Density, p= 13.6 1000 Area of reservoir _ A ‘Area ofrightlimb 7 a= \° Height of tiquid, fy Rise of mercury in righ im, Fig. 247 fy =40.m=04m Let y= Pressure in pipe Using equation (2.9), we get a= Malas ~ Pus + Pas — MP = Gp * L136 x 1000 % 9.81 900 x 981] + 04% 13.6 x 1000 x 981 ~ 0.2 x 900 x 9.81 = {Ee (133416 ~ 8829] + 538604 - 1765.8 33.664 + 5336.4 ~ 1765.8 Nim? = 52134 Nim? = 5.21 Néem?, Ans. > 2.7. DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS Differential manometers are the devices used for measuring the difference of pressures between ‘wo points in a pipe or in two different pipes. A differential manometer consists of a U-tube, contain- ing a heavy liquid, whose two ends are connected to the points, whose difference of pressure is to be measured. Most commonly types of differential manometers are : 1. U-tube differential manometer and 2. Inverted U-tube differential manometer. 2.7.1 U-tube Differential Manometer. Fig. 2.18 shows the differential manometers of Utube type.[ Pressure and its Measurement 51) y i : trvepoaanncions biked Bev etineen ind Fig. 218 Usubedifferential manometer. In Fig. 2.18 (a), the two points A and B are at different level and also contains liquids of different sp. gr. These points are connected to the U-tube differential manometer. Let the pressure at A and B are py and Pp Let t= Difference of mercury level in the U-tube. y= Distance of the centre of B, from the mercury level in the right limb, x= Distance of the centre of A, from the mercury level in the right limb. py = Density of liquid at A. 2 = Density of liquid at B. = Density of heavy liquid or mercury. ‘Taking datum line at X-X. Pressure above X-X in the left limb = where py = pressure at A. Pressure above X-X in the right limb = p, x gx I+ p> X@XY+ Pp where pp = Pressure at B. Equating the two pressure, we have Pigthh +2) + Pq =PyX 8X N+ Posy + Pp 1X 8 I+ Pogy — pyslh + x) % s(P_~ 1) + P28) ~ Pik (2.12) Difference of pressure at A and B= hx g(p,~ Pi) + P2&y’ ~ Pree In Fig. 2.18 (6), the two points A and B are at the same level and contains the same liquid of density Py. Then Pressure above X-X in right limb = p,Xg xh+p,X@xx+Dp Pressure above X-X in left limb =p, xg x (+2) + Py Equating the two pressure P_X 4 XN PRE Pye PLX H+ + Py E Pa-Pa=PeX 8 N+ Pig — pial +) = 8x MP, pp. (2.13) Problem 2.15 A pipe contains an oil of sp. gr. 0.9. A differential manometer connected at the 1wo points A and B shows a difference in mercury level as 15 cm. Find the difference of pressure at the 10 points. gh #2) + Dy Pa-Pa[52 Fluid Mechanics ] Solution. Given : Sp. gr. of oil, 192. Density, py = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m? Difference in mercury level, 5 em = 0.15 m Sp. gf of mercury, 5,= 13.6 +. Density, py = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m® ‘The difference of pressure is given by equation (2.13) or Pa~Pp= 8X h(,~ Py) 81 x 0.15 (13600 - 900) = 18688 N/m? Ans. Problem 2.16 A differential manometer is connected at the two points A and B of two pipes as shown in Fig, 2.19. The pipe A contains a liquid of sp. gr. = 1.5 while pipe B contains a liquid of sp. gr. = 0.9. The pressures at A and B are 1 kgffcm® and 1.80 keffom? respectively. Find the difference in mercury level in the differential manometer. Space 15 ‘Solution, Pa =1 kat font Sp. gr. of liquid at A, $= 1.5 =. p, = 1500 Sp. gt. of liquid at B, $= 0.9 +. _p,= 900 im SPOS Pressure at A, py = I kgtfem? = 1 x 10* kgfim® 10*x 9.81 Nim? (1 kgf = 9.81 N) Pressure at B, py = 1.8 kgtfem? ae 1.8 x 10* kgfim? = 18 x 10° 981 Nim? (- Density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m? Taking X-X as datum line, Pressure above X-X in the left limb = 13.6 x 1000 x9.81 x h + 1500 x 9.81 x 2 +3) +P, 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x h + 7500 x 9.81 + 9.81 x 10 Pressure above X-X in the right limb = 900 x 9.81 X(t + 2) + Pp = 900 x 9.81 x (i+ 2) + 1.8 x 108 981 Equating the two pressure, we get 136 x 1000 x 9.814 + 7500 x 9.81 + 9.81 x 10" = 900 x 9.81 x (i+ 2) + 18x 10*% 981 Dividing by 1000 x 9.81, we get T kgf = 981 N) * Fig. 2.19 136k +7.5 + 10= (h + 2.0) x9 + 18 or 13.6h + 17.5 = 0.9h + 18+ 18 =0.9h + 19.8 or (136 ~ 0.9)h= 19.8 ~ 17.5 oF 12.7 = 2.3 23. _ 9.181 m= 18.1 em. Ans. 27 Problem 2.17 A differential manometer is connected at the two points A and B as shown in Fig. 2.20. At B air pressure is 9.81 N/cnt (abs), find the absolute pressure at A. Solution. Given : Ait pressure at B= 9.81 Niem™ or 81x 10* Nim?Pressure and its Measurement 53) Density of oil = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m? Density of mercury 3.6 x 1000 ke/m* Let the pressure at A is py Taking datum tine at X-X Pressure above X-X in the right limb 1000 x 9.81 x 0.6 + Dp 1886 + 98100 = 103986 Pressure above X-X in the left limb x 1000 x 9.81 x0.1 +900 X9.81 0.2 + py = 133416 + 1765.8 + D4 MERCURY Equating the two pressure heads uRy 103986 = 13341.6 + 1765.8 + p, Spge= 136 Px = 103986 ~ 15107.4 = 8876.8 Fig. 2.20 (88876 8N_ N *{0000em? ~ Absolute pressure at A = 8.887 Nlem?, Ans. 2.7.2 Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer. It consists of an inverted U-tube, containing a light liquid. The two ends of the tube are connected 10 the points whose difference of pressure is to be measured. It is used for measuring difference of low pressures. Fig. 2.21 shows an inverted U-tube differential manometer connected to the two points A and B. Let the pressure at A is more than the pressure at B. Let ‘h, = Height of liquid in left limb below the datum line X-X Jk, = Height of liquid in right timb Difference of light liquid Density of liquid at A 2 = Density of liquid at B p, = Density of light liquid a= Pressure at A Pp = Pressure at B. ‘Taking X-X as datum line. Then pressure in the left limb below X-X Pa~PLX 8X ty Fig. 221 Pressure in the right limb below X-X = PaX 8X P,X Xt Equating the two pressure ~ 1X 8X hy =Pp~ PrX8XIig~P,XBXA or Pa~Pe=PiX 8X ly PaX EX lig—P,X Exh 2.14) Problem 2.18 Water is flowing through two different pipes to which an inverted differential ‘manometer having an oil of sp. gr. 0.8 is connected. The pressure head in the pipe A is 2 m of water, {find the pressure in the pipe B for the manometer readings as shown in Fig. 2.22. Solution. Given : aaa Pe Py =PX eX 2= 1000 9.81 x 2= 19620 Nim? Fig. 2.22 shows the arrangement, Taking X-Xas datum in, Pressure below X-X in the left imb = p,~ p, x ¢ x hy Pressure head at m of water[54_ Fluid Mechanics ] = 19620 ~ 1000 x 9.81 x 0.3 = 16677 Nim’. Pressure below X-X in the right limb ~ 1000 x 9.81 0.1 ~ 800 x 9.81 x 0.12 Pp ~ 981 ~ 941.76 = py ~ 1922.76 Equating the two pressure, we get 16677 = py ~ 1922.76 or Pq = 16677 + 1922.76 = 18599.76 Nim? or Py = 1.8599 Nem? Ans. Problem 2.19 in Fig. 2.23, an inverted differential manometer is connected to two pipes A and B which convey water. The fluid in manometer is oil of sp. gr. 0.8. For the manometer readings shown in the figure, find the pressure difference between A and B. Solution. Given : Sp. gr. of oil =0.8 + p,= 800 kg/m* Difference of oil in the two limbs = 30 + 20) ~ 30 = 20 em Taking datum line at X-X Pressure in the left limb below X-X = pa 1000 x 9.81 x0 = py — 2943 Pressure in the right limb below X-X Pp 1000 x 9.81 x 0.3 ~ 800 x 9.81 x 0.2 = py — 2943 — 1569.6 = py 4512.6 Eaguating the evo presse p,2983 = py — 4512.6 Pp ~ Pq = 4512.6 ~ 2943 = 1569.6 Nim’. Ans. Problem 2.20 Find out she differential reading ‘h’ of an inverted U-tube manometer containing oil of specific gravity 0.7 as the manometric fluid when connected across pipes A and B as shown in Fig. 2.24 below, conveying liquids of specific gravities 1.2 and 1.0 and immiscible with manometric fluid. Pipes A and B are located at the same level and assume the pressures at A and B 10 be equat. Solution. Given : Fig. 2.24 shows the arrangement. Taking X-X as datum line. Let Density of liquid in pipe A Density of liquid in pipe B Density of oil[ Pressure and its Measurement 55) Now pressure below X-X in the left limb 24 ~ 1200 x 9.81 x 0.3 ~ 700 x 9.81 x h Pressure below X-X in the right limb = Py — 1000 x 9.81 x (r+ 0.3) Equating the two pressure, we get P4— 1200 x 9.81 x03 ~ 700 x 9.81 x h But Pa ~ 1200 x 9.81 x 0.3 ~ 700 x 9.81 x h Dividing by 1000 x 9.81 1g ~ 1000 x 9.81 (hr + 0.3) 9 (given) 1000 x 9.81 (h + 0.3) = 1.203 -0.7h=- (n+ 03) or 03 x 1.24 0.Th= + 0.3 oF 0.36 - 0.3 = h-0.Th = 0. h = O06, 030” 030 £100 20cm, Problem 2.21 An inverted U-tube manometer is connected 10 1wo horizontal pipes A and B through which water is flowing. The vertical distance between the axes of these pipes is 30 em, When an oil of specific gravity 0.8 is used as a gauge fluid, the vertical heights of water columns in the two limbs of the inverted manometer (when measured from the respective centre lines of the pipes) are {found 10 be same and equal to 35 cm. Determine the difference of pressure between the pipes. Solution. Given : Specific gravity of measuring liquid = 0.8 The arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.24 (a) > Let py pressure at A Pp pressure at B 306m The points Cand D lie on the same horizontal line. Hence pressure at C should be equal to pressure at D. : E But pressure at C= p4~pek = p4~ 1000 x 9.81 x (0.35) WATER —a90m Oo” ‘And pressure at D = py ~ pyehy ~ posh “| | = pp 1000 x 9.81 x (0.35) ~ 800 x 9.81 0:3 But pressure at C= pressure at D aN WATER: Px ~ 1000 x 9.81 x 35 Fig. 2.24 (a) = py ~ 1000 x 9.81 x 0.35 ~ 800 x 9.81 x 0.3 or 800 9.81 x 0.3 = pp—p, or Ppa = 800 X 9.81 x 0.3 = 2384.4[56 Fluid Mechanics ] > 2.8 PRESSURE AT A POINT IN COMPRESSIBLE FLUID For compressible fluids, density (p) changes with the change of pressure and temperature. Such problems are encountered in aeronautics, oceanography and meteorology where we are concerned ‘with atmospheric® air where density, pressure and temperature changes with elevation. Thus for fluids with variable density, equation (2.4) cannot be integrated, unless the relationship between p and p is, known. For gases the equation of state is Perr 2.15) P or ° dp Now equation (2.4) is cee 1, the lapse-rate is negative which means temperature decreases with the increase in height In atmosphere, the value of & varies with height and hence the value of temperature lapse-rate also varies. From the sea-level upto an elevation of about 11000 m (or 11 km), the temperature of air decreases uniformly at the rate of 0.0065°C/m. from 11000 m to 32000 m, the temperature remains constant at ~ 56.5°C and hence in this range lapse-rate is zero. Temperature rises again after 32000 m in air.[60 Fluid Mechanics ] Problem 2.22 (SI Units) Ifthe atmosphere pressure at sea level is 10.143 N/ent, determine the pressure at a height of 2500 m assuming the pressure variation follows (i) Hydrostatic law, and (i) isothermal law. The density of air is given as 1.208 kg/m’. Solution. Given : Pressure at sea-level, Po = 10.143 Nlem? = 10.143 x 10* Nim? Height, Z= 2500 m Density of air, Pp = 1.208 kg/m? (0 Pressure by hydrostatte law. For hydrostatic aw, p is assumed constant and hence p is given dp by equation 2? =~ y equation 57 =~ pg Integrating, we get or For datum line at sea-level, : P&Z or p= po~ Paz 10.143 x 10" ~ 1.208 x 981 x 2500 [> p= py = TSO fem? 10 208] 101430 - 29626 = 71804 or im = 7.18 Nlem?. Ans. (id Pressure by Isothermal Law. Pressure at any height Z by isothermal law is given by equation (2.18) as, p= pent Po. Po ar sincere [p Be eradgyg=ny _toxs 0.143 x 108 e = 10,143 x 108 ¢ © 2500% 1208 981)10.145 «104 1 (3391 75743 Nim? = 101430 x e° = 101430 x 5 7.874 Niem?, Ans. Problem 2.23 The barometric pressure at sea level is 760 mm of mercury while that on a mountain top is 735 mm. If the density of air is assumed constant at 1.2 kg/m’, what is the elevation of the ‘mountain top? Solution. Given : Pressure® at sea, ‘Po = 760 mm of Hg, 760 2 2 <2 x 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 N/m? = 101396 N/m 1000 * Here pressure head (Z) is given as 760 mm of Hg. Hence (p/pg) = 760 mm of Hg. The density (p) for mercury = 136% 00h He psn wll geo 4% 2 136100981 x 2Pressure and its Measurement 61 Pressure at mountain, p= 735 mm of Hg 235 2 SS 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 = 98060 Nim’ (000 Density of air, p= 1.2 kgim? Let ft = Height of the mountain from sea-level. ‘We know that as the elevation above the sea-level increases, the atmospheric pressure decreases. Here the density of air is given constant, hence the pressure at any height ‘h’ above the sea-level is, given by the equation, P=Po-PX8xh PoP _ 101396 - 98060 px 12x981 Problem 2.24 Calculate the pressure at a height of 7500 m above sea level if the atmospheric pressure is 10.143 Nem’ and temperature is 15°C at the sea-level, assuming (i) air is incompressible, (ii) pressure variation follows isothermal law, and (ii) pressure variation follows adiabatic law. Take the density of air at the sea-level as equal to 1.285 kg/m’. Neglect variation of g with altitude. Solution. Given : or h 283.33 m. Ans. Height above sea-level, Z= 7500 m Pressure at sea-level, Po = 10.143 Nie? = 10.143 x 10* Nim? ‘Temperature at sea-level, t= 15°C s Ty = 273 + 15 = 288°K Density of air, = Po = 1.285 kg/m* ( Pressure when air is incompressible : dp oe palZ— Zo) [lap = fete oe pn or P=Po-peZ (= datum line = 0} = 10,143 x 10"~ 1.285 9.81 x 7500 101430 ~ 94543 = 6887 Nini? = 0688S, Ans. (ii) Pressure variation follows isothermal law : ‘Using equation (2.18), we have P= poe °T pete Poser. Peat “ee { Po Po wl = 101430 e890 = 101430 @° 780 1288 x981/01430 101430 e~ °°” = 101430 x 39376 199.39 N/m? or 3.993 N/em?. Ans. (iii) Pressure variation follows adiabatic law : [k= 14] oD wz 2] where p= 1.285 kg/m? : Dstpssuion 219, wetne —p=py[t[62 Fluid Mechanics ] p= 101430 | 1— 14=10) 9g (75001285) 9 ns 101430 = 101430 [1 ~ 2662]! = 101430 x (.7337)" N = 34310 Nim? or 3.4315. Ans. om Problem 2.25 Calculate the pressure and density of air ata height f 4000 m from sea-level where pressure and temperature of the air are 10.143 N/em® and 15°C respectively. The temperature lapse rate is given as 0.0065°C/m, Take density of air at sea-level equal to 1.285 kg/m". Solution. Given : Height, Z= 4000 m Pressure at sea-level, Po = 10.143 N/em? = 10.143 x 10 = 101430 Temperature at sea-level, 5°C ‘Temperature lapse-rate, Using equation (2.22), we have L az or — 0.0065 PRIEST), wnere Ps 101430 _ 274.09 RCE Poly 1285x288 = 0.0065 28 (#1) 27409 “Ck 0.0065 274,09 90065 % 27409 _ 9,181 981 uo ‘ ‘ALL .1815] i TW 1815 8188 ‘This means that the value of power index k = 1.222. (i Pressure at 4000 m height is given by equation (2.19) as onl! 9200) where k= 1.222 and py = 1.285 Po a2 1222-10 4000 x L285 p = 101430|1-(1222=19) 91 oe torso [t-( Tear) x98 = 101430 [1 0.09} = 101430 x 595 = 60350 Nim? = 6.035 ,., Ans.[ Pressure and its Measurement 63) (i Density. Using equation of state, we get where p= Pressure at 4000 m height 1p = Density at 4000 m height T= Temperature at 4000 m height Now Tis calculated from temperature lapse-rate as rats m 2+ x00» 15-068 4000» 13-2651 T=273+1= 273-11 = 262K P 60350 RT 274,09 x262 Problem 2.26 An aeroplane is flying at an altitude of 5000 m, Calculate the pressure around the aeroplane, given the lapse-rate in the atmosphere as 0.0065°K/m. Neglect variation of g with altitude. Take pressure and temperature at ground level as 10.143 N/em? and 15°C and density of air as 1.285 kg/em', Solution. Given : Height, Density is given by Pp kg/m? = 0.84 kg/m*. Ans. Lapse-rate, Pressure at ground level, Density, Temperature a 5000 m height = Tp + E. Height = 288 ~ 0065 x 5000 = 288 ~ 32.5 = 255.5°K. First find the value of power index k as From equation (2.22), we have = 2 -4(E) wR or = 0065 = Po___ 101430 where R= a Poly 1.285% 288 = 274.09 ~.0065 . k= 1.222 The pressure is given by equation (2.19) as ry64 Fluid Mechanics Lm 1222-10 5000 x 1285 8-10 = 10140 1 -[ a 98 22002288 = 101430 [1-222 x 9,81 x 5000 1285 | Bt 101430 101430 [1 ~ 0.11288]°*? = 101430 x 0.5175, 5.249 Niem?, Ans. HIGHLIGHTS ‘The pressure at any point in a fluid is defined as the force per unit are. ‘The Pascal law states that intensity of pressure for a fluid at rest is equal in all directions Pressure variation ata point in a fluid at rest is given by the hydrostatic law which states thatthe rate of Increase of pressure in the vertically downward direction is equal to the specific weight of the fluid, 1 2 B -wapxs 4, The pressure at any point in a incompressible fluid (liquid) is equal tothe product of density of fluid at that point, acceleration due to gravity and vertical height from free surface of fluid, P=pxexZ 5. Absolute pressure isthe pressure in which absolute vacuum pressure is taken as datum while gauge pressure i the pressure in which the atmospherie pressure is taken as datum, Pate = Pa * Posse 6. Manometer isa device used for measuring pressure ata point in a fluid 7. Manometers are classified as (a) Simple manometers and (b) Differential manometer 8. Simple manometers are used for measuring pressure ta point while diferential manometers are used for measuring th difference of pressures between the two points in a pipe, or two different pipes 9. A single column manometer (or micrometer) is used for measuring small pressures, where aecuracy is required, 10. ‘The pressure ata point in static compressible fluid is obtained by combining two equations, 2, equation ‘of state for a gas and equation given by hydrostatic law. IL, The pressure at a height Z in a static compressible fluid (gas) under going isothermal compression b=) where py = Absolute pressure at sea-level or at ground level Z= Height from sea or ground level R= Gas constant = peat T= Absolute temperature 12, The pressure and temperature at a height Z in a static compressible fuid (gas) undergoing adiabatic ‘compression (p/pPressure and its Measurement 65] 1B and temper, renii- where p, Ty are pressure and temperature at sea-level k = 1.4 fo ai. ‘The rate at which the temperature changes with elevation is known as Temperature Lapse-Rate, It is siven by es () RE if) & = 1, temperature is zero. Gi) > 1, temperature decreases with the increase of height. EXERCISE (A) THEORETICAL PROBLEMS «Define pressure. Obtain an expression for the pressure intensity ata point in a fluid, . State and prove the Pascal's law. ‘What do you understand by Hydrostatic Law ? |. Differentiate between : (2) Absolute and gauge pressure, (ji) Simple manometer and differential manom- eter, and (if) Piezometer and pressure gauges. . What do you mean by vacuum pressure ? What is @ manometer ? How are they classified ? What do you mean by single column manometers ? How are they used for the measurement of pressure ? What is the difference between U-tube differential manometers and inverted U-tube differential ‘manometers ? Where are they used ? ). Distinguish between manometers and mechanical gauges. What are the different types of mechanical Pressure gauges ? Derive an expression forthe pressure at a height Z from sea-level fora static air when the compression of the air is assumed isothermal. The pressure and temperature at sea-levels are and T, respectively Prove that the pressure and temperature for an adiabatic process ata height Z from sea-level fora static air * RT az. th se cea where pp and Ty are the pressure and temperature at sea-level What do you understand by the term, ‘Temperature Lapse-Rate'? Obtain an expression for the temperature Lapse-Rate. What is hydrostatic pressure distribution? Give one example where pressure distribution is non-hydrostatic, Explain briefly the working principle of Bourdon Pressure Gauge with a neat sketch (LNTU,, Hyderabad, $ 2002) ZI “and (B) NUMERICAL PROBLEMS A hrydraulic press has a ram of 30 cm diameter and a plunger of 5 em diameter. Find the weight lifted by the hydraulic press when the force applied atthe plunger is 400 N. [Ans. 14.4 KN] ‘A hydraulic press has @ ram of 20 em diameter and a plunger of 4 em diameter, It is used for lifting a ‘weight of 20 KN. Find the force required at the plunger. [Ans. 800 N]uid Mechanics ] 10, 2 13. Ma Calculate the pressure due to a column of 0.4 m of (a) water, (b) an ol of sp. gr 0.9, and (c) mercury of sp. g. 136. Take densiy of water, p= 100048. (Ans. (a) 03924 Niem?, () 0383 Nlem™ (e) 5.38 Nem] ‘The pressure intensity at a point in a fluid is given 4.9 N/em!. Find the corresponding height of fluid when it is: (a) water, and (b) an oil of sp. gr. 0.8. Ans. (a) 5 m of water, (b) 6.25 m of oil] ‘An oil of sp. gr. 0.8 is contained in a vessel. At a point the height of oi is 20 m. Find the corresponding height of water at that point (Ans. 16 m} ‘An open tank contains water upto a depth of 1.5 m and above it an oil of sp. gr. 0.8 fora depth of 2m. Find the pressure intensity: () at the interface of the two liquids, and (i) atthe bottom of the tank. Ans. () 1.57 Néem*, (i) 3.04 Nlem?] ‘The diameters of a small piston and a large piston of a hydraulic jack are 2 em and 10 em respectively. A force of 60 N is applied onthe small piston. Find the load lifted by the large piston, when : (a) the pistons are atthe same level, and (b) small piston is 20 em above the large piston. The density of the liquid in the jack is siven as 1000 *E., [Ans. (a) 1500 N, (6) 1520.5 N] Determine the gage and absolute pressure at a point whichis 2.0 m below the fee surface of water, Take atmospheric pressure as 10.1043 Niem™ [Ans. 1.962 Nem’ (gauge), 12.066 Nem’ (abs) ‘A simple manometer is use to measure the pressure of oil (Sp. a= 08) flowing ina pipeline. Hs sight Jimb is open tothe atmosphere and let limi is connected to the pipe. Te centre of the pipe is 9 em below the level of mercury (sp. gr 13.6) in the right Limb. I the difference of mercury level inthe two limbs is 15 cm, determine the absolute pressure of the il in the pipe in Neem Ans. 12088 Neem] ‘A simple manometer (U-tube) containing mercury is connected toa pipe in which an ol of sp. gO. is, flowing, The pressure inthe pipe is vacuum, The other end of the manometer is open to the atmosphere. Find the vacuum, pressure in pipe, if the dference of mercury level inthe two limbs is 20 em and height, o el in the let limb from the centre ofthe pip is 15 em below. [Ans. 27.86 Neem") ‘Asingle column vertial manometer (Le, mietometer) is connected wa pipe containing el of sp. a. 09. ‘The area ofthe reservoir is 80 times the area of the manometer tube. The reservoir contains mercury of sp. 136. The level of meroury in the reservoir i ata height of 30 em below the centre ofthe pipe and difference of mercury levels inthe reservoir and right limb is $0 em. Find the pressure in the pipe Ans. 6474 Neem?) {Apipe contains an il of sp. gr 08. A differential manometer connected atthe two points A and B of the Pipe shows a difference in mercury level as 20 em. Find the difference of pressure atthe two points {Ans.25113.6Nin) [A Usube differential manometer connects (wo pressure pipes A and B. Pipe A contains carbon tetrachloride having a specific gravity 1.594 under a pressure of 11.772 Nem and pipe B contains oil of Sp. gr. 08 under a pressure of 11.772 Nim. The pipe A lies 2.5 m above pipe B. Find the diference of pressure measured by mercury as fluid filling U-tube. Ans. 31.36 em of mercury] A Gifferential manometer is connected at the two points A and B as shown in Fig, 2.25, At B air pressure is 7.848 Niem? (ahs.), find the absolute pressure at A, [Ans. 6.91 Nem] Fig. 2.26Pressure and its Measurement 67) 15. 16. 1. v. 20. a. 2. 24, 26. ‘An inverted differential manometer containing an oll of sp. gr. 0.9 is connected to find the difference of Pressures at two points ofa pipe containing wate. If te manometer reading is 40 cm, find the diference Of pressures. {Ans 392.4 Nin] In above Fig. 226 shows an inverted differential manometer connected to two pipes A and B containing ‘water. The fluid in manometer i oil of sp. gr. 08. For the manometer readings shown inthe figure, find the difference of pressure head between A and B. {Ans. 0.26 m of water] It the atmospheric pressure at sea-level is 10.143 Nem, determine the pressure ata height of 2000 m assuming thatthe pressure variation follows: () Hydrostatie law, and (i) Isothermal law. The density of air is given as 1.208 ke/m’ (Ans. (i) 7.77 Nlem*, (i) 8.03 fem") Caleulate the pressure a a height of 8000 m above sea-level if the atmosphere pressure is 101.3 kN/n® and temperature is 15°C atthe sea-level assuming (air is incompressible, i) pressure variation follows adiabatic law, and (1) pressure variation follows isothermal law. Take the density of ai atthe sea-level as equal to 1.285 kgln®. Neglect variation of g with altitude {Ans (607.5 Nin? i) 31.5 KNin? (i) 37.45 KN?) Caleutate the pressure and density of air ata height of 3000 m above sea-level where pressure and tem- perature ofthe air are 10.143 Nem’ and 15°C respectively. The temperature lpse-ate is given as 0.0068" Kim. Take density of air at seacevel equal to 1.285 kgf’ {Ans 6896 Nlem’ 0.937 kgf’) ‘An aeroplane is fying at an altitude of 4000 m. Caleulate the pressure around the aeroplane, given the lapse-rate in the atmosphere as 0.0068°K/n. Neglect variation of g with altitude. Take pressure and temperature at ground level as 10.143 Néem? and 15°C respectively. The density of air at ground level is, sven as 1.285 kgf’ {Ans. 6.038 Neem’) ‘The atmospheric pressure atthe sea-level is 101.3 kN/n? and the temperature is 15°C. Caleulate the pressure 800 m above ses-level, assuming ) aris incompressible, (1 isothermal variation of pressure and density, and (i) adiabatie variation of pressure and density Assume density of air at sea-level as 1.285 kg/m’, Neglect variation of *g° with altitude {Ans. i) 501.3 Nin, (i) 37.45 kN/n?, i) 31.5 KN/m} An oil of sp gr. is 08 undera pressure of 137.2 kNim? (i) Whats the pressure head expressed in metre of water? (i) What isthe pressure head expressed in metre of oil? (Ans. (?) 14m, (i) 175m) \. The atmospheric pressure atthe sea-level is 101.3 kN/m? and temperature is 15°C, Calculate the pressure '8000 m above sea-level, assuming : (#) isothermal variation of pressure and density, and (i) adiabatic variation of pressure and density. Assume density of air at sea-level as 1.285 kg/m. Neglect variation of “with altude, Derive the formula that you may use. [Ans, (() 37.45 kNin?, (i) 31.5 kNém] What are the gauge pressure and absolute pressure at a point 4 m below the free surface of a liquid of specific gravity 1.53, if atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 750 mm of mercury. [Ans. 60037 Nin? and 160099 Nim] 5. Find the gauge pressure and absolute pressure in Nim at a point 4 m below the free surface of a liquid of sp. . 1.2, ifthe atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 750 mm of mercury. (Ans. 47088 Nim ; 147150 Nim] ‘A tank contains a liguid of specific gravity 0.8. Find the absolute pressure and gauge pressure at a point, ‘Which is 2 m below the free surface ofthe liquid. The atmospheric pressure head is equivalent fo 760 mm of mercury. [Ans. 117092 Nim? ; 15696 Nim?)i: HYDROSTATIC FORCES, Or ucianm eos > 3.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter deals with the fluids (i.c., liquids and gases) at rest. This means that there will be no relative motion between adjacent or neighbouring fluid layers. The velocity gradient, which is equal to the change of velocity between two adjacent fluid layers divided by the distance between the layers, will be zero or MH The shear stress which sequal to jt. il also be zero. Then the frees acting ‘on the fluid particles will be : 1, due to pressure of fluid normal to the surface, 2. due to gravity (or self-weight of fluid particles). > 3.2. TOTAL PRESSURE AND CENTRE OF PRESSURE Total pressure is defined as the force exerted by a static fluid on a surface either plane or curved when the fluid comes in contact with the surfaces. This force always acts normal to the surface. Centre of pressure is defined as the point of application of the total pressure on the surface. There are four cases of submerged surfaces on which the total pressure force and centre of pressure is to be determined. The submerged surfaces may be : 1. Vertical plane surface, 2. Horizontal plane surface, 3. Inclined plane surface, and 4, Curved surface. > 3.3 VERTICAL PLANE SURFACE SUBMERGED IN LIQUID Consider a plane vertical surface of arbitrary shape immersed in a liquid as shown in Fig. 3.1. Let A= Total area of the surface Distance of C.G. of the area from free surface of liquid ‘entre of gravity of plane surface Gs ‘entre of pressure ‘h® = Distance of centre of pressure from free surface of liquid. 69[70 Fluid Mechanics (@) Total Pressure (F). The total pressure on the surface _ FREE SURFACE OF LIQUID. may be determined by dividing the entire surface into a number of small parallel strips. The force on small strip is then caleu- lated and the total pressure force on the whole area is calculated by integrating the force on small strip. Consider a strip of thickness dh and width b at a depth of h from free surface of liquid as shown in Fig. 3.1 Pressure intensity on the strip, p= pg (See equation 2.5) ‘Area of the strip, dA=bxdh Total pressure force on strip, dF Total pressure force on the whole surface, F=far= foghxoxan 5 foxnra bt Joxnah = firs Moment of suri are toute fe surface of id = Are of sufce x Dsoeof C6. trom te sate xh . F=pgah GB.) For water the value of p = 1000 kg/m? and g = 9.81 mv/s?. The force will be in Newton, (b) Centre of Pressure (h*). Centre of pressure is calculated by using the “Principle of Moments”, Which states that the moment ofthe resultant force about an axis is equal to the sum of moments of the ‘components about the same axis. The resultant force F is acting at P, at a distance h* from free surface of the liquid as shown in Fig. 3.1. Hence moment of the force F about free surface of the liquid = F x h* 32) ‘Moment of force dF, acting on a strip about free surface of liquid xh = pghx bx dhxh Sum of moments of all such forces about free surface of liquid AF = pgh xb x dh} = Joahsbxaich= pg fox hichts = ps fo at Joran = fonran pg je dA (es bdh = dA) loment of Inertia ofthe surface about free surface of liquid Sum of moments about free surface = ely 63)[ Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces_71| Equating (3.2) and (3.3), we get xi" = poly But F=pgah peal x H* = ply or ne = Pele, Gay peal” An By the theorem of parallel axis, we have helgt Axe where fg = Moment of Inna of area about an axis pasing through the C.G.of the area and parallel tothe fre surface of liquid Substituting Jpn equation (3.4), we get let AP ty yy os Ah Ah ) In equation (3.5), fis the distance of C.G. of the area of the vertical surface from free surface of the liquid. Hence from equation (3.5), itis clear that (i) Centre of pressure (iH) lies below the centre of gravity of the vertical surface, (id. Thedstance of centre of pressure fom free surface of liquid is independent ofthe density ofthe vig ie ‘Table 3.1 The moments of inertia and other geometric properties of some important plane surfaces ‘Moment of inertia | Moment of ‘about an axis passing | inertia about Plane surface CG. fromthe | Area | through CG.and | — base (1p) base parallel 10 base (Io) 1. Rectangle oa a we oe 2 36 2 Contd...72_ Fluid Mechanics ‘Moment of inertia | Moment of Plane surface CG fromthe | Area | about an axis passing | inertia about base through C.G.and— | base (Ip) parallel to base (Ic) Problem 3.1 A rectangular plane surface is 2 m wide and 3 m deep. It lies in vertical plane in water. Determine the total pressure and position of centre of pressure on the plane surface when its upper edge is horizontal and (a) coincides with water surface, (b) 2.5 m below the free water surface. Solution. Given : Width of plane surface, = 2m Depth of plane surface, d=3m (a) Upper edge coincides with water surface (Fig. 3.2). Total pressure is given by equation (3.1) as F=pgAh {Fr a Fe DOWNSTREAM HINGE Fig 39 F, = 1450 x 9.81 x 24 x 2.1 = 71691 N Similarly, Fy= pat Alia where 3 = 1,000 kg/m* fia = Depth of C.G. of gate from free surface of water 1 x12=06m 2 “ F, = 1000 x 9.81 x 24 x 0.6 = 14126 N (i Resultant force on the gate = F, — F, = 71691 ~ 14126 = $7565 N. Ans. (i) Position of centre of pressure of resultant force. The force F, will be acting at a depth of 1i,* from free surface of liquid, given by the relation nee ais A bd _ 2x12" 2 2 where Ig 88 * 2ax2 Distance of F, from hinge = (15 + 1.2) ~ fy? = 2.7 2.1571 = 0.5429 m The force F, will be acting at a depth of h,* from free surface of water and is given by +21 = 0.0571 + 21 hy = 2.1571 m[78 Fluid Mechanics ] 1288 mF Distance of F; from hinge = 1.2- 0.8 ‘The resultant force 57565 N will be acting at a distance given by _ 1691 x 54291412604 ~ 57565 = 3821-56504 shove hinge 57565 = 0.578 m above the hinge. Ans. (iid) Force at the top of gate which is capable of opening the gate. Let F is the force required ‘on the top of the gate to open it as shown in Fig. 3.9. Taking the moments of F, F, and F, about the hinge, we get Fx 124 F, x04 =F, x.5429 FXx.5429- F x04 or 12 _ 11691 x.5429 -14126 x04 _ 38921 ~ 56504 12 12 = 277255 N. Ans. Problem 3.8 A caisson for closing the entrance to a dry dock is of trapezoidal form 16 m wide at the top and 10 m wide at the bottom and 6 m deep. Find the total pressure and centre of pressure on the caisson if the water on the outside is just level with the top and dock is empty. Solution. Given : Width at top =16m WATER SURFACE, —— te Wh Bom 10m ar Der, arom Arne tapeoia ABCD, mee 42 BOXAD) 2 8 (10+16) 2 b—tom—4 = 09 608 ER Depth of C6 of aerial aes ABCD from ive sarass of wt, 10x6x3+ 19-19) 165 1x6 i 2 *0%3 78 = 80235 «769m rom water sate, ( Total Pressure (F). Total pressure, F is given by[ Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 79 F = pgAh = 1000 x 9.81 x 78 x 2.769 N = 2118783 N = 2.118783 MN. Ans. (ii) Centre of Pressure (h#). Centre of pressure is given by equation (3.5) as a wer Ig= MOI. of waperolda ABCD shoot C3 tet ig = MOL. of rectangle FECE shout CG. fa = MOLL of 90 As ABF and ECD aout ts C Ten y= OnE «a0 at To a g, is the M.O1L of the rectangle about the axis passing through Gy. ‘M.OLL of the rectangle about the axis passing through the C. f the trapezoidal /,, + Area of rectangle x x)? where x; is distance between the C.G, of rectangle and C.G. of trapezoidal = 3.0 - 2.769) = 0.231 m M.OLL of FBCE passing through C.G. of trapezoidal = 180 + 10 x 6 x (0.231)? = 180 + 3.20 = 183.20 m* ba® Now 1g, =M.O1L. of ABD in Fig. 3.11 about G, = SF _ (16-10) x6? ~ 36 The distance between the C.G. of triangle and C.G. of wapezoidal = (2.769 — 2.0) = 0.769 M.OL of the two As about an axis passing through C.G. of trapezoidal = Ig, + Atea of triangles x (.769)? 6 m* A Re > = 36.04 9%6 x (769)? A = 36.0-+ 10.64 = 46.64 rt 1g.= MOLL. of trapezoidal about its CG. MOLL. of rectangle about the C.G. of trapezoidal om +M.O.L of triangles about the C.G. of the trapezoidal = 183.20 + 46.64 = 229.84 m* { Bc Fig. 3.11 where A= 78, h = 2.769 229.84 * Fax2.769 + 2.769 = 1.064 + 2.769 = 3.833 m. Ans. Alternate Method ‘The distance of the C.G. of the trapezoidal channel from surface AD is given by (refer to Table 3.1 ‘on page 71)[80 Fluid Mechanics ] (a+b) h (a+b) °3 _ 210416) 6 ““(10+16) 3 a= 10,6 = 16 and h=6) = 3x 2=2.769 m This is also equal (0 the distance of the C.G. of the trapezoidal from free surface of water. i= 2.769 m Total pressure, F = peak ( 78) = 1000 x 9.81 78 x 2.769 N = 2118783 N. Ans. Centre of Pressure, (h*)= 2.4% ~ vi Now fg from Table 3.1 is given by, (@+4ar+6%) 9, (IOP +4x10x16+164) jg = yp = OO 6 36(a+0) 36(10 +16) (100 +640 + 256) 4 = M004 610 256) 946 = 299.846 m 3ox26 — *716= 220-846 = 22S 9 769 A=T8m) 78x 2.769 = 3.833 m. Ans. Problem 3.9 A trapezoidal channel 2 m wide at the bottom and I m deep has side slopes I : 1. Determine (i) the total pressure, and (ii) the centre of pressure on the vertical gate closing the channel when it is full of water. Solution. Given : Width at bottom Depth, m /}-——— 4m + Side slopes a ‘A WATER SURFACE, D Top width, +1+l=4m = F e 4 ‘Area of rectangle FBEC, x1=2m? + 2m Area of trapezoidal ABCD, A=A,\+A,=2+1=3m? Depth of C.G. of rectangle FBEC from water surface, Fig. 3.12 0.5 m[ Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 81] Depth of C.G. of two triangles ABF and ECD from water surface, = Depth of C.G. of trapezoidal ABCD from free surface of water Asti Ay fia _ 20541033333 yay (A+ Ay) +) (0 Total Pressure (F). Total pressure F is given by F=pgAh = 1000 x 9.81 x 3.0 x 0.44444 = 13079.9 N. Ans. (ii) Centre of Pressure (h*). M.O.L of rectangle FBCE about its C.G., abd _2KP 1 oD 12 6 MOLL. of FBCE about an axis passing through the C.G. of trapezoidal or Ig, =o, +A, X [Distance between C.G. of rectangle and C.G. of trapezoidal]? = ba ax [hi aP = t +2. [0.5 ~ 4444]? = .1666 + .006182 = 0.1727 MOLL. of the two triangles ABF and ECD about their C.G., od? _ (ex 2 O° 36° 360~=~SO6 CB M.OLL. ofthe two triangles about the C.G. of trapezoidal, Ig," = lo, # Ap x [Distance between C.G. of triangles and C.G. of trapezoidal]? a} = he i[aas 1 sagt 0555 + (1111)? 1 A =t sc ig DY 55 + 0.01234 = 0.06789 m+ ‘M.OLL of the trapezoidal about its C.G, Ig= lo, *+ 1g," 1727 + 06789 = 0.24059 m+ Then cee of esr) onthe veal pel tw eg = HO ai 3d 2 0425 Ams. + A444 = 0.18046 + 4444 = 0.6248[82 Fluid Mechanics ] Alternate Method ‘The distance of the C.G. of the trapezoidal channel from surface AD is given by (refer to Table 3.1 ‘on page 71). a+b) 0x24) 1, (a+b) “3 @¥4) “3 0.444 m 0.444 m = peli = 1000 x 9.81 3.0 x 44 » A=30) = 13079 N. Ans. =4 and h= 1) i Total pressure, F Centre of pressure, We = Ssh where Ig, from Table 3.1 is given by pal stab?) op Bedeaxde#) 52 4 = j6a+6) e+) <= 36x6 = ne = 02407444 = 0,625 m. Ans. 30x44 Problem 3.10 A square aperture in the vertical side of a tank has one diagonal vertical and is completely covered by a plane plate hinged along one of the upper sides of the aperture. The diagonals of the aperture are 2 m long and the tank contains a liquid of specific gravity 1.15. The centre of aperture is 1.5 m below the free surface. Calculate the thrust exerted on the plate by the liquid and position ofits centre of pressure. Solution. Given : Diagonals of aperture, AC = BD = 2m «+ Area of square aperture, A = Area of AACB + Area of AACD = ACKBO , ACXOD _ 2x1 a) 2 2 Sp. gr of liquid 1s Density of liquid, p= 1.15 x 1000 = 1150 kg/m? Depth of centre of aperture from free surface, hatsm 42 Peery 2 8 SUUAKE Wy c VY #2 Fig. 3.13[ Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 83] (O The thrust on the plate is given by F = peAh = 1150%9.81 x2 x 1.5 = 338445, Ans. (4 Centre of pressure (H") is given by we ateah ah MOL. of ABCD about diagonal AC MOL. of wiangle ABC about AC+ M.OL of triangle ACD about AC AcxOBT , ACxOD" ++ M.O.Lof atriangleaboutits base = 2 2 2 2xP 2 2x? 12 1 We = 345 = — 1) 415 = 1.611 m. Ans. 2x15 3x2x15 Problem 3.11. A tank contains water upto a height of 0.5 m above the base. An immiscible liquid of sp. gr. 0.8 is filled on the top of water upto 1 m height. Calculate : (i) total pressure on one side of the tank, (ii) the position of centre of pressure for one side of the tank, which is 2 m wide. Solution. Given : Depth of water Depth of liquid Sp. gr of liquid ; Density of liquid, 1p, = 0.8 x 1000 = 800 kg/m? Density of water, 1000 kg/m* Width of tank m () Total pressure on one side is calculated by drawing pressure diagram, which is shown in Fig. 3.14. Intensity of pressure on top, p20 Intensity of pressure on D (or DE), pp = igh 100 x 9.81 x 1.0 = 7848 Nim? a T ets = 1 I } “a J, = : 8 7048 * 4005, Fig. 3.14 Pushy + pag 0.5 848 + 1000 x 9.81 x 0.5 = 7848 + 4905 = 12753 Nim? Now force F, = Atea of AADE x Width of tank Intensity of pressure on base (or BO).p; Lxapxpe nao bi x7sn20=7848N[84 Fluid Mechanics ] Force F, = Area of rectangle DBFE x Width of tank 0.5 x 7848 x 2 = 7848. N Fy = Area of AEFC x Width of tank 1 = Ex EF x PCK20= Fx 0.5 4905 2.0 = 2452.5 N ++ Total pressure, FF,+Fy+Fy = 7848 + 7848 + 2452.5 = 18148.5 N, Ans. (ii) Centre of Pressure (h*). Taking the moments of all force about A, we get Pentti 2ap eras} aps FyaDs 2 2) sis ie 708x278 (1048) 24825 (10423) 18312 8840) rm op As Problem 3.12 A cubical tank has sides of 1.5 m. It contains water for the lower 0.6 m depth. The upper remaining partis filled with oil of specific gravity 0.9. Calculate for one vertical side of the tank: (a) total pressure, and (b) position of centre of pressure. Solution. Given : Cubical tank of sides 1.5 m means the dimensions of the tank are 1.5. m x 1.5 mx 1.5 m. Depth of water 0.6 m Depth of liquid 0.6 =0.9 m Sp. gt. of liquid 09 Density of liquid, Py = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m* Density of water, 2 = 1000 kg/m? (@) Total pressure on one vertical side is calculated by drawing pressure diagram, which is shown in Fig. 3.15. | Aon osm) oborsran-oa | wf . :Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 85] Intensity of pressure at A, p, = 0 Intensity of pressure at D,pp = pyg X h = 900 x 9.81 x 0.9 = 7946.1 N/m” Intensity of pressure at B, py= p,gh, + pagh, = 900 x 9.81 x 0.9 + 1000 x 9.81 x 0.6 = 7946.1 + 5886 = 13832.1 Nim? Hence in pressure diagram : DE = 7946.1 Nim?, BC = 13832.1 Nim?, FC = 5886 N/m? ‘The pressure diagram is split into triangle ADE, rectangle BDEF and triangle EFC. The total pres- sure force consists of the following components : (@ Force F, = Area of triangle ADE x Width of tank = (fx ADx DE) x 1.5 Width = 1.5 m) = (40.9% 79461) x 15 N 5363.6 N (ii) Force F = Area of rectangle BDEF x Width of tank ps peyets= 6x Ra) x= ISLS ‘hiss wilh acing the C6. of ese RDEP ie atx dss f 096 SS «12m teow A Ci ae Fs Ae of inal EFC Wh ak =( "haf ils tig the C6. tg EF dans 0.92 x06 X EF x FC) x 1.5 = (4% 06x 5886) x 1.5 = 2688.7 N below 4 Total pressure force on one vertical face of the tank, FoF, +F,+Py 5363.6 + 7151.5 + 2648: (6) Position of centre of pressure Let the total force F is acting ata depth of h* from the free surface of liquid, ie. from A. Taking the moments of all forces about A, we get Fxht = Fx 064 Fx 12+ F,x 13 _ A x06+ F x12+ 6 x13 - F __ 53636 06+ TISLS x 12+ 2648713 151638 = 1.005 m from A. Ans. 151638 N. Ans. or he » 3.4 HORIZONTAL PLANE SURFACE SUBMERGED IN LIQUID Consider a plane horizontal surface immersed in a static fluid, As every point of the surface is at the ‘same depth from the free surface of the liquid, the pressure intensity will be equal on the entire surface and equal to, p = pgh, where h is depth of surface.[86 Fluid Mechanics ] Let A= Total area of surface FREE SURFACE Then total force, F, on the surface =p x Area= pg xh XA = pgAh h Depth of centre of pressure from free surface = h. Problem 3.13 Fig. 3.17 shows a tank full of water. Find : Total pressure on the bottom of tank (ii) Weight of water in the tank. (iii) Hydrostatic paradox between the results of (i) and (ii). Width of tank is 2 m. Solution. Given : pam Depth of water on bottom of tank hy =3+06=3.6m Width of tank 2m Length of tank at bottom = =4m ‘Arca at the bottom, A =4x2=8m? (i Total pressure F, on the bottom is F=pgAh = 1000x9.81x8x36 0 [> amo]? 282528 N. Ans. Fig. 347 »@ x Volume of tank = 1000 x9.81 x [3 x0.4x244x.6 x2] = 1000 x 9.81 [2.4 + 4.8] = 70632.N. Ans. (iii) From the results of (i) and (i), itis observed that the total weight of water in the tank is much Jess than the total pressure atthe bottom of the tank. This is known as Hydrostatic paradox. Fig. 3.16 (i) Weight of water in tank > 3.5 INCLINED PLANE SURFACE SUBMERGED IN LIQUID Consider a plane surface of arbitrary shape immersed in a liquid in such a way that the plane of the surface makes an angle @ with the free surface of the liquid as shown in Fig, 3.18. FREE LIQUID SURFACE; Fig. 318 Inclined immersed surface. Let A = Total area of inclined surface T; = Depth of C.G. of inclined area from free surface int = Distance of centre of pressure from free surface of liquid 1 = Angle made by the plane of the surface with fee liquid surface.[ Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces_87| Let the plane of the surface, if produced meet the free liquid surface at 0. Then 0-0 is the axis perpendicular to the plane of the surface. Let J = distance of the C.G. ofthe inclined surface from 0-0 _y® = distance of the centre of pressure from 0-0. Consider a small strip of area dA at a depth ‘h from free surface and at a distance y from the axis 0-0 as shown in Fig. 3.18. Pressure intensity on the strip, P=pah Pressure force, dF, on the strip, dF = p x Area of sttip = pgh x dA Total pressure force onthe whole, F=f dF= pga puctomrie sis, HAA cing hh=ysin P= Jonexyxsind ‘Water surface Dia. of plate, 4=30m Area, A= © G.0)? = 7.0685 m? zm 4 a Distance, DC=1m,BE=2m AB_BE-AE_ BE~DC_20-1.0_1 In aasc, sin @= AB. BEWAE _ BE- DC. C7 Be RC 3g. 3a ‘The centre of gravity ofthe plate i atthe middle of BC, i. ata distance 1.5 m from C. The distance of centre of gravity from the free surface of the water is given by F=cD+CGsino=10+15%4 =15m. (0 Total pressure on the front face ofthe plate is given by F=peAh = 1000 9.81 x 7.0685 x 1.5 = 104013 N. Ans. (i Let the distance of the centre of pressure from the free surface ofthe water be h*. Then using equation 3.10), we have ‘sin 8 = Je. sin?@ = fosinle, a i Al[92 Fluid Mechanics ] n plt eT w = eZ eas aaz = here Ig FO A= Fa = 15 mand sin O= 4 Substituting the values, we get x (2 Zatx(3) : nee 3S 4524 ais Rees 16 "9x15 4 3 + 152.0416 415 => 5416 m. Ans. 16x9x15 Problem 3.17 A rectangular gate 5 m x2 mis hinged at its base and inclined at 60° to the horicon- tal as shown in Fig. 3.22. To keep the gate in a stable position, a counter weight of 5000 kefis attached at the upper end of the gate as shown in figure. Find the depth of water at which the gate begins to fall. Neglect the weight of the gate and friction at the hinge and pulley. Solution. Given : Length of gate =5m Width of gate =2m a= 60" Weight, W= 5000 ket 5000 x 9.81 N = 49050 N (co L kgf = 9.81 N) |Asthe pully isretonless the force acting at B= 49050 N. First find the total force F acting on the getc AB for a given depth of wate. AE _h__S 2h sind ~ sino” 372 VE Area of gate immersed in water, A = AD x Width x 3H <2 = From figure, AD= Also depth of the C.G. ofthe immersed area A Total force F is given by F = pgAh = 1000 x9.81 x 44 8 ix “The centre of pressure of the immersed surface, ht i given by Igsin?0 = hee +h Ah where Jg = M.O.L of the immersed area _ bx (ADy 2x “1 12 WB. _ to ae “12X3xV3 9x3[ Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 93] Now inte Scho, c= he=2%, ceoie= HL in 60° ror) AC=AD-CD a ee BONS RB ON” Taking the moments about hinge, we get 19620 49050 x 5.0 = Fx At 39240 245250 “ 3x3 3 _ 9% 245250 _ 1 = OES - 56.5 n= (56.25)"® = 3.83 m. Ans. Problem 3.18 An inclined rectangular sluice gate AB, 1.2 m by 5 m size as shown in Fig. 3.23 is installed to control the discharge of water. The end A is hinged. Determine the force normal to the gate applied at B 10 open it Solution. Given : A= Area of gate = 1.2 x 5.0 = 6.0 m? Depth of C.G. of the gate from free surface of the water = ft = DG= BC - BE FREE WATER SURFACE O cD = 5.0- BG sin 45° 1 =5.0- 06x — = 476m “The total pressure force (F) acting on the gat, F= pedi = 1000 x 9.81 x 6.0 x 4.576 = 269343 N This force is acting at H, where the depth of Hf from Fig. 323 free surface is piven by Io sin?@ = +[94 Fluid Mechanics ] where [= MOL of gate = 24 = 50X12" 2 2 72m AS 4 4.576 = 013 + 4.576 = 4.589 m Depth of centre of pressure h* = 6x4576 a But from Fig. 3.23 (a), * asin ase ig. (a), OH sin Distance, 589 x JF = 6489 m Distance, Bo=—>_ = 5x J2=70T1m ana Distance, BH = BO ~ OH = 7.071 ~ 6489 = 0.582 m Distance 2 - 0.582 = 0.618 m Taking the moments aout the hinge A P x AB = F x (AH) where Ps the fore nomal tthe gate applied at B Px 12 209383 x 0518 2683430618 ~ 12 Problem 3.19 A gate supporting water is shown n Fig. 3.24 Find th eight ofthe water 50 that the pte tps about ihe hinge, Tak he wlth o the gate ani Solution. Given: 0 =60° hh * sin 60° V3. P = 138708 N. Ans. Distance, where h = Depth of water. The gate will stat tipping about hinge B if the resultant pressure force acts at B. If the resultant pressure force passes through a point which i lying from B to C anywhere on the gate, the gate will ip ‘over the hinge. Hence limiting ease is when the resultant force passes through B. But the resultant force passes through the centre of pressure. Hence for the given position, point B becomes the centre of pressure. Hence depth of centre of pressure, hv = (h—3)m FREE WATER SURFACE = losin? @ 5 Ah HINGE But h* is also given by ‘Taking width of gate unity. Then Area, AzACxI Fig. 3.24 bd? _1xAC? 82h? 2 12 12 12x33 9x3[ Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 95] 3 2 2h x in? 60° he 4 Equating the two values of h*, 7 he ++ Height of water for tipping the gate = 9m. Ans. Problem 3.20 A rectangular sluice gate AB, 2 m wide and 3 m long is hinged at A as shown in Fig. 3.25. Itis kept closed by a weight fixed to the gate. The total weight of the gate and weight fixed to the gate is 343350 N. Find the height of the water ‘h’ which will just cause the gate to open. The centre of gravity of the weight and gate is at G. Solution. Given : Width of gate, b= 2m; Length of gate L= 3m Area, x3=6m? x3=9m Weight of gate and Let / is the required height of water. Depth of C.G. of the gate and weight From Fig. 3.25 (a), ~ ED = h~(AD~ AE) ~ (AB sin @~ EG tan 8) = h~G sin 45° - 0.6 tan 45°) ~ 2.121 ~ 0.6) = (h~ 1.521) m ‘The total pressure force, F is given by F = pgAh = 1000 x9.81 x6 x (h 1.521) = 58860 (lr ~ 1.521) N. ‘The total force F is acting at the centre of pressure as shown in Fig. 3.25 (b) at H. The depth of H from free surface is given by h* which is equal to 45 xsin? 45° 0375 “ —— ——— + (h- 1.521 6x(h— 1521) * isa *4 X[96 Fluid Mechanics ] HINGE ons" @ Fig. 3.25 Now taking moments about hinge A, we get 343350 x EG = F x AH AK or 343350 x 0. sin 45° [Fm AAKH, Fig.325 (b) AK = AH sin @= AH sin 45°. A ae 58860 (ht ~ 1.521) x AK ‘sin 45° 343350 x0.6 xsin 45°_ 03535 x7 AK fi 38860 (1521) (1521) 2 37s But Ak =h -ac= — 375 _ 4 (41.521) -AC wolf 1320 * 7 oy But AC = CD ~ AD = h~AB sin 45° = h-3 xin 45° = h-2.121 Substituting this value in (i), we get 315 $= 1521) h- 2.121 nisi * ~« , 315 315 +2421 - 1.521 +06 Ait 521 uu) Equating the two values of AK from (i) and (ii) L521[ Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 97| 0.3535x7 _ _ 0.375 h=152 = 1521 or 375 + 0.6 (h~ 1.521) = 0.375 + 0.6 h~ 0.6 x 1.521 or . ATAS — 375 + 0.6 x 1.521 = 2.0995 + 0.9126 = 3.0121 +06 m. Ans. Problem 3.21 Find the total pressure and position of centre of pressure on a triangular plate of base 2 mand height 3 m which is immersed in water in such a way that the plane of the plate makes an angle of 60° with the free surface of the water. The base ofthe plate is parallel to water surface and at 4@ depth of 2.5 m from water surface. SURFACE, Solution. Given : Base of plate, m Height of plate, h=3m Area, Ae PRL DS 3 yt 2 2 Inclination, 6 = 60° Depth of centre of gravity from free surface of water, hi =2.5 + AG sin 60° Fig. 3.26 1 BB 1 sebeaxtl —— {sacLortiatuia} = 2.5 + 866 m= 3.366 m (0 Total pressure force (F) F = peAl = 1000 x 9.81 x 3 x3.366 = 99061.38 N. Ans. (Go Centre of pressure (h). Depth of centre of pressure from free surface of water i given by 29 where I,= ME = 2%3 3 3% 6D 1S xsin? 60° 3X 2366 + 3.366 = O.111 + 3.366 = 3.477 m. Ans. > 3.6 CURVED SURFACE SUB-MERGED IN LIQUID Consider a curved surface AB, sub-merged in a static fluid as shown in Fig. 3.27. Let dA is the arca of a stall strip at a depth of fr from water surface. ‘Then pressure intensity on the area dA is = pgh and pressure force, dF = p x Arca = pghx dA GAD This force dF acts normal to the surface. Hence total pressure force on the curved surface should be F: J pghaa (3.12)[98 Fluid Mechanics WATER n SURFACE _C |5 7 3 iar io ancoso E ——— ‘AREA dA 8 0) (a) a Fig. 327 But here as the direction of the forces on the small areas are not in the same direction, but varies from point to point. Hence integration of equation (3.11) for curved surface is impossible. The problem can, however, be solved by resolving the force dF in two components dF, and dF, in the x and y directions respectively. The total force in the x and y directions, i.e., F, and F, are obtained by integrating dF, and dF, Then total force on the curved surface is +R B.13) FE and inclination of resultant with horizontal is tan @ = — B14) Resolving the force dF given by equation (3.11) in x and y directions : dF, = dF sin = pghdA sin 8 : dF = pghdA} and DahdA cos 8 “Total orcs in th x andy dition ae Fy J dP. J pati sin 0 pe f ht sin 0 19 and Fy= | aFy= J penta cos 0= pe tas oor 1) Fig. 3.27 (b) shows the enlarged area dA. From this figure, ie., AEFG, ‘Ths inequation (3.15). sin 9 PE Verte pojectinf the rca dt nd hene the exprsin oe J isn ® repens th press fore on te pote asa ofthe cued suc on he vere plane, Ths F, = Total pressure force on the projected area of the curved surface on vertical plane. (3.17) Also dA cos 6 horizontal projection of dA and hence MA cos @ isthe volume of the liquid contin nthe elena ae dA upto fee suace ofthe Lig Ths [A cos is the ol volume conte betwen the cured surface extend ut five src, Hence pf td cos is th ttl wight uppity the carved surface. Thus Fy=pe [nas cos 0 = weight of lid supported bythe ved surface upto fie surface of ii ous)[ Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 99 In Fig. 3.28, the curved surface AB is not supporting any fluid. In such cases, F, is equal to the weight of the imaginary liquid supported by AB upto free surface of liquid. The direction of F, will be taken in upward direction, Problem 3.22 Compute the horizontal and vertical components of the total force acting on a curved surface AB, which is in the form of a quadrant of a circle of radius 2 m as shown in Fig. 3.29. Take the width of the gate as unity. Solution. Given : Width of gate Radius of the gate Distance ‘equation (3.17) as, F, = Total pressure force on the projected area of curved surface AB on vertical plane rotal pressure force on OB {projected area of curved surface on vertical plane = OB x 1) = ped wo 981 x21 (+2) WATER SURFACE Fig. 3.28 {Area of OB = A= BOx1=2x1=2, Ti = Depth of C.G. of OB from free surface = 1.5+ 3) Fy 81 x 2000 x 2.5 = 49050 N. Ans. +2 2x25 75 = 0.1333 + 2.5 = 2.633 m from free surface. Vertical force, F,, exerted by water is given by equation (3.18) F, = Weight of water supported by AB upto free surface Weight of portion DABOC Weight of DAOC + Weight of water AOB 1g [Volume of DAOC + Volume of AOB] = 1000 x 9.81 [apxaoxi+ = (aoy x1][100 Fluid Mechanics ] “| = 1000 x 9.81 [3.0 + RIN = 60249.1 N. Ans. Problem 3.23 Fig. 3.30 shows a gate having a quadrant shape of radius 2 m. Find the resultant force due to water per metre length of the gate. Find also the angle at which the total force will act. Solution. Given : a Radius of gate Width of gate Horizontal Force = 1000 x 9.81 [1sx20x1+ 2x Force on the projected area of the curved surface on vertical plane = Force on BO = peal 1 where A= Areaof BO=2x1=2m’,h astm F, = 1000 x 9.81 x2. 1 = 19620 N Thi wile at dn of 22 = m fom ssi i Vertical Foree, F, F, = Weight of water (imagined) supported by AB 1g x Area of AOB x 1.0 = 1000 9.81 x E (2)4x 1.0 = 30819 N ‘This will act ata distance of 28 = 4%20 anon Resultant force, Fis given by Fs (haP = 196205 30BT9 = [5859445004 DABBIOTOT = 368344 N. Ans. ‘The angle made by the resultant with horizontal is given by F, _ 30819 F, 19620 . @ = tan"! 1.5708 = $7° 31’. Ans. Problem 3.24 Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force due to water acting on a roller gate of cylindrical form of 4.0 m diameter, when the gate is placed on the dam in such a way that water is just going t0 spill. Take the length of the gate as 8 m. Solution. Given : Dia. of gate Radius, Length of gate, = 0.848 m from OB. tan 5708[ Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 101) Horizontal force, F, acting on the gate is WATER, SURFACE F, = peAli = Force on projected area of curved surface ‘ACB on vertical plane = Force on vertical area AOB where A = Area of AOB = 4.0 x 8.0 = 32.0 m? I; = Depth of CG. of AOB = 4/2 = 2.0m F, = 1000 9.81% 32.0 2.0 627840 N aa Vertical force, F, is given by F, = Weight of water enclosed or supported (actually or imaginary) by the curved surface ACB = pg x Volume of portion ACB 1g Area of ACB XI = 1000 x 9.81 x F(R) x8.0 = 9810 x 52)" x 81 It will be acting in the upward direction. Resultant force, = «[F2 + Fe = 6270+ AVSION = 798328 N. Ans. F, _ 493104 Direction of resultant force is given by tan = 0.785 ia wlan L a F, 627840 ee 0=31°8' Ans. Problem 3.25 Find the horizontal and vertical component of water pressure acting on the face of a tainter gate of 90° sector of radius 4 m as shown in Fig. 3.32. Take width of gate unity. Solution. Given : Radius of gate, R=4m Horizontal component of force acting on the gate is F, = Force on area of gate projected on vertical plane = Force on area ADB mesure = pea where A= ABx Width of gate =2KADx1 (cs AB = 2AD) Fig. 3.32 x 4x sin 45° = 8 x .707 = 5.656 m? (1 AD = 4 sin 45°} AB 25.856 <9 998m 2. 2 F, = 1000 x 9.81 x 5.656 x 2.828 N = 186911 N. Ans. Vertical component F, = Weight of water supported or enclosed by the curved surface Weight of water in portion ACBDA = pg x Area of ACBDA x Width of gate 1000 x 9.81 x [Area of sector ACBOA ~ Area of ABO] x 1[102 Fluid Mechanics ] AOx BO 2 : AAOB is a right angled] Kp? = 9810 x| ER? s10%|% = 9810 [4° 224) «44796 N. Ans ao Problem 3.26 Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of the water pressure exerted on a tainter gate of radius 8 m as shown in Fig. 3.33. Take width of gate unity. Solution. The horizontal component of water pressure is given by Ah “orce on the vertical area of BD where A= BD x Width of gate = 4.0 1 = 4.0 m ‘orce on the area projected on vertical plane WATER SURFACE ¢ = 1000 x 9.81 x 4.0 x 2.0 = 78480 N. Ans. Fig. 333 Vertical component of the water pressure is given by F, = Weight of water supported or enclosed (imaginary) by curved surface CB = Weight of water in the portion CBDC 1g x [Area of portion CBDC] x Width of gate = pg x [Area of sector CBO ~ Area of the triangle BOD] x 1 30. BDx be = 010981 xan = 360 2 2 (+ DO = BO cos 30° = 8 x cos 30°) 9810 x [16.755 — 13.856] = 28439 N. Ans. Problem 3.27 A cylindrical gate of 4 m diameter 2 m long has water on its both sides as shown in Fig. 3.34. Determine the magnitude, location and direction of the resultant force exerted by the water ‘on the gate. Find also the least weight of the cylinder so that it may not be lifted away from the floor. Solution. Given : WATER SURFACE A Dia. of gate Radius m (@ The forces acting on the left side of the cylinder are = ‘The horizontal component, F,, where F,, = Force of water on area projected on vertical plane = Force on area AOCHydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 103) F,, = weight of water enclose by ABCOA = 1000 9.81 x[ER| 200 = 9810 x © x 2? x20 = 123276 N. Right Side of the Cylinder = ptA;fz = Force on verical area CO = 1000 9.81 «2%23{ Ay=COx1=2«1=2 mh: 9240 N Weight of water enclosed by DOCD = pax [Ee] x Width of gate = 1000 x 9.81 x © x 2?x2 = 61638 N Resultant force in the direction of x, F,= F,,~ Fe, = 156960 ~ 39240 = 117720 N Resultant force in the direction of y, F, =F, + Fy, = 123276 + 61638 = 184914 N (H Resultant force, F is given as, F= JF +F = ¥(117720)' +(184914)° = 219206 N. Ans. (id Direction of resultant force is given by F, _tsdo1a an 5707 an O= 117720 0 =57° 31" Ans. (iii) Location of the resultant force 24 — 2.67 m from the top surface of water on left side, while F,, 33 m from free surface on the right side of the cylinder. The resultant Force, F,, acts ata distance of 2 scsaradisaceot2 2 force F, in the direction of x will act at a distance of y from the bottom as F,xy= F, [4-267] ~ Fy, [2-133] or 117720 x y = 156960 x 1.33 ~ 39240 x .67 = 208756.8 - 26290.8 = 182466 12466 _ 155 m from the bottom. 11720 ae) 8488 m from AOC towards Force Facts ata distance 28 from AOC ora distance " an leat 0c Aso a8 ata distance #2 088 m om AOC toast ip of AOC. Te eat force F, will act ata distance x from AOC which is given by[104 Fluid Mechanics ] Fy xx= Fy, X 8488 — Fx 8488 or 184914 x x= 123276 x 8488 - 61638 x .8488 = 8488 [123276 - 61638] = 52318.4 318.4 Teaoqa 702829 m from AOC. (iv) Least weight of cylinder. The resultant force in the upward direction is F, = 184914 N ‘Thus the weight of cylinder should not be less than the upward force F,. Hence least weight of cylinder should be at least. 184914 N. Ans. Problem 3.28 Fig. 3.35 shows the cross-section of a tank full of water under pressure. The length of the tank is 2 m. An empty cylinder lies along the length of the tank on one of its corner as shown. Find the horizontal and vertical components of the force acting on the curved surface ABC of the oylinder. Solution. Radius, R= 1m o2 katen? Length of tank, 1=2m Pressure, 2 keflem’ {962 Nlem? = 1.962 x 10* Nh _p 196210" pg 1000x981 Free surface of water will be at a height of 2 m from the top of the tank. Fig. 3.36 shows the equivalent free surface of water. Pressure head, (® Horizontal Component of Force F,= peak where A= Area projected on vertical plane 1.5 2.0 = 3.0 m? Ls 5 1000 x 9.81 x 3.0 x 2.75 = 80932.5 N. Ans. (ii) Vertical Component of Force ‘eight of water enclosed or supported actually or imaginary by curved surface ABC ‘eight of water in the portion CODE ABC ‘Weight of water in CODFBC ~ Weight of water in AEFB But weight of water in CODFBC ‘= Weight of water in [COB + ODFBO] = os 7 + nox 00] 2 = 1000%9.81 Fat st0x25] x2 4458.5 N 9g [Area of AEFB] x 2.0 Weight of water in AEFBHydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 105 = 1000 x 9.81 [Area of (AEFG + AGBH ~ AHB)] x 2.0 In AAHO, sing = AH _ 05 10 ‘AO BH @= 30° (0 ~ HO = 1.0 - AO cos @ = 1.0 ~ 1x 00s 30° = 0. ABH = Area ABO ~ Area AHO = ni 3 AHXHO _ AR? 05% 866 _ 5455 30020 Weight of water in AEF 810 x [AE x AG + AG x AH — 0.0453] x 2.0 = 9810 x [2.0 x .134 + .134 x .5 ~ 0453] x 2.0 18.10 x [.268 + .067 — .0453] x 2.0 = 5684 N : F, = 6458.5 ~ 5684 = 587745 N, Ans. Problem 3.29 Find the magnitude and direction of the resltant water pressure acting on a curved Area, face of adam which is shaped according to the elation y = as shown in Fig. 3.37. The height ofthe water retained by the dam is 10 m. Consider the width of the dam as unity. Solution, Equation of curve AB is Height of water, Width, ‘The horizontal component, F, is given by Fig. 3.37 ressure due to water on the curved area projected on vertical plane ressure on area BC seh where A=BCx1=10x1m,h=4+x10=5m F, = 1000 «9.81 x 10 x5 = 490500 N Vertical component, F, is given by F, = Weight of water supported by the curve AB ‘eight of water in the portion ABC = palArea of ABC] x Width of dam [[xe]1.0 {arora ay asaase [0] ar) 000 x 9.81 x [3yF ay = 2043022)" 2pep -m00 5] 20402 fy"? = 19620 110% 19620 x 31.622 = 620439 N[106 Fluid Mechanics ] Resultant water pressure on dam [F? + F} = y(490500)° +(620439)" = 790907 N = 790.907 KN. Ans. tiven by F, _ 620439 F, 490500 = 51° 40", Ans. F Direction of the resultant tan @ = 1.265 Problem 3.30 A dam has a parabolic shape y (z) as shown in Fig, 3.38 blow having x =6m and yo = 9m. The fluid is water with density = 1000 kg/m’. Compute the horizontal, vertical and the resultant thrust exerted by water per metre length of the dam. Solution. Given : Equation of the curve OA is yi Width of dam, _ ( Horizontal thrust exerted by water F, = Force exerted by water on vertical surface OB, ie., the surface obtained by projecting ont [53h 6 m the curved surface on vertical plane = pet Fig. 3.38 = 1000981 (9 x 1) x5 (ii) Vertical thrust exerted by water F, = Weight of water supported by curved surface OA upto free surface of water ‘eight of water in the portion ABO 9g x Area of OAB x Width of dam = 10009381 x( fx dy] x10 1 ) = 1909.81 [faa] 10 vey ap A = 19620 x|2—_| = x= 9] sox] 9620 x 5 I 19620227 = 8160, As[ Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 107) (iii) Resultant thrust exerted by water F= JF) +82 = (3973054 353160 = 531574 N. Ans. Direction of resultant is given by 353160 _ 5 agg F, 397305 O= tan”! 0.888 = 41.63". Ans. Problem 3.31 A cylinder 3 m in diameter and 4 m long retains water on one side. The cylinder is supported as shown in Fig. 3.39. Determine the horizontal reaction at A and the vertical reaction at B The cylinder weighs 196.2 kN. Ignore friction. WATER SURFACE Solution. Given : Dia. of cylinder Length of cylinder Weight of cylinder, W= 196.2 KN = 196200 N Horizontal force exerted by water F,,= Force on vertical area BOC = pedi eal tx 2 F, = 1000 x 9.81 x 12 x 1.5 = 176580 N ‘The vertical force exerted by water F, = Weight of water enclosed in BDCOB where A=BOCxI=3x4= 12m’, = pe (Ea?) x1 10003 9.81«% x 4= 138684 N Force Fis acting in the upward direction, For the equilibrium of eylinder Horizontal reaction at A "76580 N = Weight of cylinder ~ F, 196200 ~ 138684 = S7516 N. Ans. Vertical reaction at B > 3.7. TOTAL PRESSURE AND CENTRE OF PRESSURE ON LOCK GATES Lock gates are the devices used for changing the water level in a canal or a river for navigation. Fig. 3.40 shows plan and elevation of a pair of lock gates. Let AB and BC be the two lock gates. Each gate is supported on two hinges fixed on their top and bottom at the ends A and C. In the closed position, the gates meet at B. Let F = Resultant force due to water on the gate AB or BC acting are right angles to the gate R = Reaction at the lower and upper hinge P = Reaction at the common contact surface of the two gates and acting perpendicular to the contact surface. Let the force P and F meet at O. Then the reaction R must pass through O as the gate AB is in the ‘equilibrium under the action of three forces. Let @ is the inclination of the lock gate with the normal to the side of the lock.[108 Fluid Mechanics ] In ZABO, ZOAB = ZABO = 8. Resolving all forces along the gate AB and putting equal to zero, we get R cos 0 P cos = OorR=P (3.19) WATER SURFACE UPSTREAM SIDE DOWNSTREAM SIDE Fig. 3.40 Resolving forces normal to the gate AB Rsin 0+ P sin @- F=0 o F=Rsin 8+ P sin 9=2P sin 0 (eRe?) F 6.20 Zaind ae To calculate P and R In equation (3.20), P can be calculated if F and @ are known. The value of 8 is calculated from the angle between the lock gates. The angle between the two lock gate is equal to 180° — 28. Hence @ can be calculated. The value of F is calculated as : me hot water onthe apt sie igh wa om dw ie aren onthe pon ota ie rps nh on Sora ie of ep i wisn oe Now 8A i 1 x Hy x 1x a 2 i ea oat : simu, Fess = pact i al 1H? _pgltt? | — Fy Pal pale Substituting the value of @ and F in equation (3.20, the value of P and R can be calculated. Reactions at the top and bottom hinges Let R, = Reaction of the top hinge Resultant force F=[ Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 109) R, = Reaction of the bottom hinge Then R=R, +R, ‘The resultant water pressure F acts normal to the gate. Half of the value of F is resisted by the hinges of one lock gates and other half will be resisted by the hinges of other lock gate. Also Fy acts at A Hy a distance of 5 from bottom while F, ats at a distance of “> from botiom. ‘Taking moments about the lower hinge R,xsinOxH 0 where H/= Distance between two hinges Resolving forees horizontally R,sin 0 +R, sin = LB alii) 2 From equations (i) and (i), we can find R, and Ry. Problem 3.32 Each gate of a lock is 6 m high and is supported by two hinges placed on the top and bottom of the gate. When the gates are closed, they make an angle of 120°. The width of lock is 'm. Ifthe water levels are 4 m and 2 mon the upstream and downstream sides respectively, determine the magnitude of the forces on the hinges due to water pressure Solution. Given : HINGE Ry, Height of lock Width of lock Width of each lock gate Angle between gates “ 6 2 = 30° Height of water on upstream side Ay and " Fig. 3.41 Total water pressure on upstream side F, = pgAyh where Ay = Hy x1= 40 «2.887 m? = 1000 x 9.81 x 4 x 2.887 x 2.0 = 226571 N Foxe Fw beating at adsanee ot 133m om oom Similarly, total water pressure on the downstream side F = pgAzhia, where A= Hz x= 2% 2.887 m? = 1000 x 9.81 x 2x 2.887 x 1.0[110 Fluid Mechanics ] = 56643 N Hy 2 FF, will act ata distance of S*= > = 0.67 m from bottom, Resultant water pressure on each gate F = Fy ~ F, = 26571 ~ 56643 = 169928 N. Let xis height of F from the bottom, then taking moments of F,, F and F about the bottom, we have Fxx= F,x133- Fx 0.67 or 169928 x x = 226571 x 1.33 ~ 56643 x 0.67 226571 x 133 — 56643 x 0.67 _ 30139-37950 _ | 551, 169928 169928 F__ 169928 From equation (3.20), P 169928 N 2sind 2sin30 From equation (3.19), R= P = 169928 N, If Ry and Rp are the reactions atthe top and bottom hinges, then Ry + Ry= R= 169928 N. ‘Taking movements of hinge reactions R, Ry and R about the bottom hinges, we have Ry X60 + RyX0= RX 155 ~ Ry = 169928 ~ 43898 = 126030 N. Ans. Problem 3.88 The end gates ABC of a lock are 9 m high and when closed include an angle of 120°. The width of the lock is 10 m. Each gate is supported by two hinges located at I m and 6 m above the bottom of the lock. The depths of water on the two sides are 8 m and 4 m respectively. Find: (i) Resultant water force on each gate, (ii) Reaction between the gates AB and BC, and (iii) Force on each hinge, considering the reaction of the gate acting in the same horizontal plane as resultant water pressure. Solution. Given : Height of gate Inclination of gate PUN ) ELEVATION Fig. 3.42[ ‘Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 111] Width of lock =10m 5 Width of each lock = S30 8 I= 577m Depth of water on upstream side, Hy Depth of water on downstream side, Hy (0 Water pressure on upstream side F,= pea where Ay = DH, = 5.773 x 8 = 46.184 m, hy = BE $=40m F, = 1000 x 9.81 x 46.184 x 4,0 = 1812260 N = 1812.26 kN Water pressure on downstream side, Fre peAshs where Ay = 1% Hy 773 x4 = 23.092 m, Tn = 4 = 20 1000 x 9.81 x 23.092 x 2.0 = 453065 N = 453.065 kN Resultant water pressure 1 ~ Fy = 1812.26 ~ 453,065 = 1359.195 kN (i Reaction between the gates AB and BC. The reaction (P) between the gates AB and BC is given by equation (3.20) as pe P= 1389195 = sin 2xsin 30° = 1359.195 kN. Ans. (ii) Force on each hinge. If Ry and Ry are the reactions at the top and bottom hinges then Ry + Ry But from equation (3.19), R = . Ry + Ry 359.195 359.195 epee 3 ‘The resultant force F will act at a distance x from bottom is given by Fx 2.67 - F, x 133 or 1812.26%2.67-453.065%133 “7359195 Hence R is also acting at a distance 3.11 m from bottom, ‘Taking moments of Ry and R about the bottom hinge Ry X [6.0 ~ 1.0] = Rx (x ~ 1.0) Rx(e=L0)_ 1359195211 r 50 50 Ry= R~ Ry = 1359.195 ~ 573.58 85.615 kN. Ans. 67m om toma Ft Hn 1.3m fom tom.[112 Fluid Mechanics ] > 3.8 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION IN A LIQUID SUBJECTED TO CONSTANT HORIZONTAL/VERTICAL ACCELERATION In chapters 2 and 3, the containers which contains liquids, are assumed to be at rest. Hence the liquids are also at rest. They are in static equilibrium with respect to containers. But if the container ‘containing a liquid is made to move with a constant acceleration, the liquid particles initially will move relative to each other and after some time, there will not be any relative motion between the liquid particles and boundaries of the container. The liquid will take up a new position under the effect of acceleration imparted to its container. The liquid will come to rest in this new position relative to the container. The entire fluid mass moves as a single unit, Since the liquid after attaining a new position is in static condition relative to the container, the laws of hydrostatic can be applied to determine the liquid pressure. As there is no relative motion between the liquid particles, hence the shear stresses and shear forces between liquid particles will be zero. The pressure will be normal (0 the surface in contact with the liquid. ‘The following are the important cases under consideration : (Liquid containers subject to constant horizontal acceleration, (i) Liquid containers subject to constant vertical acceleration, 3.8.1 Liquid Containers Subject to Constant Horizontal Acceleration. Fig. 3.43 (a) shows a tank containing a liquid upto a certain depth. The tank is stationary and free surface of liquid ishorizontal, Let this tank is moving with a constant acceleration ‘a’ in the horizontal direction towards right as shown in Fig. 3.43 (b). The initial free surface of liquid which was horizontal, now takes the shape as shown in Fig. 3.43 (b). Now AB represents the new free surface of the liquid. Thus the free surface of liquid due to horizontal acceleration will become a downward sloping inclined plane, with the liquid rising at the back end, the liquid falling at the front end. The equation for the free liquid surface can be derived by considering the equilibrium of a fluid element C lying on the free surface. ‘The forces acting on the element C are : Free surface of y que Origa igi surface Free surface of fue |e . — Tank (staionay) @ ) ‘Tank moving Fig. 3.43 (D the pressure force P exerted by the surrounding fluid on the element C. This force is normal to the free surface. (id, the weight of the fluid element i.e., mx g acting vertically downward. (iii) accelerating force ie., m x a acting in horizontal direction.[ Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 113) Resolving the forces horizontally, we get Psin@+mxa=0 or P sin @=~ ma oli) Resolving the forces vertically, we get P cos @~ mg =0 or P cos O=mxg ii) Dividing (0) by (i), we get tn o=- 4 (onan) 11.204) ee ‘The above equation, gives the slope ofthe free surface ofthe liquid which i contained in a tank which is subjected to horizontal constant acceleration. The term (a/g) isa constant and henee tan 8 will be constant The -ve sign shows thatthe fee surface of ligud is sloping downwards. Hence the tree surface isa stright plane inlined down at an angle @ along the direction of acceleration. Now let us find the expression forthe pressure at any point D in the liquid mass subjected to horizontal acceleration. Let the point Dis ata depth of “Wr fiom the fee surface. Consider an elementary pris DE of height "F"and eros-secional area dA as shown in ig. 3-44 [Unes of constant pressure Consider the equilibrium of the elementary prism DE. The forces acting on this prism DE in the vertical direction are ()_ the atmospheric pressure force (pp x dA) at the top end of the prism acting downwards, (ii) the weight of the element (p x g x hx dA) at the C.G. of the element acting in the downward direction, and (ii) the pressure force (p x dA) at the bottom end of the prism acting upwards. Since there is no vertical acceleration given to the tank, hence net force acting vertically should be ze10. px dA ~ px dA~pgh dA =0 or P~Po~peh=0 or p=po+psh or P~Po=pah fof gauge pressure at point D is given by P=pgh or pressure head at point D, 2 =h. Pa[114 Fluid Mechanics ] From the above equation, it is clear that pressure head at any point in a liquid subjected to a ‘constant horizontal acceleration is equal to the height of the liquid column above that point, Therefore the pressure distribution in a liquid subjected to a constant horizontal acceleration is same as hydrostatic pressure distribution. The planes of constant pressure are therefore, parallel to the inclined surface as shown in Fig. 3.44, This figure also shows the variation of pressure on the rear and front ‘end of the tank. If hy = Depth of liquid at the rear end of the tank ‘hy = Depth of liquid at the front end of the tank. F = Total pressure force exerted by liquid on the rear side of the tank F,,= Total pressure force exerted by liquid on the front side of the tank, then Fy = (Area of triangle AML) x Width ps = (FX LM XAM xb) = 4X phy ity x6 2 and = (Area of triangle BNO) x Width fx iyxpahy b= beh See ee eee ae The vaio fF an ofan Wo obmia a (Retro Fig 88 (oh 4 x BN x NO) F, - hk pa XA, x Ta, where Ay = hy xb and fs = AL hod (hy xb) x tL = 4 pg. b Px gx xb)x = > ps pg XA,% fn, where Ay Px Ex (hy xb) x oh pg bichd Fig, 344(@) It can also be proved that the difference of these two forces (i.e., F, ~ F) is equal to the force required to accelerate the mass of the liquid contained in the tank i.e, F\-F,=Mxa where M = Total mass of the liquid contained in the tank lorizontal constant acceleration, Note : () Ifa tank completely filled with liguid and open at the top is subjected to a constant horizontal acceleration, then some of the liqhid will spill out from the tank and new free Surface with its slope given by equation tan =~ © will be developed z (i a tank party fled with liqud and open atthe top is subjected toa constant horizontal acceleration, spilling ofthe quid may take place depending upon ie nage ofthe acceleration. (i) tatnk completely filed with gud and closed atthe tp is subjected to a constant horizontal acceler tion, then the guid would not spill ou from the tank and also there wil be no adjustment in he surface clevation ofthe gui. But the equation tan 0 =~ * is applicable for this case as. z (iv) The example for a airplane during take off. k with liquid subjected to a constant horizontal acceleration, is a fuel tank on an[ Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 115) Problem 3.34 A rectangular tank is moving horizontally in the direction of its length with a constant acceleration of 2.4 m/s. The length, width and depth of the tank are 6 m, 2.5 m and 2m respectively. If the depth of water in the tank is I'm and tank is open atthe top then calculate : (i) the angle of the water surface to the horizontal, (i) the maximum and minimum pressure intensities at the bottom, (iii) the total force due to water acting on each end of the tank Solution. Given : Grttied Constant acceleration, Length = 6 m ; Wid Depth of water in tank, (i. The angle of the water surface to the horizontal Let @ = the angle of water surface to the horizontal Using equation (3.20), we get Original too = 24 ms?, ooo 2.5 mand depth = 2m. 2") Im | 2.24 onus Fig. 3.45 3 98l (the —ve sign shows that the free surface of water is sloping downward as shown in z tan @ = 0.2446 (slope downward) ‘ @= tan! 0.2446 = 13.7446" or 13° 44.6". Ans. (i The maximum and minimum pressure intensities at the bottom of the tank From the Fig. 3.45, Depth of water at the front end, ig. 3.45) hy = 13 tan @= 1 ~3 x 0.2446 = 0.2662 m Depth of water at the rear end, hy = 143 tan @ = 1 +3 x 0.2446 = 1.7338 m ‘The pressure intensity will be maximum at the bottom, where depth of water is maximum. Now the maximum pressure intensity at the bottom will be at point A and it is given by, xXx hy 1000 x 9.81 x 1.7338 N/m? = 1708.5 N/m?. Ans. ‘The minimum pressure intensity at the bottom will be at point B and it is given by Pain = PX 8X hy = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.2662 = 2611.4 Ném?. Ans. (iii) The total force due to water acting on each end of the tank Prax Let otal force acting on the front side (ie., on face BD) tal force acting on the tear side (ie., on face AC) Then where Ay = BD x width of tank = hy x2.5 = 0.2662 x 2.5 and 9266? = 0.1331 m = 1000 x 9.81 x (0.2662 x 2.5) x 0.1331 168.95 N. Ans.[116 Fluid Mechanics ] and F= pga, where Ay = AB x width of tank = hy x 2.5 = 1.7338 x 2.5 AB 1338 = AB oe 17338 «9.5669 m 2 2 1000 x 9.81 x (1.7338 x 2.5) x 0.8669 368618 N. Ans. Resultant force = F, ~ Fy 36861.8 N - 868.95 ¢ 35992.88 N Note. The difference of the forces acting on the two ends of the tank is equal to the force necessary to accelerate the liquid mass. This ean be proved as shown below : Consider the control volume of the liquid i., control vol- ume is ACDBA as shown in Fig. 346, The net force acting on the control volume in the horizontal direction must be equal 10 the produet of mass of the liquid in control volume and accel- eration ofthe liquid, Liquid (water) (F-F)=Mxa (p X volume of control volume) x a = (1000 x Area of ABDCE x width) x 2.4 x[ns (22280) canewis pas [area eaperiom ) xoxa.sxa4 (5 AC = hi = 1.7338 m, BD = hy = 0.2662 m, and AB = 6 m, width = 2.5m) The above force is nearly the same as the difference of the forces acting on the two ends of the tank. (i. 35902.88 = 36000), Problem 3.35 The rectangular tank of the above problem contains water to a depth of 1.5 m. Find the horizontal acceleration which may be imparted to the tank in the direction ofits length so that (i) the spilling of water from the tank is just on the verge of taking place, (ii) the front bottom corner of the tank is just exposed, ii) the bottom of the tank is exposed upto its mid-point. Also calculate the total forces exerted by the water on each end of the tank in each case. Also prove that the difference between these forces is equal to the force necessary to accelerate the mass of water tan. Solution. Given : Dimensions of the tank from previous problem, L=6 m, width (b) = 2.5 m and depth = 2 m[ Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 117) Depth of water in tank, = 1.5 m vnoname Horizontal acceleration imparted to the tank oe! surface) (0 (@) When the spiling of wate from the tank is nat just on the verge of taking place ama tle __ ‘When the spilling of water from the tank is just on the [14 verge of taking place, the water would rise upto the rear | top comer of the tank as shown in Fig. 3.47 (a) _AC_(2-13) “A073 os +n + 1667 3 tan @ Fig. 347 (a) Spilling of water is just on ie the verge of taking place. But from equation (3.20) tan @ = (Numerically) a= gX tan 0 = 9.81 X0.1667 = 1.635 mvs?. Ans, (b) Total forces exerted by water on each end of the tank ‘The force exerted by water on the end CE of the tank is F, =pgAyhi, where A, = CE x width of the tank = 2x 2.5 jee u2 i= Ge2- 22 1000 x 9.81 x (2X 2.5) x I = 49050 N. Ans. ‘The force exerted by water on the end FD of the tank is Im Fy As x Tin, where Ay = FD % width= 12.5 (se AC=BD=0.5m, 2. FD=BF-BD=1: FD_1 a7 0.5m = 1000x981 x(1x2.5)x0.5 he = 1262.5 N. Ans. (0) Difference of the forces is equal to the force necessary to accelerate the mass of water in the tank Difference of the forces = Fy - F, = 49050 ~ 12262.5 = 36787.5 N ‘Volume of water in the tank before acceleration is imparted to it = Lx b x depth of water, = 625% 15=22.5 m ‘The force necessary to accelerate the mass of water in the tank Mass of water in tank x Acceleration 1.635 mis?) = 1000 x 22.5 x 1.635 [There is no spilling of water and volume of water = 22.5 m*] = (px volume of water) x 1.635 = 36787.5 N[118 Fluid Mechanics ] Hence the difference between the forces on the two ends of the tank is equal to the force necessary to accelerate the mass of water in the tank. Vola faerie cad svotme = (EPP) er wh Retro Fig. 3.47 (a)] Froe suriaco | Original free = (222) } for this case is given by equation as fF eantt+ 33a Fig. 351 Po = gh (+4) z = 1000 «9.81 x0.5 (1+ 243) «613125 nin? 381 This pressure is represented by line BC. Now the force on the side AB = Area of triangle ABC x Width of tank = (40.5% 6131.25) x2 (BC = 3065.6 N. Ans. (O Force on the side of the tank, when tank is moving vertically downward. The pressure variation is shown in Fig. 3.52. For this case, the pressure at the bottom of the tank (ie, at point B) is given by equation (3.23) as 131.25 and b = 2m) Pe= Pah (: = 1000981 «0.5 3) ‘= 3678.75 Nim? ‘This pressure is represented by line BC. sé S New te foosontte ae AB Arete ABCA |. (Lx ABx BC) xb Fig. 3.52 = ($05 x367875) x2 (+ BC = 3678.75, b = 2) = 1839.37 N. Ans.[ Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 123) (id Force on the side of the tank, when tank is stationary. ‘The pressure at point B is given by, Po = pgh = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.5 = 4905 Nim? This pressure is represented by line BD in Fig. 3.52 Force on the side AB = Area of triangle ABD x Width = ($x ABx BD) xb = (£05 x 4905) x 2 BD = 4905) 2452.5 N. Ans. For this case, the force on AB can also be obtained as Fag = pach where A= AB x Width = 0.5 x2= 1m? AB 293 0.25 m= 1000 x 9.81 x 1x 0.25 2452.5 N. Ans. Problem 3.38 A tank contains water upto a depth of 1.5 m. The length and width of the tank are 4 m and 2 m respectively. The tank is moving up an inclined plane with a constant acceleration of 4 mis. The inclination of the plane with the horizontal is 30° as shown in Fig. 3.53. Find, (i) the angle made by the free surface of water with the horizontal. (ii) the pressure at the bottom of the tank at the front and rear ends Solution. Given : Depth of water, f= 1.5 m ; Length, Width, 6 = 2m Constant acceleration along the inclined plane, a=4ms? Amand Inclination of plane, = 30° Let @ = Angle made by the free surface of water after the acceleration is imparted to the tank Pa = Pressure at the bottom of the tank at the front end and pp = Pressure at the bottom of the tank at the rear nd, Fig. 3.53 This problem can be done by resolving the given acceleration along the horizontal direction and vertical direction. Then each of these cases may be separately analysed according to the set procedure. Horizontal and vertical components of the acceleration are : 400s 30° = 3.464 mis? asin «= 4 sin 30° = 2 m/s? ‘When the tank is stationary on the inclined plane, free surface of liquid will be along EF as shown in Fig. 3.53. But when the tank is moving upward along the inclined plane the free surface of liquid will be along BC. When the tank containing a liquid is moving up an inclined plane with a constant acceleration, the angle made by the free surface of the liquid with the horizontal is given by124. Fluid Mechanics o @= tan"! 0.2933 = 16.346 or 16° 20.8’. Ans. Now let us first find the depth of liquid at the front and rear end of the tank. Depth of liquid at front end = h, = AB Depth of liquid at rear end = fy = CD From Fig. 3.53, in triangle COE, tan @ = g or CE = £0 tan 8 = 2x 0.2933 (BO = 2m, tan 0 = 0.2933) 5866 m :D + CE = 1.5 + 0.5866 = 2.0866 m AB = AF ~ BF 5 — 0.5866, (Ce AP = LS, BF = CE = 0.5866) Similarly hy = 0.9134 m ‘The pressure at the bottom of tank at the rear end is given by, 4 Po= Pah |1+—— @ 2 eso xsat aon 2 ero ont xa (16 2) ‘The pressure at the bottom of tank at the front end is given by 4 Pa= Pah (+4) 8 2 on 980914 (1+ 2.) «oer NA -24642.7 Nim?. AnsHydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 125) ‘The centre of pressure for a plane vertical surface lies at a depth of two-third the height of the lorizontal force on curved surface and is equal to total pressure force on the projected area of the eurved surface on the vertical plane, eA and F, = Vertical force on sub-merged curved surface and is equal to the weight of liquid actually for imaginary supported by the curved surface. ‘The total force on a curved surface is given by where Fy ‘The inclination of the resultant force on curved surface with horizontal, tan 8 ‘The resultant force on a sluice gate, F = Fy ~ Fy where F; F,, = Pressure force on the downstream side of the sluice gate. messure force on the upstream side of the sluice gate and Fora lock pate, the reation between the two gates is equal tothe reaction atthe hinge, = P. Also the reaction between the two gates, P a Zain where F = Resultant water pressure on the lock gate “Fy and @= Inclination ofthe gate with the normal fo the side of the lock. EXERCISE (A) THEORETICAL PROBLEMS |. What do you understand by “Total Pressure’ and ‘Centre of Pressure’ ? Derive an expression for the force exerted on a sub-merged vertical plane surface by the static liquid and locate the position of centre of pressure. Prove that the centre of pressure of a completely sub-merged plane surface is always below the centre of gravity of the sub-merged surface or at most eoineide with the centre of gravity when the plane surface is horizontal Prove that the total pressure exerted by a stati liquid on an inclined plane sub-merged surface Is the same as the force exerted on a vertical plane surface as long as the depth of the centre of gravity of the surface is unaltered. Derive an expression for the depth of centre of pressure from free surface of liquid of an inclined plane surface sub-merged in the liquid. (@) How would you determine the horizontal and vertical components of the resultant pressure on a sub- merged curved surface ? (&) Explain the procedure of finding hydrostatic forces on curved surfaces, (Delhi University, Dec. 2002) Explain how you would find the resultant pressure on a curved surface immersed in a liquid. Why the resultant pressure on a curved sub-merged surface is determined by first finding horizontal and vertical forces on the curved surface ? Why is the same method not adopted for a plane inclined surface sub-merged in a liquid ?{126 Fluid Mechanics ] 9. 10, a 2 13. 16. Describe briefly with sketches the various methods used for measuring pressure exerted by fluids Prove that the vertical component of the resultant pressure on a sub-merged curved surface is equal to the weight of the liquid supported by the curved surface. What is the difference between sluice gate and lock gate ? Prove that the reaction between the gates of a lock is equal to the reaction atthe hinge Derive an expression for the reaction between the gates as P= sin inclination of the gate with normal to the side of the Tock. where F = Resultant water pressure on lock gate, |. When will centre of pressure and centre of gravity of an immersed plane surface coincide ? Find an expression forthe force exerted and centre of pressure fora completely sub-merged inclined plane surface. Can the same method be applied for finding the resultant foree on a curved surface immersed in the liguid ? IF not, why ? ‘What do you understand by the hydrostatic equation ? With the help of this equation derive the expressions for the (otal thrust on a sub-merged plane area and the buoyant force acting on a sub-merged body. (8) NUMERICAL PROBLEMS Determine the total pressure and depth of centre of pressure on a plane rectangular surface of 1 m wide and 3 m deep when its upper edge is horizontal and (a) coincides with water surface (b) 2_m below the free water surface. {[Ans.(a) 44145 N, 2.0m, () 103005 N,3.714 m] Determine the total pressure on a circular plate of diameter 1.5 m which is placed vertically in wat such @ way that centre of plate is 2 m below the free surface of water, Find the position of centre of pressure also [Ans, 4668.54 N, 2.07 m] A rectangular sluice gate is situated on the vertical wall of a lock. The vertical side of the sluice is 6 m in length and depth of centroid of area is 8 m below the water sueface. Prove thatthe depth of centre of pressure is given by 8.475 m, A circular opening, 3 m diameter, n a vertical sie of a tank is closed by a dise of 3 m diameter which can rotate about a horizontal diameter. Calculate : (i) the force on the dise, and (i) the toque required to ‘maintain the disc in equilibrium in the vertical position when the head of water above the horizontal diameter is 6 m. [Ans () 416.05 KN, (ii) 39005 Nm} ‘The pressure atthe centre of a pipe of diameter 3 m is 29.43 Nlem®. The pipe contains oil of sp. gr. 0.87 and is filled with a gate valve. Find the force exerted by the oil on the gate and position of centre of pressure. [Ans. 2.08 MN, .016 m below centre of pipe} Determine the total pressure and centre of pressure on an isosceles triangular plate of base $m and altitude 5 m when the plate is immersed vertically in an oil of sp. gr. 0.8. The base of the plate is 1 m below the free surface of water [Ans.261927N, 3.19 m] ‘The opening in a dam is 3 m wide and 2.m high. A vertical sluice gate is used to cover the opening. On the upstream of the gate, the liquid of sp. gr. 1.5, ies upto a height of 2.0 m above the top of the gate, whereas on the downstream side, the water is available upto a height of the top of the gate. Find the resultant force acting on the gate and position of centre of pressure. Assume that the gate is higher at the bottom. [Ams. 206010 N, 0.964 m above the hinge}Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 127) 8. A caisson for closing the entrance to a dry dock is of trapezoidal form 16 m wide atthe top and 12 m wide at the botiom and 8 m deep. Find the total pressure and centre of pressure on the ealsson if the ‘water on the outside is 1 m below the top level of the caisson and dock is empty. [Ans. 3.164 MN, 4.56 m below water surface] A sliding gate 2.m wide and 1.5 m high lies in a vertical plane and has a co-efficient of friction of 0.2 between itself and guides. Ifthe gate weighs one tonne, find the vertial force required to raise the gate if its upper edge is at a depth of 4 m from free surface of water. Ans. 37768.5 NI 10. A tank contains water upto height of 1 m above the base. An immiscible liquid of sp. gr. 0.8 is filled on the top of water upto 1.5 m height. Calculate: (i) total pressure on one side of the tank, (i) the position of centre of pressure for one side of the tank, which is 3 m wide. [Ans. 76518 N, 1.686 m from top] ‘A rectangular tank 4 m long, 1-5 m wide contains water upto a height of 2 m. Calculate the force due to ‘water pressure on the base of the tank. Find also the depth of centre of pressure from free surface. Ans. 117720 N, 2 m from free surface] 12, A rectangular plane surface 1 m wide and 3 m deep lies in water in such a way that its plane makes an angle ‘of 30° with the free surface of water, Determine the total pressure and position of centre of pressure when the upper edge of the plate is 2 m below the free water surface. [Ans, 80932.5 N, 2.318 m] A citcular plate 3.0 m diameter is immersed in water in such a way thatthe plane of the plate makes an angle of 60° with the fee surface of water. Determine the total pressure and positon of centre of pressure ‘when the upper edge of the plate is 2 m below the free water surface. [Ans. 228.69 kN, 3.427 m from free surface] 14, A rectangular gate 6 m x2 m is hinged at its base and inclined at 60° to the horizontal as shown in Fig. 3.54 To keep the gate in a stable position, a counter weight of 29430 N is atached atthe upper end of the gate. Find the depth of water at which the gate begins to fall. Neglect the weight ofthe gate and also friction at the hinge and pulley. Ans, 3.43 m] WATER SURFACE. 13. Fig. 3.54 Fig. 3.55 15. An inclined rectangular gate of width S m and depth 1.5 m is installed to control the discharge of water as shown in Fig. 3.55. The end A is hinged. Determine the force normal to the gate applied at B to open it. [Ans.97435.8N] 16. A gate supporting water is shown in Fig. 3.56. Find the height FREE WATER SURFACE, “h’ of the water so that the gate begins to lip about the hinge. Take the width of the gate as unity (Ans. 3% /3 m] 17. Find the total pressure and depth of centre of pressure on a Uwiangular plate of base 3 m and height 3 m which is immersed in ‘water in such a way that plane of the plate makes an angle of 60° Fig. 3.56 withthe free surface, The base of the plate is parallel to water surface and ata depth of 2 m from water surface Ans, 126.52 KN, 2.996][128 Fluid Mechanics ] 18. Find the horizontal and vertical components of the total force acting on a curved surface AB, which is in the form of a quadrant of a circle of radius 2 m as shown in Fig, 3.57, Take the width ofthe gate 2m. (Ams. F,= 117.72 kN, F, = 140.114 KN] WATER SURFACE WAIER SURFACE Opie Fig. 3.57 Fig. 3.58 19. Fig. 3.58 shows a gate having a quadrant shape of radius of 3 m. Find the resultant force due to water per ‘metre length ofthe gate. Find also the angle at which the total force will act. (Ans. 82.201 KN, 0 = 57° 31'] 20. A roller gate is shown in Fig. 3.59, Iti cylindrical form of 6.0 m diameter. It i placed on the dam. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force due to water acting on the gate when the Water is just going to spill. The length of the gate is given 10 m, [Ans 2.245 MN, 6= 38° 8) ROLLER GATE. WATER SURFACE 60m pam Fig. 3.59 Fig. 3.60 21. Find the horizontal and vertical components of the water pressure exerted on a tainter gate of radius 102.44 N} 4m as shown in Fig. 3.60. Consider width of the gate unity. [Ans.F,=19.62KN, F, 22. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant water pressure acting on a curved face of a dam which is shaped as shown in Fig. 361. The 7 is according to the relation y = height of water retained by the dam is 12 m. Take the width ‘of dam as unity. (Ans, 970.74 KN, @= 43° 1] 23. Bach gate of a Jock is $ m high and is supported by two hinges placed on the top and bottom of the gate. When the gates are closed, they make an angle of 120°. The width ofthe lock is 4m, I the depths of water on the two sides ofthe gates are 4 m and 3 m respectively, determine : (the magnitude of resultant pressure on each sate, and (jf) magnitude of the hinge reactions. {Ans.(°) 79.279 KN, i) Rp=27.924 KN, Ry=S1.385KN] 24. The end gates ABC of a lock are 8 m high and when closed make an angle of 120°, The width of lock 10 m. Each gate is supported by two hinges located at | m and 5 m above the bottom of the lock. The ‘depth of water on the upstream and dovinsieam sides ofthe lock are 6 m and 4 m respectively. Find (H, Resultant water force on each gateHydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 129) (ii) Reaction between the gates AB and BC, and (iii) Force on each hinge, considering the reaction of the gate acting in the same horizontal plane as resultant water pressure. [Ans. 566.33 KN, (i) 566.33 kN, and (it) Ry= 173.64 kN, Ry = 392.69 kN] 2, A hollow circular plate of 2 m external and I m internal diameter is immersed vertically in water such that the centre of plate is 4 m deep from water surface. Find the total pressure and depth of centre of pressure. [Ans 92.508 KN, 4.078 m] 126. A rectangular opening 2.m wide and 1 m deep in the vertical side ofa tank is closed by a sluice gate of the same Size. The gate can turn about the horizontal cengoidal axis. Determine : () the total pressure on the sluice gate and (ip the torque on the sluice gate, The head of water above the upper edge of the gate is 1.5 m. [Ans (7 39.24 KN, (i) 1635 Nm} 27. Determine the total force and location of centre of pressure on one face Of FREE SURFACE OF LIQUID. the plate shown in Fig. 3.62 immersed in a liquid of specific gravity 0.9. + [Ans.62.4 KN, 3.04 m} 28. A circular opening, 3 m diameter in the vertical side of water tank is closed by a dise of 3 m diameter which can rotate about a horizontal diameter ? Calculate: (9 the foree on the disc, and (i) the torque required to maintain the dise in equilibrium in the vertical position when the head of water above the horizontal diameter is 4 m, [Ans (i) 270 KN, and (i) 38 KN m) 29. A penstock made up by a pipe of 2 m diameter contains a circular dist of same diameter {0 act as a valve which controls the discharge passing through it I can rotate about a horizontal diameter. Ifthe head of water above its centre is 20 m, find the total force acting on the dise and the Fig. 3.62 torque required to maintain it in the vertical position, 30. A circular drum 1.8 m diameter and 1.2 m height is submerged with its axis vertical and its upper end at ‘depth of 1.8 m below water level. Determine {(@ total pressure on top, botiom and curved surfaces of the drum, (Gi) resultant pressure on the whole surface, and iid) depth of centre of pressure on curved surface. 31. A circular plate of diameter 3 m is immersed in water in such a way tha its least and greatest depth from the free surface of water are 1_m and 3 m respectively. For the front side ofthe plat, find (i total force exerted by water and (ii) the position of centre of pressure Ams. (138684 N 5 (i) 2.125 m] 32. A tank contains water upto a height of 10 m, One of the sides of the tank is inclined. The angle between free surface of water and inclined side is 60°. The width of the tank is Sm. Find : () the force exerted by ‘water on inclined side and (i) position of centre of pressure. [Ans. (i) 283.1901 KN, (4) 6.67 m] 33. A circular plate of 3 m diameter is under water with its plane making an angle of 30° with the water surface. If the top edge of the plate is 1 m below the water surface, find the force on one side of the plate and its location. (LNT.U,, Hyderabad § 2002) 30" (Hint, d= 3 m, 8= 30°, height of op edge = 1 m, h = 1+ 1,5 xsin 30° =175 F = pgAh = 1000 x 9.81 x xo) ascaanasin EG! oso, 5. BO) "2 sas eoone1 750188) ae 8 casBUOYANCY AND FROATATION > 4.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter, the equilibrium of the floating and sub-merged bodies will be considered. Thus the chapter will include : 1. Buoyancy, 2. Centre of buoyancy, 3. Metacentre, 4. Metacentric height, 5. Analytical method for determining metacentric height, 6. Conditions of equilibrium of a floating and sub-merged body, and 7. Experimental method for metacentric height. » 4.2 BUOYANCY When a body is immersed in a fluid, an upward force is exerted by the fluid on the body. This upward force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and is called the force of buoyancy or simply buoyancy. > 4.3 CENTRE OF BUOYANCY It is defined as the point, through which the force of buoyancy is supposed to act. As the force of buoyancy is a vertical force and is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body, the centre of buoyancy will be the centre of gravity of the fluid displaced. Problem 4.1 Find the volume of the water displaced and position of centre of buoyancy for a wooden block of width 2.5 m and of depth 1.5 m, when it floats horizontally in water. The density of wooden block is 650 kg/m and its length 6.0 m. Solution. Given : width WATER Depth SURFACE, w Length a Ins. Volume of the block = 2.5 x 1.5 x6.0 = 22.50 m* hy Density of wood, p= 650 kg/m? . Weight of block = px @x Volume 25m 50 x 9.81 x 22.50 N = 143471 N Fig. 4 131[132 Fluid Mechanics For equilibrium the weight of water displaced = Weight of wooden block = 143471 N Volume of water displaced _ Weight of water displaced __143471 © Weight density of water 1000x981 (Ce Weight density of water = 1000 x 9.81 Nim?) Position of Centre of Buoyancy. Volume of wooden block in water = Volume of water displaced = 14.625 m’. Ans. or 2.5 x hx 6.0 = 14.625 m°, where /h is depth of wooden block in water “ os ).975 m 33x60 Cente of Buoyancy = 2275 = 48 m rom bse Ans Problem 4.2 A wooden log of 0.6 m diameter and 5 m length is floating in river water. Find the depth of the wooden log in water when the sp. gravity of the log is 0.7. Solution. Given : of log Length, Sp. er. Density of log = 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m* Weight density of log, w=pxg = 700 x 9.81 Nim? Find depth of immersion or h Weight of wooden log = Weight density x Volume of log = 700 x 9.81 x 5 (D)*xL = 100 x9.81 x © (6)° x5 N = 989.6981 N For equilibrium, Weight of wooden log = Weight of water displaced = Weight density of water x Volume of water displaced Volume of water displaced = 2895*98! _ 9.9396 m? 1000 9.81 ‘Weight density of water = 1000 x 9.81 N/m?) Let h is the depth of immersion Volume of log inside water = Area of ADCA x Length = Area of ADCA 5.0 But volume of log inside water = Volume of water displaced = 0.9896 m*[ Buoyancy and Floatation 133] 0.9896 = Area of ADCA x 5.0 s. Atea of ADCA = 9286 — 0.1979 m? 50 But area of ADCA = Area of curved surface ADCOA + Area of AAOC aa [= 38] 1 B = wr | Say | + 5 08 x 2r sin @ 5 e).> avin] +Pawsane >f,_2 : 0.1979 = n(3) + (3)? 00s sin @ (3 [ al 3 0.1979 = 2827 ~ 00157 8 + 0.9 cos @ sin 8 or 00157 6.09 cos 8 sin @= 2827 ~ .1979 = 0.0848 08 0848 “pors7 ©8988 = -o9rs7 or 6 = 57.32 00s @ sin 8 = 54.01 or @~ 57.32 cos @ sin 8 ~ 54.01 =0 For 8 60 ~ 57.32 x 0.5 x .866 ~ 54.01 = 60 ~ 24.81 ~ $4.01 = ~ 18.82 For @ 10 ~ 51.32 x 342 x 0.9396 - $4.01 = 70 - 18.4 ~ 54.01 =~ 2.41 For 8 = 72°, 72 ~ 57.32 x 309 x 951 - $4.01 = 72 - 16.84 - 54.01 = + 1.14 For 8= 71°, 71 ~ 51.32 x 325 x..9455 — 54.01 = 71 - 17.61 - 54.01 = - 0376 0= 715%, TLS ~ $7.32 x 3173 x 948 — 54.01 = 715 ~ 17.24 ~ 54.01 = + 248 Then r+ cos 715° = 0.3 +03 x 0.3173 = 0.395 m. Ans. Problem 4.3 A stone weighs 392.4 N in air and 196.2 N in water. Compute the volume of stone and its specific gravity. Solution. Given : Weight of stone in air 92.4 N Weight of stone in water = 196.2.N For equilibrium, ‘Weight in air ~ Weight of stone in water = Weight of water displaced or 392.4 ~ 196.2 = 196.2 = 1000 x 9.81 x Volume of water displaced Volume of water displaced 1962 Ng = 1 10% cm = 2.x 10 em’, Ans. 1000x981 50” ~ 50 = Volume of stone x10 em’, Ans. Volume of stone[134 Fluid Mechanics ] Specific Gravity of Stone Weight in air _ 3924 Mass of tone B24 ong ¢ 88i Density of tone Massinaie . ADO KE «49 x 59 = 2000 KE ‘Voume 1s m 50 Sp. gt. of stone Density of stone _ 2000 _ 3.0, ans. Density of water — 1000 Problem 4.4 A body of dimensions 1.5 m x 1.0 m x2 m, weighs 1962 N in water. Find its weight in air. What will be its specific gravity ? Solution. Given : Volume of body = 1.50 x 1.0 x 2.0 = 34 Weight of body in water 1962. N Volume of the water displaced = Volume of the body = 3.0 m? Weight of water displaced = 1000 x 9.81 x 3.0 = 29430 N For the equilibrium of the body Weight of body in air ~ Weight of water displaced = Weight in water Wa, — 29430 = 1962 19430 + 1962 = 31392 N ert Weight inait _ 31392 _ 5509 py g 981 Density of the body Mass_ _ 3200 _ 1066.67 Volume 3.0 1066.67 vity of the bod! .067. Ans. Sp. gravity of the body Too = 1067. Ans Problem 4.5 Find the density of a metallic body which floats at the interface of mercury of sp. gr. 13.6 and water such that 40% of its volume is sub-merged in mercury and 60% in water. Solution. Let the volume of the body = V m> ‘Then volume of body sub-merged in mercury 40 100, Volume of body sub-merged in water =04 Vm? 60. 3 = ye v=06Vm oo XV 08 For the equilibrium of the body Total buoyant force (upward force) = Weight of the body But total buoyant force = Force of buoyancy due to water + Force of buoyancy due to mercury Force of buoyancy due to water = Weight of water displaced by body Density of water x g x Volume of water displaced = 1000 x g x Volume of body in water[ Buoyancy and Floatation 135] = 1000 g x 0.6.x VN and Force of buoyancy due to mercury = Weight of mercury displaced by body x Density of mercury x Volume of mereury displaced 4X 13.6 x 1000 x Volume of body in mercury 8 13.6 x 1000 x0.4 VN ‘Weight of the body = Density x g x Volume of body = px gx V where pis the density of the body For equilibrium, we have Total buoyant force = Weight of the body 1000 x g x 0.6 x V+ 13.6 x 1000x ¢x 4V=pxgxV or p= 600 + 13600 x 4 = 600 + 54400 = 6040.00 kg/m? Density of the body = 6040.00 kg/m’. Ans. Problem 4.6 4 float valve regulates the flow of oil of sp. gr. 0.8 into a cistern. The spherical float is 15 em in diameter. AOB is a weightless link carrying the float at one end, and a valve at the other end which closes the pipe through which oil flows into the cistern. The link is mounted in a frictionless hinge at O and the angle AOB is 135°. The length of OA is 20.cm, and the distance between the centre of the float and the hinge is 50 cm. When the flow is stopped AO will be vertical. The valve is 10 be pressed on to the seat with a force of 9.81 N to completely stop the flow of oil into the cistern. It was observed that the flow of oil is stopped when the free surface of oil in the cistern is 35 cm below the hinge. Determine the weight of the float. Solution. Given = ort, Sp. gr. of ol sure, a, ~. Density of oil, oo on. Se ‘SURFACE Dia. of float, Force, Find the weight of the float. Let it is equal to W. ‘When the flow of oil is stopped, the centre of float is shown in Fig. 4.4 wom an00, singer = OB = OEHD , or = 35 = 35.355 ~ 35 = 0.355 cm = 00355 m. Wa ‘The weight of float is acting through B, but the upward buoyant force is acting through the centre of weight of oil displaced. Volume of oil displaced Zar snxne[136 Fluid Mechanics ] + x mx (.075)° + .00355 x m x (.075)? = 0.000945 m* :. Buoyant force = Weight of oil displaced 0 g x Volume of oil = 800 x 9.81 x .000945 = 7.416 N ‘The buoyant force and weight of the float passes through the same vertical line, passing through B. Let the weight of float is W. Then net vertical force on float = Buoyant force ~ Weight of float = (7.416 ~ W) ‘Taking moments about the hinge O, we get Px 20 = (7.416 ~ W) x BD = (7.416 ~ W) x 50 x c0s 45° or 9.81 x 20 = (7.416 — W) x 35.355, W=7416— aoeaet 7.416 ~ 5.55 = 1.866 N. Ans. 35355 > 4.4 META-CENTRE Itis defined as the point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is tilted by a small angle. The meta-centre may also be defined as the point at which the line of action of the force of buoyancy will meet the normal axis of the body when the body is given a small angular displacement. Consider a body floating in a liquid as shown in Fig. 4.5 (a). Let the body is in equilibrium and Gis the centre of gravity and B the centre of buoyancy. For equilibrium, both the points lie on the normal axis, which is vertical. NORMAL Axis ANGULAR fy DISPLACEMENT NORMAL AXIS @ ©) Fig. 4.5 Meta-centre Let the body is given a small angular displacement in the clockwise direction as shown in Fig. 4.5 (b). ‘The centre of buoyancy, which is the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid or centre of gravity of the portion of the body sub-merged in liquid, will now be shifted towards right from the normal axis. Let it is at B, as shown in Fig. 4.5 (b). The line of action of the force of buoyancy in this new position, will intersect the normal axis of the body at some point say M. This point M is called Meta-centre. > 4.5 META-CENTRIC HEIGHT ‘The distance MG, i.e., the distance between the meta-centre of a floating body and the centre of gravity of the body is called meta-centric height.[ Buoyancy and Floatation 137] >» 4.6 ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR META-CENTRE HEIGHT Fig. 4.6 (a) shows the position of a floating body in equilibrium. The location of centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy in this position is at G and B. The floating body is given a small angular displacement in the clockwise direction. This is shown in Fig. 4.6 (b). The new centre of buoyancy is at By. The vertical line through B, cuts the normal axis at M. Hence M is the meta-centre and GM is, meta-centric height. “ANGULAR ISPLACEMENT L | | (@ PUN OF B00" AT WATER UNE & Fig. 4.6 Metacenire beight of floating body. The angular displacement of the body in the clockwise direction causes the wedge-shaped prism. BOB’ on the right ofthe axis to go inside the water while the identical wedge-shaped prism represented by AOA’ emerges out of the water on the left of the axis. These wedges represent a gain in buoyant force on the right side and a corresponding loss of buoyant force on the left side. The gain is represented by a vertical force dF, acting through the C.G. of the prism BOB’ while the loss is represented by an equal and opposite force dF acting vertically downward through the centroid of AOA’. The couple due to these buoyant forces dy tends to rotate the ship in the counterclockwise direction. Also the moment caused by the displacement of the centre of buoyancy from B to By is also in the counterclockwise direction, Thus these two couples must be equal. Couple Due to Wedges. Consider towards the right of the axis a small strip of thickness dx at a distance x from 0 as shown in Fig. 4.5 (b). The height of strip xx ZBOB’ = xx 8. (> £BOB’ = ZAQA’ = BMB; ‘Area of strip = Height x Thickness = xx 0x de If Lis the length of the floating body, then Volume of strip = Arca x L = xx Ox Lx dr Weight of strip = pg x Volume = pgx OL dx Similarly, if a small stip of thickness dx at a distance x from Q towards the left of the axis is considered, the weight of strip will be pgx® L dx. The two weights are acting in the opposite direction and hence constitute a couple.[138 Fluid Mechanics ] Moment of this couple = Weight of each strip x Distance between these two weights pax OL dx [x +x] = pax OL de x 2x = 2pex? OL de ‘Moment of the couple for the whole wedge = J 2pgx? OL dx 4.) ‘Moment of couple due to shifting of centre of buoyancy from B 0 B, Fy x BB, = Fx BMx0 + BB, = BM x if 0 is very small} = Wx BMx® {iv Fp = W) 4.2) But these two couples are the same. Hence equating equations (4.1) and (4.2), we get Wx BM x 0 =| 2pgx” @ Lax Wx BM x 0 = 2p¢8 J e°Ldr Wx BM = 2p¢ [7Ldx Now Ldx = Elemental area on the wate line shown in Fig. 4.6 (c) and = dA Wx BM = 2p¢ [x44 But from Fig. 4.5 (c) its clear that 2 J x° da is the second moment of area of the plan of the body at water surface about the axis ¥-¥. Therefore Wx BM {whore 1= 2 J? dA} But W= Weight of the body = Weight of the fluid displaced by the body = pg x Volume of the fluid displaced by the body = pg x Volume of the body sub-merged in water ex am = PBT 1 (43) pax om= BM - 86 = - BG Meteonic tet = Ole “sy Problem 4.7 A rectangular pontoon is 5 m long, 3 m wide and 1.20 m high. The depth of immersion of the pontoon is 0.80 m in sea water. If the centre of gravity is 0.6 m above the bottom of the pontoon, determine the meta-centric height. The density for sea water = 1025 kg/m". Solution. Given : Dimension of pontoon Smx3mx 120m Depth of immersion 0.8 m[ Buoyancy and Floatation 139] Distance AG = 0.6 m 3m a} Distance AB = 4 x Depth of immersion 24 x8=04m Sitten Density for sea water = 1025 kg/m? Abe Meta-centre height GM, given by equation (4.4) is af ou= 1-86 | were 1 MO. neta ofthe pl ofthe pontoon aout axis = xsx3'mt= 5 mt ' 2 4 \7= Volume of he boy submerged in water 1 PuaT Waren sricE 0.2m Fig. 4.7 1 ope 8 x ch a22 48 020937502 = 07578 m. Ans 9°?" 35 Problem 4.8 A uniform body of size 3m long x2 m wide x I m deep floats in water. What is the weight of the body if depth of immersion is 0.8 m ? Determine the meta-centric height also. Solution. Given : 39m Dimension of body =3x2x1 Depth of immersion =08m Find (i)Weight of body, W _ (ii) Meta-centric height, GM (i). Weight of Body, W = Weight of water displaced 1g x Volume of water displaced = 1000 x 9.81 x Volume of body in water 1000 x 9.81 x 3x2 x 0.8 N = 47088 N. Ans. ELEVATION (ii) Meta-centric Height, GM ae Using equation (4.4), we get om = 586 where M.0.1 about ¥-¥ axis of the plan of the body 1 3. 3x2? ‘ A x3xes I 2a SEE = 20m Y= Volume of body in water =3x2x08=48m> Ba= AG ~AB=*9-°8 -o5_04=0. 0.1 = 0.4167 ~ 0.1 = 0.3167 m. Ans.[140 Fluid Mechanics ] Problem 4.9 A block of wood of specific gravity 0.7 floats in water. Determine the meta-centric height of the block if its size is 2 m XI m X08 m y Solution. Given : Let depth of immersion = hm i 20m Sp. eof wood =07 oe | Weight of wooden piece = Weight density of wood x Volume ir 07 x 1000 x9.81 x2 1x08N_ _ Weight of water displaced = Weight density of water =) ot Joeme x Volume of the wood sub-merged in water iis = 1000 x 9.81 x2x1xhN le 10+! For equilibrium, Fig. 49 Weight of wooden piece = Weight of water displaced 700 x 9.81 X2x 1x 0.8 = 1000X9.81x2x1Xh 700x 9.812% 1x08 1000 x9.81x2x1 Distance of centre of Buoyancy from bottom, ‘e., 0.7 x0.8 = 0.56 m and AG = 0.8/2.0 = 0.4 m o BG = AG ~ AB = 0.4 -0.28 = 0.12 m ‘The meta-centric height is given by equation (4.4) or -BG 1 q where 2 x 2x1. 12 y Y= Volume of wood in water =2K1xh=2x1x.56= 1.12 Gat = 2 FE = 0.12 = 0.1488 0.12 = 0.0288 m. Ans. Problem 4.10 A solid cylinder of diameter 4.0 m has a height of 3 metres. Find the meta-centric height of the cylinder when it is floating in water with its axis vertical. The sp. gr. of the cylinder = 06, Solution. Given : Dia. of cylinder, D=40m Height of cylinder, h=3.0m + Weight density of wood 1px #, where p = density of wood =0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m’, Hence w for wood = 700 x 9.81 Nim’.[ Buoyancy and Floatation 141] Sp. gr. of cylinder =06 bam Depth of immersion of cylinder = 0.6 3.0 = 1.8m pun and ¢. 8 15-09 =06 m Now the meta-centrie height Gi is given by equation (4.4) ie 1 om= 3G L2G But MOLL about Y-Y axis of the plan of the body = pt=% x (4.0)* At J xo and Y= Volume of cylinder in water z x Depth of immersion = FOP x 18m ® 40) = x (40) GM = 4 —___ 06 (4.0) x18 Ba ety A og- 4 _ 16" 18 18 ~ ve sign means that meta-centre, (M) is below the centre of gravity (G). Problem 4.11 A body has the cylindrical upper portion of 3 m diameter and 1.8 m deep. The lower portion is a curved one, which displaces a volume of 0.6 m' of water. The centre of buoyancy of the curved portion is at a distance of 1.95 m below the top of the cylinder. The centre of gravity of the whole body is 1.20 m below the top of the cylinder. The total displacement of water is 3.9 tonnes. Find the meta-centric height of the body. Solution. Given : Dia. of body =3.0m Depth of body 18m ‘Volume displaced by curved portion = 0.6 m’ of water. Let By is the centre of buoyancy of the curved surface and G is the centre of gravity of the whole body. 0. .55 ~ 0.6 = - 0.05 m. Ans.[142 Fluid Mechanics ] ‘Then CB, = 1.95 m 30m— C0= 120 m lie! Total weight of water displaced by body = 3.9 tonnes 9 x 1000 = 3900 kef 3900 x 9.81 N = 38259 N Find meta-centrie height of the body. Let the height of the body above the water surface x m, Total weight of water displaced by body = Weight density of water x [Volume of water displaced] = 1000 x 9.81 x [Volume of the body in water] = 9810 [Volume of cylindrical part in water + Volume of curved portion] ELEVATION Fig. 4.11 = 9810 [Exo x Depth of cyindical part in water + Volume displaced by curved portion or 38259 = 9810 [Ror xas-1) +06] ® ot xag—y +062 3829 7 OY x89 + 06= ‘ 2x3 x (18-1) =3.9- S Tx x (18-9 = 39-06 33x4 Rx3x3 * x= 18 ~ 4668 = 1.33 m Let By is the centre of buoyancy of cylindrical part and B is the centre of buoyancy of the whole body. ‘Then depth of cylindrical part in water = 1.8 ~ x= 0.467 m 467 cB, =x4 907 2 or 18-x 4668 1,33 + 2335 = 1.5635 m. ‘The distance of the centre of buoyancy of the whole body from the top of the cylindrical part is. given as CB = (Volume of curved portion x CB, + Volume of cylindrical part in water x CB,) + (Total volume of water displaced) = 06 X195 +33 15635 _ L17+5.159 (06 +33) Then BG = CB~ CG = 1.623 ~ 1.20 = 423 m. Meta-centric height, GM, is given by = 1.623 m. L Ma L_ GM = 5 - BG[ Buoyancy and Floatation 143] where = M.O.L. of the plan of the body at water surface about ¥-Y axis Byte Ex atmt == xpte 2 x3 “4 ot V = Volume of the body in water = 3.9 m* = ES 423 = 1,019 423 = 0.596 m. Ans. oa “39 > 4.7 CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A FLOATING AND SUB-MERGED BODIES ‘A sub-merged or a floating body is said to be stable if it comes back to its original position after a slight disturbance. The relative position of the centre of gravity (G) and centre of buoyancy (B,) of a body determines the stability of a sub-merged body. 4.1.1 Stability of a Sub-merged Body. The position of centre of gravity and centre of buoy- ancy in case of a completely sub-merged body are fixed. Consider a balloon, which is completely sub- merged in air. Let the lower portion of the balloon contains heavier material, so that its centre of ‘gravity is lower than its centre of buoyancy as shown in Fig. 4.12 (a). Let the weight of the balloon is W. The weight Wis acting through G, vertically in the downward direction, while the buoyant force Fp is acting vertically up, through B. For the equilibrium of the balloon W= Fy. If the balloon is given an angular displacement in the clockwise direction as shown in Fig. 4.12 (a), then W and F, constitute a ‘couple acting in the anti-clockwise direction and brings the balloon in the original position. Thus the balloon in the position, shown by Fig. 4.12 (a) is in stable equilibrium. @ o) © STABLE EQUILIBRIUM © UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM Fig. 4.12 Stabilities of sub-merged bodies. (@) Stable Equilibrium. When W = F, and point B is above G, the body is said to be in stable equilibrium. () Unstable Equilibrium. If W= F,, but the centre of buoyancy (B) is below centre of gravity (G), the body is in unstable equilibrium as shown in Fig. 4.12 (b). A slight displacement to the body, in the clockwise direction, gives the couple due to W and F, also in the clockwise direction. Thus the body does not return to its original position and hence the body is in unstable equilibrium. (c) Neutral Equilibrium. If F, = W and B and G are at the same point, as shown in Fig. 4.12 (c), the body is said to be in neutral equilibrium, 4.7.2. Stability of Floating Body. The stability of a floating body is determined from the posi tion of Meta-centre (M). In case of floating body, the weight of the body is equal to the weight of liquid displaced[144 Fluid Mechanics ] (@) Stable Equilibrium. If the point M is above G, the floating body will be in stable equilibrium as shown in Fig. 4.13 (a), Ifa slight angular displacement is given to the floating body in the clockwise direction, the centre of buoyancy shifts from B to B, such that the vertical fine through B, cuts at M. ‘Then the buoyant force F through B, and weight W through G constitute a couple acting in the anti clockwise direction and thus bringing the floating body in the original position. DisTUREING | =~ couPLe wy | lw er a Fo i b, w (ii) ' fe (@ Stabe equilibrium Mis above G (0) Unstable equim is below 6. Fig. 4.13 Stability of lating bodies. (&) Unstable Equilibrium. Ifthe point M is below G, the floating body will be in unstable equilib- rium as shown in Fig. 4.13 (6). The disturbing couple is acting in the clockwise direction. The couple due to buoyant force Fy and W is also acting in the clockwise direction and thus overturning the floating body. () Neutral Equilibrium. Ifthe point Ms atthe centre of gravity of the body, the floating body will be in neutral equilibrium. Problem 4.12 A solid cylinder of diameter 4.0 m has a height of 4.0 m. Find the meta-centric height of the cylinder ifthe specific gravity ofthe material of cylinder = 0.6 and itis floating in water with its axis vertical. State whether the equilibrium is stable or unstable. Solution. Given : D=4m rat Height, h=dm Sp. er 16 Depth of cylinder in water = Sp. gr. xh =06x40=2.4m pute Distance of centre of buoyancy (B) from A re ; S Distance of centre of aevity (@) fom A jsinam I ace Ao fs 202 Fig. 4.14 BG =AG -aB=24 Now the meta-centric height GM is given byBuoyancy and Floatation 145] where = M.OLL. of the plan of the body about ¥-Y axis 5 yt © p= ® x40 a OO Y= Volume of cylinder in water . x DP x Depth of cylinder in water = © x 4? x 2.4m? 40 oe, “a “ F gs tog ae pa 0.4167 m Vo Eyaxaa 1624 24 I GM = 5 ~ BG = 0.4167 ~ 0.8 = ~ 0.3833 m. Ans. ve sign means that the meta-centre (M) is below the centre of gravity (G). Thus the eylinder is in Lunstable equilibrium. Ans. Problem 4.13 A solid cylinder of 10.cm diameter and 40 cm long, consists of two parts made of different materials. The first part at the base is 1.0.¢m long and of specific gravity = 6.0. The other part of the cylinder is made of the material having specific gravity 0.6. State, if it can float vertically in water. Solution, Given: D=10em Length, L=40em Length of Ist part, 1,=1.00m Sp. Br 5,=60 Density of Ist part, py = 6 x 1000 = 6000 kg/m* Length of 2nd part, 1,=40~1.0=39.00m Sp. gr S,=06 i The cylinder will loat vertically in water if its metacentric height GMis 4.) 1 | positive, To find metacense Height ind the location of cente of gravity P" (G) and cenire of buoyancy (B) of the combined solid eylinder. The distance of the centre of gravity of the solid cylinder from A is given as AG = [(Weight of Ist part x Distance of C.G. of Ist part from A) + (Weight of 2nd part of cylinder x Distance of C.G. of 2nd part from A)] + [Weight of Ist part + weight of 2nd part] (J 0? x10x60x05)+(% 0" x390x06x(10%39/2) (Eo? x10x60+* b? x39x06] 4 4 x 6.0 x 0.5 + 39.0 x.6 x (20.5) 10x60 + 39.006 30+479.7 _ 482.7 60+234 ~ 294 642. Cancel $ D* inthe Numerator and Denominato[146 Fluid Mechanics ] To find the centre of buoyancy of the combined two parts or of the cylinder, determine the depth ‘of immersion of the cylinder. Let the depth of immersion of the cylinder is h. Then ‘Weight of the cylinder = Weight of water displaced 39.0, 10 Ray Rap Excaix Bo 981+ Ere 1 9. XCD? x Ty 600 x 9.81 + F (IP TO 6000 x98 Ry F (ay?x* x 1000 x9.81 FD? x ap * 1000 «9.8 [e hisin em) >, 1000 x 9.81 * 100 39.0 x06 +1.0x6.0=h of h=234+60= 294 The distance of the centre of the buoyancy B, of the eylinder from A is AB = nia = 24 2 x or cancelling © (.1 throughout, we get By OD nughout, we g¢ 47 a BG = AG ~ AB = 16.42 ~ 14.70 = 1.72 em. Meta-centric height GM is given by 1 om= 1 - BG v where J = M.O.L of plan of the body about ¥-Y axis ® x = pt= © (10% em* ga Py ly V = Volume of cylinder in water =Epx 4 E ao? . © (0)? x 29.4 m' 7 (lor x 1% aos SQ /F . GM = 0.212 1.72 = ~ 1.508 em As GM is ~ vo, it means that the Meta-centre M is below the centre of gravity (G). Thus the cylinder isin unstable equilibrium and so it cannot float vertically in water. Ans. Problem 4.14 A rectangular pontoon 10.0 m long, 7 m broad and 2.5 m deep weighs 686.7 KN. It carries on its upper deck an empty boiler of 5.0 m diameter weighing 588.6 kN. The centre of gravity ofthe boiler and the pontoon are at their respective centres along a vertical lin. Find the meta-centric height, Weight density of sea water is 10.104 kN/m’. 100 (10)? x 294 = xd = 0.212 Solution. Given : Dimension of pontoon = 10x 7 x 2.5 Weight of pontoon, Dia. of boiler, Weight of boiler, w for sea water = 10.104 kN/m* To find the meta-centric height, first determine the common cen- tue of gravity G and common centre of buoyancy B of the boiler and pontoon. Let G, and G, are the centre of gravities of pontoon and boiler respectively. Then[ Buoyancy and Floatation 147] Iv Ao225+ 822254252500 The distance of common centre of gravity G from A is given as W XAG, +0 x AC wee, (686.7 1.25 + 5886 x5.0 * (686.7 + 588.6) Let his the depth of immersion, Then AG= = 2.98 m, 1 100m Total weight of pontoon and boiler or (686.7 + 588.6) = w x Volume of the pontoon in water = 10.104 x L x b x Depth of immersion 1275.3 = 10.104 x 10x7 xh 12753 al 0x7 x 10104 ‘The distance of the common centre of buoyancy B from A is hh _ 1803 p= b= 1883 < 9915 m 2 2 y BG = AG - AB= Meta-contic heights given by GM = 1 — BG where [= M.O1L. of the plan of the body at the water level along ¥-Y 1 1Ox49x7 4 Fy 100 x P= SAT oy Y= Volume of the body in water bx b= 10.0 x 7 x 1.857 10x49x7 49. 2x10 71857 | 12 x 1857 I om=1_pG= 9.198 ~ 2.078 = 0.12 m, Meta-centric height of both the pontoon and boiler 0.12 m. Ans. wi e v ‘eight of sea water displaced aa Fig. 4.17 Plan of the body at waterline .98 9015 = 2.0785 m = 2.078 m = 2.198 m Problem 4.15 A wooden cylinder of sp. gr. = 0.6 and circular in cross-section is required to float in oil (sp. gr. = 0.90). Find the L/D ratio for the cylinder to float with its in oil, where L is the height of cylinder and D is its diameter. Solution. Given : Dia, of cylinder Height of cylinder Sp. gr. of cylinder, longitudinal axis vertical[148 Fluid Mechanics ] Let the depth of cylinder immersed in oil = ht u FDP XL x06 x 1000 x 9.81= © D*x hx 0.9 x 1000 x 9.81 8 ® 09 3 ° ae ‘The distance of centre of gravity G from A, AG The distance of centre of buoyancy B from A, ap=t=1 [21] 2° 213 B= AG-aB= © ‘The meta-centric height GM is given by ou=4-3c v where T= pt and V = Volume of cylinder in oil = = D? x h 64 4 1 _(® ps /E py 1D De 3D { 2 } go(Eo'/t on) = = 3h nel v & “a ) oh yz, RE 3 3 L Me 36 For stable equilibrium, GM should be +ve or GM>0 or 3D? Lk or a) RL” 6 LAB 9 or o= 9S = 0.494 m. 5 5220 And the distance of centre of gravity G, from A is AG = —> = 1.0m BG = AG AB= .0 = 494 = 506m, now meen ei GM sgnenby cit= 2-6 = xaytmt where ot . GM = .063 ~ .506 = ~ 0.443 m. Ans. AS the meta-centric height is ~ve, the point M lies below G and hence the cylinder will be in unstable equilibrium and hence eylinder will not float vertically.Il [150 Fluid Mechanics Part |. Let the force applied in a vertical chain attached atthe centre of the base of the buoy is T to keep the buoy vertical. Now find the combined positon of centre of gravity (G’) and centre of buoyancy (B’). For the combined W centre of buoyancy, lepth of immersion when the force Tis applied. Then Total downward fore let Weight of water displaced or (7848 + 7) = Density of water x g x Volume of cylinder in water = 1009812 0/4 [wh = eh Fo raiser 7848+ 101043x™ xD? 101043 x= x1 4 4 Ke 1 fasser) 784847 2 2( 79359 |” 158718 from A is The combined centre of gravity (G’) due to weight of eylinder and due to tension T in the chain 101043+7. 79359) AB’ IW1. of cylinder x Distance of C.G. of cylinder from A + Tx Distance of C.G. of T from A] + [Weight of cylinder + T] = (raex2.-7%0) «meen Gap = 1348 (784847) ‘The meta-centric height GM is given by GM = z -BG 7848 — em 7848+T (7848+ T) 158718 BG Exptek ot Fg ty, 184847) 4 7935.9 4 7848+T 79355 a 1, 79359 x (1848+) 16 © (7848+ 7) 479359 r93s9__[_7848__ (784847) T67e48+7) [TRB 7) STIS For stable equilibrium GM shouldbe positive Vv Gm>o or 79359) 7e48__(7848+7)] 4 16(7848+T) | (7848+T) 158718[ Buoyancy and Floatation 151] 79359 7848 7848+ or 8859 __ SB >0 16(7848+T) (7848+7) 158718 79359 ~ 16x 7848 (7848+ 7) or eee ten eo 16(7848+T) "158718 =117632__, (7848 + T) or aN 0 16(7848+7) "158718 on (78487) | 117632 158718” 16(7848+7) or 734s + 7 > 47832 ise71.8 > 1166894735 > (10802.3)" ‘7848 + T > 10802.3, T > 108023 ~ 7848 > 29843 N. Ans. s+ ‘The force in the chain must be at least 2954.3 N so that the cylindrical buoy can be kept in vertical position. Ans. Problem 4.17 A solid cone floats in water with its apex downwards. Determine the least apex angle of cone for stable equilibrium. The specific gravity of the material of the cone is given 0.8. Solution. Given : Sp. gr of cone =08 Density of cone, p= 0.8 x 1000 = 800 kg/m* Let D=Dia. ofthe cone = Dia. of cone at water level anor 20 = Apex angle of cone Gone A H = Height of cone ~— ot h= Depth of cone in water -— a fF G= Centre of gravity of the cone B = Centre of buoyancy of the cone For the cone, the distance of centre of gravity from the apex A is AC= also AB= height of cone = 44 ‘Volume of water displaced Volume of cone Fig. 4.21 . Weight of cone = 800 x gx 4 RR? H Now from AAEF, — tan= SER FA" H R=Htand Similarly, r=htan@[152 Fluid Mechanics Weight of cone = 800 gx 4 x mx (H tan @)?x H= 5 Weight of water displaced = 1000 x ¢ x $ x7? h 1000 x gx nx A? tan? 6 = 1000 x g x $ x m(h tan 0 x gx $x r(h tan 8) Ba For equilibrium Weight of cone = eight of water displaced or SOX gXRX A? tan? _ 1000 X98" x tan? 0 30 30 or 800 x HP = H _(1000)"* voit afi n ~ 800 For stable equilibrium, Meta-centric height GM should be positive. But GM is given by -BG where I= M.O.1. of cone at water-line =~ a 4 v= Volume of cone in water and BG = AG~ AB = }H- jh=3(H-h) s GM = 3 htan?@- 3(H- For stable equilibrium GM should be positive or fh tan? @- 3 (H-h)>0 or htan’@-(H-h)>0 or htan?®>(H-h) or htan’O+h>H or tan? @-+ 1] > or 1+tan?@>Hih or sect > t H _(1000)"" But H(2P) e107 h (a) sec? @ > 1.077 or cos? > 9285 1077 cos 8 > 0.9635 @> 15°30’ or 26>31° ‘Apex angle (28) should be at least 31°. Ans. 800 xe xxx H? tan? @[ Buoyancy and Floatation 153] Problem 4.18 A cone of specific gravity S, is floating in water with its apex downwards. It has a Solution. Given : he gt Dia. of cone =D Height of cone =H cn Sp. gr. of cone = CONE AT Let G-= Centre of gravity of cone ee B = Centre of buoyancy 20 = Apex angle A= Apex of the cone he= Depth of immersion = Dia, of cone at water surface —p—+! ‘Then ‘Also weight of cone =Weight of water displaced. 1000 $x 4 nk? XH = 1000ex Lm? xh oF SRH= 7h But R= Han ,r=htan 0 (H tan 8)’ x H (irtan 0) SxH? xtan?@xH _ SH? a SH?) = S"° A ol) \G— AB h or h Distance, 3 a 3 4 Also .O. Inertia of the plan of body at water surface za of Y= Volume of cone in water Rp 2 Hs! xExa?x @ HS" 7 tas"?[154 Fluid Mechanics ] 1. at VoL ns" ar Now Met-entic height Gis given as ome tpg SH 99 yo" Tens a GM shouldbe 4 for stable eqiibium or GM > 0 or Bas) >0 16.4.5" 4 3d? 3H 113) re Ms Maas 6 16.H.S"? 4 c y cy ‘so we know R= H tan @ and r= han @ RLH_D rh od Dh oD a 2 x Hs! = ps"® H Substituting the value of d in equation (3), we get 3(ps'*) 3 18) Tons 4 o> a pig or ws o P< 4s) > 4.8 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD OF DETERMINATION OF META-CENTRIC HEIGHT ‘The meta-centrie height of a floating vessel can be determined, provided we know the centre of ‘gravity of the floating vessel. Let w is a known weight placed over the centre of the vessel as shown in Fig. 4.23 (a) and the vessel is floating, (a) Floating body (6) Tited body Fig.4.23 Metacentric height.[ Buoyancy and Floatation 155] Let W= Weight of vessel including w, G= Centre of gravity of the vessel B = Centre of buoyaney of the vessel ‘The weight w, is moved across the vessel towards right through a distance x as shown in Fig. 4.23 (b).. ‘The vessel will be tilted. The angle of heel @ is measured by means of a plumbline and a protractor attached on the vessel. The new centre of gravity of the vessel will shift to G, as the weight w, has been moved towards the right. Also the centre of buoyancy will change to B, as the vessel has tilted. Under equilibrium, the moment caused by the movement of the load w, through a distance must be equal to the moment caused by the shift of the centre of gravity from G to Gy. Thus ‘The moment due to change of GG, x W= Wx GM tan ‘The moment due to movement of Ww, =, 70x 10 = 75 x 7 X70 x 10" = 4375 and = Volume of ship in water = Weight of ship___ 19620 _ 1944.74 my? ‘Weight density of water ~ 10.104 f= M5 23053 m Vv ~ Toai74 GM = 2.253 ~ BG or 999 = 253 - BG BG = 2.253 ~ 999 = 1.254 m. From Fig. 4.25, it is clear that the distance of G from free surface of the water = distance of B from water surface ~ BG = 2.25 ~ 1.254 = 0.996 m. Ans. Problem 4.20 4 pontoon of 15696 kN displacement is floating in water. A weight of 245.25 KN is moved through a distance of 8 m across the deck of pontoon, which tilts the pontoon through an angle 4°, Find meta-centric height of the pontoon. Solution. Given : Weight of pontoon = Displacement or W = 15696 kN Movable weight, wy = 245.25 kN Distance moved by weight wy, x= 8m Angle of heel, o=4° The meta-centsic height, GM is given by equation (4.5) on Gara MS = 24525 KN x8 Wtan@~ 15696 kN tan 4° — 1,788 m. Ans. 15696 x 0.0699 > 4.9 OSCILLATION (ROLLING) OF A FLOATING BODY Consider a floating body, which is tilted through an angle by an overturning couple as shown in Fig, 4.26. Let the overturning couple is suddenly removed. The body will start oscillating. Thus, theBuoyancy and Floatation 157] body will be in a state of oscillation as if suspended at the meta-centre M. This is similar to the case of a pendulum. The only force acting on the body is due to the restoring couple due to the weight W of the body force of buoyancy Fy. Fig. 4.26 x Distance GA = Wx GM sin ® This couple tries to decrease the angle Restoring couple re Angular acceleration ofthe body, c= ~ >. iF Zo i) ve sign has been introduced as the restoring couple tries to decrease the angle @. Torque due to inertia a0 wton(-£9) Wa But 1 K ny" = Moment of Inertia about ¥-Y x Angular acceleration where W = Weight of body, K = Radius of gyration about ¥-Y Inertia torque Equating (i) and (i), we get ; wow sino= 2 £8 5 Peer eT Kd’ om x9=-<_ 29 e de 20 GMxgx® Dividing by ——, we get LP, OM *ExO _ a 8 G at * ‘K ) We ar @ 18 : i) ‘The above equation is a differential equation of second degree. The solution is . cms (GMgxt . 8 = C,sin | x14 Coos | Ai)[158 Fluid Mechanics ] where C, and C, are constants of integration, ‘The values of C, and C; are obtained from boundary conditions which are @ ar=0,0=0 i) aw =0 2 ‘where Tis the time period of one complete oscillation. Substituting the Ist boundary condition in (iii), we get 0=C,x040,x1 ©=0 Substituting 2nd boundary conditions in (iii), we get v0 2 But C, cannot be equal to zero and so the other alternative is (Mg T ~- sin @= 0, cos @= 1} 0= O=sin x sin x = 0} (4.6) ‘Time period of oscillation is given by equation (4.6). Problem 4.21. The least radius of gyration of a ship is 8 m and meta-centric height 70 cm, Caleu- late the time period of oscillation of the ship. Solution. Given Least radius of gyration, K = 8 m ‘Meta-centric height, GM = 70 em = 0.70 m ‘The time period of oscillation is given by equation (4.6). T= 2m |X oon | 88 _ - 19.18 sec. Ans. Gug 7 Yor x 981 Problem 4.22 The time period of rolling of a ship of weight 29430 kN in sea water is 10 seconds. The centre of buoyancy of the ship is 1.5 m below the centre of gravity. Find the radius of gyration of the ship if the moment of inertia of the ship at the water line about fore and aft axis is 1000 mi. Take specific weight of sea water as = 10100 Nin’. Solution. Given : Time period, T= 10 see Distance between centre of buoyancy and centre of gravity, BG = 1.5 m ‘Moment of Inertia, T= 10000 m* Weight, W= 20430 KN = 29430 x 1000 N Let the radius of gyration = First calculate the meta-centric height GM, which is given as GM = BM -aG= + -8G VvBuoyancy and Floatation 159 where [= M.O. Inertia and = Volume of water displaced Weight of ship _ 29430 x 1000 2 = —Weiahtof ship___ 294301000 _ 291.6 ‘Sp. weight of sea water T0104 ™ 10000 = 20000 1.5 = 3433-15 = 1933 29126 ™ Using equation (4.6), we get T= 2n |X 8 ea 16), we Bs = Ge e or 10 2nk * Yi933x981 ~ Y1933 981 10x JI9339RT or = SN = 6.93 m, Ans. HIGHLIGHTS 1. The upward foree exerted by a liquid on a body when the body is immersed in the liquid Is known as buoyancy or force of buoyancy. 2. The point through which force af buoyancy is supposed to act is called centre of buoyancy. 3. The point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is tilted is known as meta-centre. 4. The distance between the meta-centre and centre of gravity is known as meta-centric height. 1 ng yo Be where = Moment of Inertia ofthe floating body (in plan) at water surface about the axis Y-Y V = Volume of the body sub-merged in water BG = Distance between centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy. ‘6. Conditions of equilibrium of a floating and sub-merged body are ‘5. The meta-centric height (GM) is given by Gi Equilibrium Floating Body ‘Sub-merged Body {0 Stable Equilibrium ‘Mis above G Bis above G (i) Unstable Equilibrium Mis below G Bis below G (ii) Neutral Equilibrium ‘Mand G coincide Band G coincide 7, The value of meta-centric height GM, experimentally is given as GM = —1*— a pe iy is gi ao x= Distance through which w, is moved W-= Weight of the ship oF floating body including w, (= Angle through the ship oF floating body is tilted due to the movement of w K '8. The time period of oscillation or rolling of a floating body is given by T= 2x where K= Radius of gyration, GM = Meta-centrie height Tr. me of one complete oscillation{160 Fluid Mechanics ] a. R ). Define the terms : meta-centre, centre of buoyane; EXERCISE (A) THEORETICAL PROBLEMS Define the terms ‘buoyancy’ and “centre of buoyancy’ Explain the ferms ‘meta-centre" and ‘meta-centrie height’ Derive an expression for the meta-centric height of a floating body. Show that he distance Between the meen and centre of buoyancy even by B= where = Moment of inertia of the plan of the floating body at water surface about longitudinal axis. YW = Volume of the body submerged in liquid. What are the conditions of equilibrium of a floating body and a sub-merged body ? How will you determine the meta-centric height of a floating body experimentally ? Explain with neat sketch. . Select the correct statement (@) The buoyant force fora floating body passes through the (8 centre of gravity of the body (Gi) centroid of volume of the body (iti) meta-centre of the body (iv) centre of gravity of the subsmerged part of the body (») centroid of the displaced volume. () A body sub-merged in liquid is in equilibrium when (its meta-centre is above the centre of gravity (Gi) its meta-centre is above the centre of buoyancy (i) its centre of gravity is above the centre of buoyancy iv) its centee of buoyancy is above the centre of gravity (©) none of these, Ans. 7 (a) (0). (6) (9) . Derive an expression forthe time period of the oscillation ofa floating body in terms of radius of gyration and meta-centric height of the floating body. rmeta-centric height, gauge pressure and absolute pressure, ‘What do you understand by the hydrostatic equation ? With the help of this equation, derive the expression for the buoyant force acting on a sub-merged body. With neat sketches, explain the conditions of equilibrium for floating and sub-merged bodies. Differentiate between (0 Dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity, (i) Absolute and gauge pressure (ii) Simple and ifferential manometers (i) Centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy, (Dethi University, Dec, 2002) (B) NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ‘A wooden block of width 2 m, depth 1.5 m and length 4 m floats horizontally in water. Find the volume of water displaced and position of centre of buoyancy. The specific gravity of the wooden block is 0.7. {Ans. 84 m?, 0.525 m from the base]Buoyancy and Floatation 161] 2. A wooden log of 0.8 m diameter and 6 m length is floating in river water. Find the depth of wooden log in water when the sp. gr. of the wooden log is 0.7. [Ans.0.54 m] 3. A stone weighs 490.5 N in air and 196.2 N in water. Determine the volume of stone and its specific gravity [Ans, 0.03 mi" of 3x 10* em’, 1.67] 4. A body of dimensions 2.0 m x 1.0 m x 3.0 m weighs 3924 N in water. Find its weight in air. What will be its specific gravity ? [Ans, 62784 N, 1.0667] 'S. A metallic body floats atthe interface of mercury of sp. gr. 13.6 and water in such a way that 30% ofits volume is sub-merged in mercury and 70% in water. Find the density of the metallic body. [Ans. 4780 kg/m’) 66. A body of dimensions 0.5 m x 0.5 m x 1.0 m and of sp. gr. 3.0 is immersed in water. Determine the least force required to lift the body. [Ans. 4905 N) 17. A rectangular pontoon is 4 m long, 3 m wide and 1.40 m high. The depth of immersion of the pontoon is 1.0m in sea-water. Ifthe centre of gravity is 0.70 m above the bottom ofthe pontoon, determine the meta- centric height. Take the density of sea-water as 1030 kg/m’. [Ans 0.45 m) 8. Anitorm body of size 4 m long x 2m wide x 1 m deep floats in water. What isthe weight of the body if depth of immersion is 0.6 m ? Determine the meta-centrc height also. [Ans, 47088 N, 0.355 m] 9. A block of wood of specific gravity 0.8 floats in water. Determine the mete-centri height ofthe block if fis size 3 mx 2.x Lm [Ans. 0.316 m] 10. A soli cylinder of diameter 3.0 m has a height of 2 m. Find the meta-centric height of the cylinder when itis loating in water with its ais vertical. The sp. gr of the eylinder is 0.7. [Ans. 0.1017 m) 11, A body has the cylindrical upper portion of 4 m diameter and 2 m deep. The lower portion is a curved one, Which displaces a volume of 0.9 m’ of water. The centre of buoyancy of the curved portion is ata distance of 2.10 m below the top of the eylinder. The centre of gravity of the whole body is 1.50 m below the top of the cylinder. The total displacement of water is 4.5 tonnes. Find the meta-centric height of the body. (Ans. 2,387 m} 12. A solid cylinder of diameter 5.0 m has & height of 5.0 m, Find the meta-centrie height of the cylinder if the specific gravity of the material of cylinder is 0.7 and itis floating in water with its axis vertical. State whether the equilibrium is stable or unstable, {Ans. ~ 0.304 m, Unstable Equilibrium) 13. A solid eylinder of 15 em diameter and 60 em long, consists of two parts made of different materials. The first part atthe base is 1.20 em long and of specific gravity = 5.0. The other parts ofthe cylinder is made of the material having specific gravity 0.6. Stat, if it can float vertically in water. [Ans. GM =~ 5.26, Unstable, Equilibrium] 14. A rectangular pontoon 8.0 m long, 7 m broad and 3.0 m deep weighs $88.6 KN. It carries on its upper deck tan empty boiler of 4.0 m diameter weighing 392.4 KN. The centee of gravity ofthe boiler and the pontoon are at their respective centres along a vertical line. Find the meta-centric height, Weight density of sea- water is 10104 Nim’ [Ans. 0.325 m] 15. A wooden cylinder of sp. gr 0.6 and circular in cross-section is required to float in oil (sp. gr. 0.8), Find the L/D ratio for the eylinder to float with its longitudinal axis vertical in oil where L is the height of cylinder and D is its diameter. [Ans. (L/D) <0.8164] 16. Show that a eylindrical buoy of 1.5 m diameter and 3 m long weighing 2.5 tonnes will not float vertically in sea-water of density 1030 kp/m’, Find the force necessary ina vertical chain attached at the centre ofthe base ofthe buoy that will keep it vertical [Ans. 10609.5 NI 17. A solid cone floats in water its apex downwards, Determine the least apex angle of cone for stable equilld- rium, The specific gravity of the material of the cone is given 0.7. Ans, 39° 71) 18. A ship 60 m long and 12 m broad has a displacement of 19620 KN. A weight of 294.3 KN is moved across the deck through a distance of 6.5 m. The ship is tilted through 5°. The moment of inertia of the ship at[162 vy. 20. Fluid Mechanics ] ‘waterline about is force and aft axis is 75% of moment of inertia the cirumseribng rectangle. The cent of buoyancy is 2.75 m below waterline, Find the meta-centic height and postion of cente of gravity of ship. Take specific weight of sea water = 10104 Nén’. (Ans. 1.1145 m, 0.53 m below water surface] ‘A pontoon of 1500 tonnes displacement is floating in water. A weight of 20 tonnes is moved through 1 distance of 6 m across the deck of pontoon, which tilts the pontoon through an angle of S°. Find rmeta-centric height of the pontoon. [Ans.0.9145 m] Find the time period of rolling of a solid circular eylinder of radius 2.5 m and 5.0 m long. The specific aravity of the cylinder is 0.9 and is floating in water with its axis vertical, [Ans. 0.35 sec]‘A, KINEMATICS OF FLOW > 5.1 INTRODUCTION Kinematics is defined as that branch of science which deals with motion of particles without ‘considering the forces causing the motion. The velocity at any point in a flow field at any time is studied in this branch of fluid mechanics. Once the velocity is known, then the pressure distribution and hence forces acting on the fluid can be determined. In this chapter, the methods of determining. velocity and acceleration are discussed. > 5.2. METHODS OF DESCRIBING FLUID MOTION ‘The fluid motion is described by two methods. They are —(#) Lagrangian Method, and (ii) Eulerian Method. In the Lagrangian method, a single fluid particle is followed during its motion and its velocity, acceleration, density, etc., are described. In case of Eulerian method, the velocity, accelera- tion, pressure, density etc., are described at a point in flow field. The Eulerian method is commonly used in fluid mechanics. > 5.3 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW ‘The fluid flow is classified as : (@) Steady and unsteady flows ; (i) Uniform and non-uniform flows ; iii) Laminar and turbulent flows ; (iv) Compressible and incompressible flows ; (») Rotational and irrotational flows ; and (vi) One, two and three-dimensional flows. 5.3.1 Steady and Unsteady Flows. Stcady flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like velocity, pressure, density, etc., at a point do not change with time. Thus for steady flow, mathematically, we have 163,164 Fluid Mechanics av =0,(%) = () -0(%)_ 7° whore (32 ted pln fi Hl Unsteady flow is that type of flow, in which the velocity, pressure or density at a point changes with respect to time. Thus, mathematically, for unsteady flow v (Fo (2) soe 5.3.2. Uniform and Non-uniform Flows. Uniform flow is defined as that type of flow in ‘which the velocity at any given time does not change with respect to space (i.e., length of direction of the flow). Mathematically, for uniform flow S.-° where V= Change of velocity {as = Length of flow in the direction 5. Non-uniform flow is that type of flow in which the velocity at any given time changes with respect to space. Thus, mathematically, for non-uniform flow Sw 5.3.3. Laminar and Turbulent Flows. Laminar flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid particles move along well-defined paths or stream line and all the stream-lines are straight and parallel. Thus the particles move in laminas or layers gliding smoothly over the adjacent layer. This type of flow is also called stream-line flow or viscous flow. Turbulent flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles move in a zig-cag way. Due to the ‘movement of fluid particles in a zig-zag way, the eddies formation takes place which are responsible for high energy loss. For a pipe flow, the type of flow is determined by a non-dimensional number called the Reynold number, where D = Diameter of pipe V = Mean velocity of flow in pipe and v= Kinematic viscosity of fluid. If the Reynold number is less than 2000, the flow is called laminar. If the Reynold number is more than 4000, it is called turbulent flow. If the Reynold number lies between 2000 and 4000, the flow may be laminar or turbulent. 5.3.4 Compressible and Incompressible Flows. Compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid changes from point to point or in other words the density (p) is not ‘constant for the fluid. Thus, mathematically, for compressible flow p # Constant Incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density is constant for the fluid flow. Liquids are generally incompressible while gases are compressible. Mathematically, for incompressible flow p= Constant.[ Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 165 5.3.5 Rotational and Irrotational Flows. Rotational flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles while flowing along stream-lines, also rotate about their own axis. And if the fluid particles while flowing along stream-lines, do not rotate about their own axis then that type of flow is called irrotational flow. 5.3.6 One-, Two- and Three-Dimensional Flows. One-dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the flow parameter such as velocity isa function of time and one space co-ordinate only, say x. For a steady one-dimensional flow, the velocity isa function of one-space-co-ordinate only. The variation of velocities in other two mutually perpendicular directions is assumed negligible, Hence ‘mathematically, for one-dimensional flow w= fs), v= and w=0 where u, v and w are velocity components in x, y and z directions respectively. ‘Two-dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the velocity is a function of time and two rectangular space co-ordinates say x and y. For a steady two-dimensional flow the velocity isa function of two space co-ordinates only. The variation of velocity in the third direction is negligible. Thus, mathematically for two-dimensional flow N= fC), ¥=fylasy) and w= 0. ‘Three-dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the velocity is a function of time and three ‘mutually perpendicular directions. But for a steady three-dimensional flow the fluid parameters are functions of three space co-ordinates (x, y and z) only. Thus, mathematically, for three-dimensional flow 0 YZ ¥ ffx. Yo 2) and w= fyl% Ys 2) > 5.4 RATE OF FLOW OR DISCHARGE (Q) Itis defined as the quantity of a fluid flowing per second through a section ofa pipe or a channel. For an incompressible fluid (or liquid) the rate of flow or discharge is expressed as the volume of fluid flowing across the section per second. For compressible fluids, the rate of flow is usually expressed as the weight of fluid flowing across the section. Thus () For liquids the units of Q are m’/s or litres/s (ii) For gases the units of Q is kgfis or Newton/s Consider aliquid flowing through a pipe in which A= Cross-seetional area of pipe V = Average velocity of fluid across the section Then discharge Q= AX. 6.1) > 5.5 CONTINUITY EQUATION ‘The equation based on the principle of conservation of mass is called continuity equation. Thus for a fluid flowing through the pipe at all the cross-section, the quantity of fluid per second is constant Consider two cross-sections of a pipe as shown in Fig. 5.1 Let_V; = Average velocity at cross-section 1-1 p, = Density at section 1-1 ‘Ay = Arca of pipe at section 1-1166 Fluid Mechanics and V2, Py, Ay are corresponding values at section, 2-2, ‘Then rate of flow at section 1-1 = pyA\V, a i Rate of flow at section 2-2 = p,A,V> DIRECTION ‘According 10 law of conservation of mass oF FLOW Rate of flow at section 1-1 = Rate of flow at section 2-2 or PLAY: = PoAVe (52) Equation (5.2) is applicable to the compressible as well as incom- Fig. 51 Fluid flowing through pressible luids and is called Continuity Equation. Ifthe fluid is in- @ pipe. compressible, then p, = p and continuity equation (5.2) reduces to AW, = AV 63) Problem 5.1. The diameters ofa pipe atthe sections I and 2 are 10.cm and 5 em respectively. Find the discharge through the pipe if the velocity of water flowing through the pipe at section 1 is 5 m/s. Determine also the velocity at section 2. Solution. Given : Atsection 1, D,=10em=0.1 m Rope ay Aya DP) =F mis. At section 2, Sem = 0.15 m Ys Smee (15)? = 0.01767 m? Fig. 5.2 (® Discharge through pipe is given by equation (5.1) or O=A,xV, = 0.007854 x 5 = 0.03927 m’ss. Ans. Using equation (5.3), we have AV, = 4,V; AY, _ 0.007854 ‘A, 0.001767 Problem 5.2 A 30 cm diameter pipe, conveying water, branches into two pipes of diameters 20 cm and 15 cm respectively. If the average velocity in the 30 cm diameter pipe is 2.5 mls, find the discharge in this pipe. Also determine the velocity in 15 cm pipe if the average velocity in 20 cm diameter pipe is 2 m/s. Solution, Given : (i) V X 5.0 = 2.22 m/s. Ans. Oe 17 ore aatamieg y= 30cm ® a i Fig. 5.3Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 167 D, = 30m = 0.30 m Ex se im? 5 x 3= 0.07068 5m = 0.15 m (sy =F x 0.225 = 0.01767 m? Find (i) Discharge in pipe 1 or Q, (i, Velocity in pipe of dia, 15 em or Vs Let Qj, Qs and Q, are discharges in pipe 1, 2 and 3 respectively Then according to continuity equation = 02+ Os a (i The discharge Q, in pipe 1 is given by Q, = AiV; = 0.07068 x 2.5 mvs = 0.1767 m'ss. Ans. (i Value of V5 = AV) = 0.0314 x 2.0 = 0.0628 m/s Substituting the values of Q, and Q, in equation (1) 0.1767 = 0.0628 + 0, z Q = 0.1767 ~ 0.0628 = 0.1139 m*/s But Qs = Ay X Vy = 0.01767 x Vy or 0.1139 = 0.01767 x V5 0.1139 : 6.44 mis. Ans. 0.01767 Problem 5.3 Water flows through a pipe AB 1.2 m diameter at 3 m/s and then passes through a pipe BC 1.5 m diameter. At C, the pipe branches. Branch CD is 0.8 m in diameter and carries one- third of the flow in AB. The flow velocity in branch CE is 2.5 m/s. Find the volume rate of flow in AB, the velocity in BC, the velocity in CD and the diameter of CE. Solution. Given Diameter of pipe AB, Du Velocity of flow through AB, Vi Dia. of pipe BC, Dac Dia. of branched pipe CD, Dep Velocity of flow in pipe CE, Veg Let the flow rate in pipe AB Velocity of flow in pipe BC. Velocity of flow in pipe o168 Flui ‘Mechanics Diameter of pipe Then flow rate through and flow rate through (® Now volume flow rate through AB = Q = Vay x Area of AB =3.0x i (Dyg)? = 3.0 x i (1.2)? = 3.393 m/s. Ans. (ii) Applying continuity equation to pipe AB and pipe BC, Van Atea of pipe AB = Vac x Area of pipe BC Rip? X ,) 3.0 x2 Dyp)? = Voc X= (pc) or 7 Dany x5 Dror : AO." Vex 57 [ovis 2] or 1.92 mis. Ans. we TS (iii) The flow rate through pipe c= 9,2 2 = 383-131 ms 3°03 21= Ven x Area of pipe CD x (Dep)? or 1.131 = Vey og x 0.8? = 0.5026 Ven Veo = M3 = 2.25 mvs. Ans. 0.5026 (iv) Flow rate through CE, Q,= Q~ Q, = 3.393 ~ 1.131 = 2.262 mts 0s = Veg Aro pipe CE = Veg™ (De) a 2a =25 x2 x De? -VLIS2 = 1.0735 mKinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 169 Problem 5.4 4 25 cm diameter pipe carries oil of sp. gr. 0.9 at a velocity of 3 m/s. At another section the diameter is 20 cm. Find the velocity at this section and also mass rate of flow of oil. Solution. Given at section 1, at section 2, Mass rate of flow of oil Applying continuity equation at sections 1 and 2, AW = AV or 0.049 x 3.0 = 0.0314 x Vy V, = 20830 4.68 mus. Ans. 0.0314 Mass rate of flow of oil = Mass density x Q = p x A, x V, Density of oil Sp. ar. of oil eens of cl aC Density of water Density of o sp. gf of oll x Density of water = 0.9 x 1000 kg/m? Ns Mass rate of flow = 900 x 0.049 x 3.0 kis = 132.23 kg/s. Ans. Problem 5.5 A jet of water from a 25 mm diameter nozzle is directed vertically upwards. Assuming that the jet remains circular and neglecting any loss of energy, that will be the diameter at a point 4.5 m above the nozzle, ifthe velocity with which the jet leaves the nozzle is 12 m/s. Solution. Dia, of nozzle, Velocity of jet at nozzle, Height of point A, ero | [asm Let the velocity of the jet at a height 4.5 m= V» ware Consider the vertical motion ofthe et from the out ofthe | | nozzle to the point A (neglecting any loss of energy). D1A=25 mn Initial velocity, u=V,=12m/s ae Final velocity, Value of Using,170 ‘Fluid Mechanics 46 mis V, =Yi2? -2x981x45 = J144— 8829 Now applying continuity equation to the outlet of nozzle and at point A, we get A\V, = AV> or AM = 2% (0.025) X12 _ 9.990796 4x 746 Let Dy = Diameter of jet at point A. Then Ay =F D," oF 0,0007896 =F x D,* (0007896 x4 © > 5.6 CONTINUITY EQUATION IN THREE-DIMENSIONS D; 0.0317 m = 1.7 mm. Ans. Consider a fluid element of lengths dr, dy and dz in the direction of x,y and z. Let u, v and w are the inlet velocity components in x, y and z directions respectively. Mass of fluid entering the face ABCD per second X Velocity in x-direction x Area of ABCD x wx (dy x de) Then miso al ing tie ZFH pe cot ut 2p Gain of mass in x-direction = Mass through ABCD ~ Mass through EFGH per second pw apc pudte- 2 pint a Sp (PH doe) de 2 podett (desma Similarly, the net gain of mass in y-direction a =- 2 (pn drdyde ay (OP a a dow) drayas a PME and in z-direction = Net gain of masses = Since the mass is neither created nor destroyed in the fluid element, the net increase of mass per unit time in the fluid element must be equal to the rate of increase of mass of fluid in the element, But massKinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 171 ap Fedde Equating the two expressions, a a a ap or [ae 0+ G5 (Ov)+ 5-(0w)| dee = SP. dee 58 (ou) +? (pr) +2 (ow ancelling dx.dy.dz from both si or +5 ON) +5, (09) 45-0 = 0 [Cancelling dx.dy.dz from both sides) ...(5.34) ar Equation (5.34) is the continuity equation in cartesian co-ordinates in its most general form. This equation is applicable to = (@) Steady and unsteady flow, (ii) Uniform and non-uniform flow, and (ii) Compressible and incompressible fluids. ap For steady flow, 2? or and hence equation (5.34) becomes as a a a By 4) #35 (PP) + 5-(w) =0 (5.3B) If the fluid is incompressible, then p is constant and the above equation becomes as au, ox dy az Equation (5.4) is the continuity equation in three-dimensions, For a two-dimensional flow, the com- ae ax dy 5.6.1 Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Polar Co-ordinates. The continuity equation in Solna provers (etr hz svetinie) in devo ty prose snes Clon, Considers two dimeaional innpene low field The ‘two-dimensional polar co-ordinates are r and 8. Consider a fluid wy eae, y+ Bear element ABCD between the radii r and r + dr as shown in Cy . Fie 3.7 Theale abendooy tesla che soa ea TH conponcns of te slot Varin the ea eon and apne ange ecton The ie of he lene st faving th ape SiEAB = 8, B= dr, DC=( +47) d8, AD =r i pair same Gia cs ea om tear see Maso i atg tte AB por ani me p» Velo in rection x Area (5A) (5.5)172. Fluid Mechanics Xu, X (AB x 1) ‘» Area = AB x Thickness = rd@ x 1) Xu, x (rd0X 1) =p + up. rd Mass of fluid leaving the face CD per unit time = px Velocity x Area = x(a) «(ed (Area = €D x1) : (a, + &. a) x (r+ dryd0 + CD = (r+ dr) d8] =p afi xr tude Se tre (ae? | a0 =o xrtu, xcdre rte ar] 40 [The term containing (dr? is very small and has been neglected] Gain of mass in r-ieetion per unit time = (Mass through AB ~ Mass through CD) per unit time = pou, 0 ole upd re | «0 pu, rd0- pu, 1 older ar] 6 2 aa " [This is written in this form because 2%] rodrod9 (7. d8. dr. 1) is equal to volume of or element] o marr Now consider the flow in @-direction Gain in mass in @-direction per unit time = (Mass through BC ~ Mass through AD) per unit time = [p x Velocity through BC x Area — p x Velocity through AD x Area] 4) arx1| + lp tro (4 + Are irx 1) [Multiplying and dividing by 7] ‘Total gain in fluid mass per u ole (3.54)Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 173 But mass of fluid element = px Volume of fluid element px (rd0 x dr x1] =p xrd8.dr Rate of increase of fluid mass in the element with time a = 5, P rd8-an ( rdQ dr. Lis the volume of element and is a constant quantity) ‘Since the mass is neither created nor destroyed in the fluid element, hence net gain of mass per unit time in the fluid element must be equal to the rate of increase of mass of fluid in the element. Hence equating the wo expressions given by equations (5.5 A) and (5.5 B), we get ap SP. nto ar (5.5B) or {Cancelling rdr . d9 from both sides} or By 5.50) ale ar 690 Equation (5.5 C) is the continuity equation in polar co-ordinates for two-dimensional flow. For steady flow 2°. = 0 and hence equation (5.5 C) reduces to or a a au, or Ze +d w= o [: 2em) Bo4,] Equation (5.5 D) represents the continuity equation in polar co-ordinates for two-dimensional steady incompressible flow. Problem 5.5A Examine whether the following velocity components represent a physically possible flow ? 4, = 1 sin 8, y= 2r cos @. Solution. Given : u, = rsin @ and up = 2r cos @ For verily pase flow, the continuity equation, 2 (ru) 2 9 (to) = 0 should be satisfied. Now u,=rsin® Multiplying the above equation by r, we get ru, =P sin174 Fluid Mechanics Differentiating the preceding equation w.r.t.r, we get a ao y (ru) 3 (F sin 8) =2rsin 8 (2 sin 0s constant watt.) Now 1g = 2r cos @ Differentiating the above equation wart. 8, we get a a 3g (te) = 5g Or eos 8) = 2r(- sin @) (eo 2r is constant w.r.t. @) 2rsin 8 a a 2 (ru) +2 (uy) = 2r sin 8 2r sin 3p ltr) 3g ) = 2r sin 8 2rsin = 0 Hence the continuity equation is satisfied, Hence the given velocity components represent a physi- cally possible flow. » 5.7 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION Let Vis the resultant velocity at any point in a fluid flow. Let u, v and w are its component in x, y and z directions. The velocity components are functions of space-co-ordinates and time. Mathematically, the velocity components are given as, WE ACY. 2D and Resultant velocity, Let a,, a, and a, are the total acceleration in x, y and z directions respectively. Then by the chain rule of differentiation, we have dtu _u dx , au dy, Ou dz, Ou at ar But au ar Similarly, = (5.6) ae ay” a a aKinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 175 or ar gy By OH a, (5.1) a oe ay” a Acceleration vector (5.8) 5.7.1, Local Acceleration and Convective Accéleration. Local acceleration is defined as the rate of increase of vaey ‘with respect to time at a given point in a flow field. In the equation given as convective acceleration. Problem 5.6 The velocity vector in a fluid flow is given V = 4x'i— 10s¢yj + 2th Find the velocity and acceleration of a fluid particle at (2, 1, 3) at time t= 1. Solution. The velocity components u, v and w are w= 43°, v= ~ 10x? y, w = 2¢ For the point 2, 1, 3), we have x= 2, y= and z= 3at time t= 1. Hence velocity components at (2, 1, 3) are 4x 2)* = 32 units = 10(2)°(1) = ~ 40 units 2 units Velocity vector V at 2, 1, 3) = 321 40j + 2k s 24 or Resultant velocity = fu? +97 +? = (32? + (- 40)" + 2? = (1024+ 160044 = 51.26 units. Ans. Acceleration is given by equation (5.6) Qu au Ou, au Ret at” ta ay OF176 Fluid Mechanics Now from velocity components, we have au _ 52, ou Mee, ar ay av oe aw ar Substituting the values, the acceleration components at (2, 1, 3) at time ¢= 1 are bo (2x2) + (— 10x"y) (0) + 2x) +0 H8x° = 48 x (2)° = 48 x 32 = 1536 units bx (— 20xy) + (= 10x°y) (— 10x”) + 2 (0) +0 = 80x4y + 100x4y = 80 (2)* (1) + 100 (2)* x 1 =~ 1280 + 1600 = 320 units. 2° (0) + C 10x*y) (0) + (2) 0) + 2.1 = 2.0 units Acceleration is Azayi+ aj + a= 15361 + 320) + 2k. Ans. or Resultant A =y(1536)° + (320) +(2)° units = 25592964 1024004 = 1568.9 units. Ans. Problem 5.7 The following cases represent the two velocity components, determine the third com- ponent of velocity such that they satisfy the continuity equation @) u=¥ey ee nye +ay (ii) v = 2y', w = aye Solution, "The continuity equation for incompressible fluid is given by equation (5.4) as, ou FS av, ow ax dy oz Case I. wereye? ayy tay Suisiting the values of and = in continuity equation. eM et dry Pere + Day rhe aw, = 3x- Day + 2 az aKinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 177 Integration of both sides gives [d= (3x - 2ay + 22) de (3 where constant of integration cannot be a function of z. But it can be a function of x and y that is f(x,y). ( un 2xyn+ z] +10, y). Ans, 2 av Case aye, » ay ow w= aye, ieee Substituting the values of 2 and 2 in continuity equation, we get ay a © ayer =0 ea o 4y ~ 2ay or du = 4y~ 2x9) dr Integrating, we get w= day 29> + FO.) = dy =3°y + flyy 2) Ams, Problem 5.8 4 fluid flow field is given by Vexyit yy Qye+yc)k Prove that it is a case of possible steady incompressible fluid flow. Calculate the velocity and accel- eration at the point (2, 1, 3). Solution. For the given fluid flow field « = y e 2ay ay & oo 3 = Day = yz Daye - ye? For a case of possible steady incompressible fluid flow, the continuity equation (5.4) should be satisfied. oo ou 9 Ow ~ ay a au av aw Substituting the vatues of 2, 2 ana 2, we get * ie” ay ae NB y+ Dye — Day 2ye = 0178 Fluid Mechanics Hence the velocity field V= xvi + y*yj - Qayz + yz") kis a possible case of fluid flow. Ans. Velocity at (2, 1, 3) Substituting the values 1 and z= 3 in velocity field, we get yi + yf ~ Qaye + 92") Bx lit Px 3j-(2x2x1K341KIVK 143) 21k. Ans. and Resultant velocity = 4? +3? + C21) = J16+9 + 441 = 466 = 21.587 units. Ans. Acceleration at (2,1, 3) The acceleration components a, a, and a, for steady flow are = Dey - ye, Substituting these values in acceleration components, we get acceleration at (2, 1, 3) a= xy Qay) + y°e ( - Qayz +92") (0) 28 yay: =2QPP4PxPx3=2x8412 16 + 12.= 28 units ay = xy (0) + y"¢ Qyz)- Qrye +32) ") 292 — dry'e— ye xx 2x2 1x3 19x3? = 18- 12-9 =~3 units Py (— Dye) + ye © Bae ~ 24) - aye + ye") 2ry - 292) = eye — VP-P 4 by'y%e + Wy*? + dy? + 297] =-2x2x 1x 3-2x2xPxF- 1x3 FLAP x PB 422% 1x4 dD PT DH PD — 24 - 36 - 27 + [48 + 36 + 72 + 54] =~ 24-36-27 448 + 36+ 72 + 54 = 123 Acceleration ai + a, + a,k = 281-3) + 123k, Ans.Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 179 or Resultant acceleration = 28? + (3) +123* = J784+9 + 15129 = 15022 = 126.18 units. Ans. Problem 5.9. Find the convective acceleration at the middle of a pipe which converges uniformly Srom 04 m diameter to 0.2 m diameter over 2 m length, The rate of flow is 20 lis. Ifthe rate of flow changes uniformly from 20 Us to 40 Ws in 30 seconds, find the total acceleration at the middle of the Pipe at 15th second. Solution. Given : Diameter at section 1, D, = 0.4m; Dy= 0.2 m, L= 2m, Q = 20 Ils = 0.02 m'/s as one litre 001m = 1000 em? Find (i Convective acceleration at middle ée., at A when Q= 20 lis. (ii) Total acceleration at A when Q changes from 20 U/s to 40 l/s in 30 seconds. Case I. In this case, the rate of flow is constant and equal to 0.02 m°/s. The velocity of flow is in «direction only. Hence this is one-dimensional flow and velocity components in y and z directions are zero or v= 0,2=0. au Convective aocleration = 15" only wi) Let us find the value of «and 2 a distance «from inet ex ‘The diameter (D,) ata distance x from inlet of at section X-X is given by, T rs 4 tm p,=04-" ral = (04-019 m L Leg ‘The area oferosssection (A,) at section X-X is given by, ered ton X's ra> Avs "p22" 4-019? 5 n= ED? = Ed " Fig. 58 Velocity (u) at the section X-X in terms of Q (ie in terms of rate of flow) nowt oe Area” A, i Gee = 1.273. (04-01 97? mi TE ee 1273.0 (04 - 04127? mis (i) au To find 5, we must differentiate equation (i) with respect t0 x au a . 2 namg@s-o1) 1.273 0-2) (04-01. x 0.1) [Here Q is constant] .2546 0 (0.4 - 0.1 x)! (iti) Sut Convective acceleration = [1.273 Q (0.4 ~ 0.1 2) 7] x (0.2546 Q (0.4 - 0.1 x7"] .273 x 0.2546 x Q? x (0.4 ~ 0.1 x)180 Fluid Mechanics = 1.273 x 0.2546 x (0.02)? x 0.4 - 0.1.9 [+ Q=0.02 ms} -Convective acceleration at the middle (where x = I'm) = 1.273 x 0.2546 x (0.02)° x (0.4 = 0.1 x 1) mis? 1.273 x 0.2546 x (0.02)? x (0.3) mis? .0048 m/s. Ans. Case IL. When Q changes from 0.02 m°/s to 0.04 m°Vs in 30 seconds, find the total acceleration at x= I mand f= 15 seconds. ‘Total acceleration = Convective acceleration + Local acceleration at ¢= 15 seconds. ‘The rate of flow at r= 15 seconds is given by .04 m/s and Q, = 0.02 mls = 0) +222 515 where Q,= 0= 0 +2 TE x15 where , X15= 0.03 mis ‘au Ree eee (eee eee ec :. Convective acceleration [1.273 0 (040.1 x)71 x (0.2546 0 (0.4 ~ 0.1.39") .273 x 0.2546 Q? x (0.4 ~ 0.1 x 1)* ++ Convective acceleration (when Q = 0.03 m’/s and.x= I m) 1.273 x 0.2546 x (0.03)° x (0.4 - 0.1 1)? 273 x 0.2546 x (0.03)* x (0.3)* m/s* .0108 mis? liv) Bes ar 11.273 90.40.17] [+s 4 from equation (i) is w= 1.273 Q (0.4 -0.1.x)] a Local aceeleration = 57 sia xco4 ony 22 [ +» Local acceleration is at a point where x is constant but Q is changing] Local acceleration (at x = 1 m) 1273 x (04-04 x 12x 22 ar Vice tot-o12 om xox at-00t 22) = 0.00943 m/s” (vy) Hence adding equations (iv) and (1), we get total acceleration. <- Total acceleration = Convective acceleration + Local acceleration 10108 + 0.00943 = 0.02023 mis’, Ans.Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 181. > 5.8 VELOCITY POTENTIAL FUNCTION AND STREAM FUNCTION 5.8.1 Velocity Potential Function. It is defined as a scalar function of space and time such that its negative derivative with respect to any direction gives the fluid velocity in that direction. Itis defined by 6 (Phi). Mathematically, the velocity, potential is defined as @ = f(x,y, 2) for steady flow such that (5.9) where u, v and w are the components of velocity in x, y and z directions respectively, ‘The velocity components in cylindrical polar co-ordinates in terms of velocity potential function are given by 2 (594) Where u,= velocity component in radial direction (i.e. in r direction) and ug= velocity component in tangential direction (i.e. in @ direction) du | av | ow “The continuity equation for an incompressible steady flow is 4 4 9 4 OY ax ay ae Substituting the values of u, v and w from equation (5.9), we get 2 (_a), 2 (_a 2 *) 2/-2).2 +2(-2) <0 x 3) xl ay)” aa ao , a aierneie) 5.10 or te (5.10) Equation (5.10) is a Laplace equation. Ho, (5.11) For two-dimension case, equation (5.10) reduces to SF +5 ¢ If any value of 6 that satisfies the Laplace equation, will correspond to some case of fluid flow. Properties of the Potential Function. The rotational components* are given by G3) * Please, refer to equation (5.17) on page 192.182 Fluid Mechanics 1% =) Tae ae 1 (aa ay a Substituting the values, of u, v and w from equation (5.9) in the above rotational components, we get 26 2 2) af oo , ae dy) ay ar. 2| axdy dyax ( 2) Ft ox. Oxdz and 2 *) ae * 2Lay ae ded 114 18 a cominvous function, hen 2-# = 2 ay When rotational components are zero, the flow is called irrotational. Hence the properties of the potential function are : 1. If velocity potential (6 exists, the flow should be irrotational 2. If velocity potential (6) satisfies the Laplace equation, it represents the possible steady incom- pressible irotationa flow 5.8.2 Stream Function. It is defined asthe scalar function of space and time, such that its partial derivative with respect to any direction gives the velocity component aright angles to that direction. It is denoted by y (Psi) and defined only for two-dimensional flow. Mathematically, for steady flow itis defined as y= f(t 9) such that ow ox (5.12) and sou ay The velocity components in cylindrical polar co-ordinates in terms of stream function are given as Lay ay 2M and uy = - 2 5.124 ra ar came where u,= radial velocity and ug = tangential velocityKinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 183 Substituting the values of w and v from equation (5.12), we get a (_2v), 2/2) og Sv, Hy xl ) 5 (B)-0% Didy * dxdy ay Hence existence of y means a possible case of fluid flow. The flow may be rotational or irrotational. 1(av_aw ‘The rotational component «, is given by @, = —| 1 is given by ©, 1(% x) Substituting the values of w and y from equation (5.12) in the above rotational component, we get For irrotational flow, @, = 0. Hence above equation becomes as2¥ which is Laplace equation for y. The properties of stream function (y) are = 1. If stream function (y) exists, it is a possible case of fluid flow which may be rotational or irrotational. 2. If stream function (y) satisfies the Laplace equation, itis a possible case ofan irotational flow. 5.8.3 Equipotential Line. A line along which the velocity potential @ is constant, is called cequipotential line ‘ dy = ace ay do = ae dx + ay dy 20 (ude + vdy). For equipotential line, or ~ (uds + vy) aw ae dy av ine of Constant Stream Function = Constant day or udx + vdy = 0 (5.13) But Slope of equipotential line. But d+ ay = 4 vde—udy ay184. Fluid Mechanics For a line of constant stream function = dy = 0 or vdx~udy = 0 ay acu or (5.14) bur soe ot tam ne, From equations (5.13) and (5.14) itis clear that the product of the slope of the equipotential line and the slope of the stream line at the point of intersection is equal to ~ 1. Thus the equipotential lines are ‘othogonal to the stream lines at all points of intersection. 5.8.5 Flow Net. A grid obtained by drawing a series of equipotential lines and stam lines iscalled flow net. The flow net is an important tool in analysing two-dimensional rotational flow problems. 5.8.6 Relation between Stream Function and Velocity Potential Function From equation (5.9), we have “ From equation (5.12), we have u oy Thus, we have u x ar 9% Hence a ar 5.15) and 3 Problem 5.10 The velocity potential function (6) is given by an expression woe 3 3 (i), Find the velocity components in x and y direction. (ii) Show that 6 represents a possible case of flow. we Pry Solution. Given : =a Ae Gi oe AD ay The partial derivatives of @ wart. x and y are +3 ay and. +2y 2)Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 185 (® The velocity components u and v are given by equation (5.9) From equations (1) and (2), we have ci Now By and ca) ay ar 24 day Day +2 Ans. YP - 204% wien yr 4 2y 24 2y) + 2y+2)=0 Laplace equation is satisfied and hence @ represent a possible case of flow. Ans. Problem 5.11 The velocity potential function is given by 6 = 5 (x? y*). Calculate the velocity components at the point (4, 5). Solution. 6250-97) But velocity components u and v are given by equation (5.9) as oa 26 10x © ly) = toy ‘The velocity components at the point (4, 5), ie., atx=4, y= 5) ~10x4 10x 40 units. Ans. 30 units. Ans.186 Fluid Mechanics Problem 5.12 A stream function is given by y = 5x —6y. Calculate the velocity components and also magnitude and direction of the resultant velocity at any point Solution. lu? +? = 6 +5? = f36+25 =V6T = 7.81 univisee Resultant velocity vs Direction is given by, tan @ j= 0.833 Ei = tan! 833 = 39° 48’. Ans. Problem 5.13 If for a mwo-dimensional potential flow, the velocity potential is given by ey) determine the velocity at the point P (4, 5). Determine also the value of stream function W at the point P. 9=xQy-1) Solution. Given : (@ The velocity components in the direction of x and y are 9 units/sec = 8 units/sec Velocity at P 9i Resultant velocity at P= 9? +8° = JBI+64 = 12.04 units/sec = 12.04 units/sec. (id) Value of Stream Funetion at P A) Atthe point P (4,5), ie., atx Ans. We know that ii) and. y's we get Integrating equation () w.r. Jdy = J (2y-1)dy or y= Constant of integration.Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 187 ‘The constant of integration is not a function of y but it can be a function of x. Let the value of ‘constant of integration is k. Then way -ytk iii) Differentiating the above equation wars. ‘x, we get oy ax av But from equation (i), SY =~ 2x t from equation (i), SY Integrating this equation, we get k= J ~ 2d Substituting this value of k in equation (i), we get y= y?=y =x. Ams. ++ Stream function y at P (4, 5) = 5-5-4? = 25 - 5-16 = 4 units. Ans. Problem 5.14 The stream function for a two-dimensional flow is given by y = 2xy, calculate the velocity atthe point P (2, 3). Find the velocity potential function 6. Solution. Given > wey ‘The velocity component and vin terms of y are aya 22 @ ay ay ay_a v= 22 ayy 22, or aS ry) = 2y, Atte point P (2,3), we get w= 22 = —4 unitsee ye 2x3 = Ounitlsee Resultant velocity at P= Yu? +v? = Ja? +6 = f16436 = VSD = 7.21 unitsisec. Velocity Potential Funetion We know u=-( 2228 @ -2y ii) Integrating equation (9, we get Jodo =) 2xax 2x 2 = pcevec or o=acete where C is a constant which is independent of x but can be a function of y. Differentiating equation (i wrt. y', we get 22 = 9 a ay188 Fluid Mechanics But from (ii), Integrating this equation, we get C= [- 2y dy ‘Substituting this value of C in equation (ii), we get @ = x?—y7, Ans. Problem 5.15. Sketch the stream lines represented by Y Also find out the velocity and its direction at point (1, 2). Solution. Given yer? ‘The velocity components 1 and v are 2y 2 m~ 4 UNITS /SEC At the point (1, 2), the velocity components are 2x 1=2 units/sec Resultant velocity = fi ty? = (4) +2? ey =V20 = 4.47 units/see 1 and, tan =~ u ud 2 x @= tan 5 = 26° 34" Resultant velocity makes an angle of 26° 34” with x-axis, Fig. 5.10 = 2 2=-4 unitssec i Sketch of Stream Lines versy? Let = 1, 2,3 and so on. ‘Then we have l=e4y? eter 3erey and so on, Each equation is a equation of a circle. Thus we shall get concentric circles of different diameters as shown in Fig. 5.10. Problem 5.16 The velocity components in a two-dimensional flow field for an incompressible fluid are as follows : we 2 gre eyandve ny? 29-28 obtain an expression for the stream function Y.Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 189 Solution. Given : ua y+ 2e-ey veo? 2y- 88. The velocity components in terms of stream function are ov M eye nt 2-08 0) OY aya y9-204%y Aid) ay Integrating (f) wart. x, we get y= J (9? = 2y 18) de where is a constant of integration which is independent of x but can be a function of y. Differentiating equation (iii) w.t. y, we get But from (ii), Comparing the value of 2¥., we get x oy ak ay YB 244.2 Ineraing, we st k= fe Pay Substituting this value in (ii), we get Problem 5.17 ina two-dimensional incompressible flow, the fluid velocity components are given by u=x-—dyandy =-y-4n. Show that velocity potential exists and determine its form. Find also the stream function. Solution. Given : wex-4y and au ox au, ox ay Hence flow is continuous and velocity potential exists. Let = Velocity potential.190 Fluid Mechanics Let velocity components in terms of velocity potential is given by ws —(x-4y) x+dy Ai) and. ve-Gy-4nay44e ii) 2 Integrating equation (9), we get 9 =~ + day-+ eoliii) where C is a constant of integration, which is independent of x. This constant can be a function of y. Differentiating the above equation, i.e., equation (iii) with respect to ‘y’, we get co ay ac oars a : 2% Equating the two values of 2° , we get ay ye t4ay +2. Ans. aa) Value of Stream functions Let y = Stream function The velocity components in terms of stream function are ~y-4e Gv) and ow = 4y) 2-4 4y ol) wr 4) iy “ Integrating equation (7) wats. x, we get 42 2 ak (oi veo «wv, where k is a constant of integration which is independent of x but can be a function of y.Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 191 Differentiating equation (vt) was. y, we get 2 =— 2-04 2k ay oy oy Bat from equation (»), we have aw it -quation (v), ay oy ak Bquating the two vatuesof 2%, we get — 242% ay ay 2 Integrating the above equation, we get ae ay? Substituting the value of k in equation (vi), we get yenyx 2x? + 2y7, Ans. > 5.9 TYPES OF MOTION A fluid particle while moving may undergo anyone or combination of following four types of displacements : (®) Linear Translation or Pure Translation, (ii) Linear Deformation, (iii) Angular Deformation, and (iv) Rotation. 5.9.1 Linear Translation. It is defined as the movement of a fluid element in such a way that it moves bodily from one position to another position and the two axes ab and cd represented in new positions by a’b and c’d” are parallel as shown in Fig. 5.11 (a) 5.9.2 Linear Deformation. It is defined as the deformation of a fluid element in linear direction when the element moves. The axes of the clement in the deformed position and un-deformed position are parallel, but their lengths change as shown in Fig. 5.11 (2). y « fe ; «Poy Se 4 Tle sy op = x x (0) LUNEAR TRANELATION = Bes x % (@) ANGULAR DEFORMATION (@) PURE ROTATION Fig. 5.11, Displacement of a fluid element.192. Fluid Mechanics 5.9.3 Angular Deformation or Shear Deformation. It is defined as the average change in the angle contained by two adjacent sides. Let A@, and AQ, is the change in angle between two adjacent sides of a fluid element as shown in Fig. 5.11 (c), then angular deformation or shear strain rate 1 = 0, + 28, ze + A8,) Now 6, =H 5, At ay Ax ax ‘Angular deformation = + [A8, + A8,] 1fav. aw Shear strain rate = 4/2" (5.16) ce serait a2 3] 5.9.4 Rotation. It is defined as the movement of a fluid element in such a way that both of its axes (horizontal as well as vertical) rotate in the same direction as shown in Fig. 5.11 (d). It is equal 1 (2 ou ax ay (S17) 5.9.5 Vorticity. It is defined as the value twice of the rotation and hence it is given as 20 Problem 5.18 A fluid flow is given by V = 8xi~ 10x". Find the shear strain rate and state whether the flow is rotational or irrotational.. Solution. Given : Vs 8x'i- 10x°yj au ou u = 2407, Br, ro im, yy 2 ov and v= = 1Or'y, 5 = = 2 (@) Shear strain rate is given by equation (5.16) as (&[ Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow _193 | (i) Rotation in x - y plane is given by equation (5.17) or (2 *) * 2029-0) == 1039 2 lax ay) 2 As rotation ©, # 0. Hence flow is rotational. Ans. Problem 5.19 The velocity components in a two-dimensional flow are w= + 2x —27y and v = xy? ~2y- 0B. Show that these components represent a possible case of an irrotational flow. Solution. Given : us yB+2x- xy au ar (®)_ For a two-dimensional flow, continuity equation is 2 au Substituting the value of “ and 2, we get ituting Fe am Sr me get au , av BH 8 2 ay 4 2-2-0 ax ay ceded tis a possible case of fluid flow. 1fdv du ii) Rotation, @, is given by @, = +{ 2-2 (i) Rotation, @, is given by ©, (2 = Rotation is zero, which means it is case of irrotational flow. Ans. =1w-_2-G-2= ) 7 WO? -7)- 07-1 =0 > 5.10 VORTEX FLOW ‘Vortex flow is defined as the flow of a fluid along a curved path or the flow of a rotating mass of fluid is known a ‘Vortex Flow’. The vortex flow is of two types namely : 1, Forced vortex flow, and 2. Free vortex flow. 5.10.1 Forced Vortex Flow. Forced vortex flow is defined as that type of vortex flow, in which some external torque is required to rotate the fluid mass. The fluid mass in this type of flow, rotates at constant angular velocity, «. The tangential velocity of any fluid particle is given by veoxr (5.18)[194 Fluid Mechanics ] where r= Radius of fluid particle from the axis of rotation. | CENTRAL AXIS Leu [i fom (8) CYLINDER IS STATIONARY (b) CYLINDER IS ROTATING VERTICAL-"} CYLINDER, Fig.5.12. Forced vortex flow. Hence angular velocity @ is given by © Constant. (5.19) Examples of forced vortex are : 1. A vertical cylinder containing liquid which is rotated about its central axis with a constant angular velocity (as shown in Fig. 5.12. 2. Flow of liquid inside the impeller of a centrifugal pump. 3. Flow of water through the runner of a turbine. 5.10.2 Free Vortex Flow. When no external torque is required to rotate the fluid mass, that type of flow is called free vortex flow. Thus the liquid in case of free vortex is rotating due to the rotation which is imparted to the fluid previously. Examples of the free vortex flow are : 1. Flow of liquid through a hole provided at the bottom of a container. 2. Flow of liquid around a citcular bend in a pipe. 3. A whirlpool in a river. 4, Flow of fluid in a centrifugal pump casing. ‘The relation between velocity and radius, in free vortex is obtained by putting the value of external torque equal to zero, or, the time rate of change of angular momentum, i.e., moment of momentum must be zero. Consider a fluid particle of mass ‘m’ at a radial distance r from the axis of rotation, hhaving a tangential velocity v. Then ‘Angular momentum = Mass x Velocity =m xv Moment of momentum Momentum x r= m xv xr a ‘Time rate of change of angular momentum = o (mvr) a For free vortex 2 (myn ar Constant Integrating, we get mr = Constant or vr = S49" = Constant (5.20)[ Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow _ 195] 5.10.3 Equation of Motion for Vortex Flow. Consider a fluid element ABCD (shown shaded) in Fig. 5.13 rotating at a uniform velocity in a horizontal plane about an axis perpendicular to the plane of paper and passing through 0. Let r= Radius of the element from 0. A@ = Angle subtended by the element at 0. ‘Ar = Radial thickness of the element. AA = Arca of cross-section of element. ‘The forces acting on the element are : (@) Pressure force, pAA, on the face AB. (iid) Centrifugal force,"""— acting in the direction away from the centre, 0. Now, the mass of the element: Mass density x Volume x AA x Ar Centrifugal force = pAddr Equating the forces in the radial direction, we get ar (rt) a4 pat ptr : 2 are patar’ necting Ar AA from bah sides, we get = 9 (5.21) Equation (5.21) gives the pressure variation along the radial direction for a forced or free vortex flow na horizontal plane. The expression 2 is called pressure gradient inthe rail direction, AsSE is positive, hence pressure increases with the increase of radius *r. The pressure variation inthe vertical plane is given by the hydrostatic law, i, ap a In equation (5.22), z is measured vertically in the upward direction. ‘The pressure, p varies with respect tor and zor p is a function of r and z and hence total derivative ofpis Pe (5.22) pe Bare, Substituting the values of 2 from equation (5.21) and 22 from equation (5.22), we get ar a2[196 Fluid Mechanics ] dp = p~— dr~ pad (5.23) Equation (5.23) gives the variation of pressure of a rotating fluid in any plane, 5.10.4 Equation of Forced Vortex Flow. For the forced vortex flow, from equation (5.18), we have veoxr where © = Angular velocity = Constant. Substituting the value of v in equation (5.23), we get oF dp =p x2 dr— pg de. Consider two points 1 and 2 in the fluid having forced vortex flow as shown in Fig. 5.14. Integrating the above equation for points 1 and 2, we get fin = f ouvir Fonte or @-P)= [ro =] - pe [cht or @2~ p= PF tr? = nl 98 f= 21 § long — 0r)'1- pg lesa) 2 son = 2 be —w?l- pg tesa { } If the points 1 and 2 lie on the free surface of the liquid, then p) hence above equation becomes 0 or ps [z~ 211 ~2)= = f2-», or Fan al= 55 ba - nih If the point I lies on the axis of rotation, then v, = @ x r, = @ x 0= 0. The above ‘equation becomes as nk Let act (5.24)[ Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow _197| ‘Thus Z varies with the square of r. Hence equation (5.24) is an equation of parabola. This means the free surface of the liquid is a paraboloid, Problem 5.20 Prove that in case of forced vortex, the rise of liquid level at the ends is equal to the fall of liquid level at the axis of rotation. Solution. Let R= radius of the cylinder. (0-0 = Initial level of liquid in cylinder when the cylinder is not rotating. - Initial height of liquid hen) <. Volume of liquid in cylinder = mR? x Height of liquid AR? x (+3) i) Let the cylinder is rotated at constant angular velocity (. The liquid will rise at the ends and will all at the centre. Let Rise of liquid at the ends from 0-0 xr Fall of liquid at the centre from 0-0. Then volume of liquid = [Volume of cylinder upto level B-B] = [Volume of paraboloid] = [RR? x Height of liquid upto level B-B] RR ~ |=» Height of paraboloid eax (he x+y) ee xray) ikon wexneaecsy xen : 2 mR? 2 ety Ai’) Equating (i) and (ii), we get BP th x)= wR EE xe y) or or Fall of liquid at centre = Rise of liquid at the ends. Problem 5.21 An open circular tank of 20 cm diameter and 100 cm long contains water upto a height of 60 cm. The tank is rotated about its vertical axis at 300 r.p.m., find the depth of parabola formed at the free surface of water. Solution, Given : Diameter of cylinder = 20m 20 Radius, R= = 10cm 7710[198 Fluid Mechanics ] Height of liquid, Speed, ‘Angular velocity, = 2XEX300 «5141 radiecc, 0 Let the depth of parabola Using equation (5.24), = (oy 50.28 cm. Ans. 2g 2x 981 Problem 5.22 An open circular cylinder of 15 cm diameter and 100 cm long contains water upto 4@ height of 80 cm, Find the maximum speed at which the cylinder is to be rotated about its vertical axis $0 that no water spills. Solution. Given : Diameter of cylinder = 15m + Radius, Length of cylinder, Initial height of water Let the cylinder is rotated at an angular speed of « rad/sec, when the water is about to spill. Then using, Rise of liquid at ends Fall of liquid at centre But rise of liquid at ends cength ~ Initial height = 100 ~ 80 = 20 em Fall of liquid at centre = 20 em Height of parabola 20 + 20 = 40 em Z=40 om oR Using the relation, Zz we get 49 = 279) v raid 2981 402X981 _ 1595 75x75 = 13952 = 37.35 rad/s 2aN «. Speed, Nis given by @ = “2. Ps given by a5 or 60x@ _ 603735 2n (xR Problem 5.23 A cylindrical vessel 12 cm in diameter and 30 cm deep is filled with water upto the top. The vessel is open at the top. Find the quantity of liquid left in the vessel, when itis rotated about its vertical axis with a speed of (a) 3000 r.p.m., and (b) 600 r.p.m. Solution. Given : Diameter of cylinder = em Radius, R=60m Initial height of water = 30cm[ Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow _199 | Initial volume of water = Area x Initial height of water = Fi x 12? x 30 cm? = 3392.9 em’ (a) Speed, @?R? _ (3141)? x6? 2g 2x981 Height of parabola is given by Z= = 18:10 em, As vessel is initially full of water, water will be spilled if itis rotated. Volume of water spilled is ‘equal to the volume of paraboloid. But volume of paraboloid = [Area of cross-section x Height of parabola] + 2 DP xZ =F x 12? x!810 | 1023.53 cm? 2°4 2 Volume of water left tial volume ~ Volume of water spilled 3392.9 - 1023.53 = 2369.37 em’. Ans. (b) Speed, N= 600 rpm. BAN _ 28600 _ 69.89 rads 0 0 Height of parabola, 720. C8) x6 a 40m, 2g 2x981 [As the height of parabola is more than the height of cylinder the shape of imaginary parabola will be as shown in Fig. 5.17. Let r= Radius of the parabola at the bottom of the vessel. Height of imaginary parabola = 72.40 ~ 30 = 42.40 em. Volume of water left in the vessel ‘olume of water in portions ABC and DEF = Initial volume of water = Volume of paraboloid AOF + Volume of paraboloid COD. Now volume of paraboloid AOF = © x D? x Height of parabola PA" = 4094.12 em? macitiary " maciary 2 CYLINDER’ PARABOLA For the imaginary parabola (COD), « = 62.82 rad/see Fig. 5:17 Z= 424 om Radius at the bottom of vessel[200 Fluid Mechanics ] oF 62.82? xr? ising the relation Zz we get 424 = 9282 xr eee 2g | Ne Bt 2981 ; 9814240 _ 91 79 62.82 x 62.82 r= Y2L079 = 4.59 em ‘Volume of paraboloid COD = J Area athe top ofthe imaginary parabola x Height of parabola 1 ex 4.59? x 42.4 = 1403.89 cm? adn x ard 2 2 Volume of water left = 3392.9 ~ 4094.12 + 1403.89 = 702.67 em*. Ans. Problem 5.24 An open circular cylinder of 15 cm diameter and 100 cm long contains water upto a height of 70 cm. Find the speed at which the cylinder is to be rotated about its vertical axis, so that the axial depth becomes zero. Solution, Given : Diameter of cylinder Radius, Length of cylinder Initial height of water = 70 em. ‘When axial depth is zero, the depth of paraboloid = 100 em. be 18cm —1 Fig. 5.18, Using the relation, 2nH - Speed, Nis given by @ = == ps given by 7 or N= DEO _ 10%5905 «563.98 rpm, Ans. 2 2n Problem 5.25 For the problem (5.24), find the difference in total pressure force (i) at the bottom of cylinder, and (ii) at the sides of the cylinder due to rotation.[ Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow _201| Solution. (i) The data is given in Problem 5.24. The difference in total pressure force at the bottom of cylinder is obtained by finding total hydrostatic force at the bottom before rotation and after rotation. Before rotation, force = pg x (0.15)? m?, hi = 70 em = 0.70 m where p= 1000 kg/m’, A = Area of bottom => D’ a Force = 1000 x 9.81 x5 x (0.15)* 0.7 N = 121.35 N After rotation, the depth of water at the bottom is not constant and hence pressure force due to the height of water, will not be constant. Consider a circular ring of radius r and width dr as shown in Fig. 5.19. Let the height of water from the bottom of the tank upto free surface of water at a radius Hydrostatic force on ring at the bottom, AP = pg x Area of ring x Z = 1000 x 9.81 x 2nrdr x © or? 28 9810 x 2.x Rr x xdr Total pressure force at the bottom wy afar = [f 9810x2285 ons =f waco tr a Fig. 519 From Problem $24, = 59.05 rads R75 0m= 075 m. Substituting these values, we get ftal pressure foree __ 196201 x (59.057 [<} 2x981 «| 4 |, 19620 x x x(59.05)* (075) _ 6.69 2x981 4 Difference in pressure forces at the bottom 121.35 ~ 86.62 = 34,73 N. Ans. (i) Forces on the sides of the cylinder Before rotation peal where A'= Surface area ofthe sides ofthe cylinder upto height of water RD x Height of water = m x .15 x 0.70 m? = 0.33 m?[202 Fluid Mechanics ] Ji = CG. of the wetted area of the sides 1 0.70 5 x height of water = > 3 * helaht of water = “> 135m Force on the sides before rotation = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.33 x 0.35 = 1133 N After rotation, the water is upto the top of the cylinder and hence force on the sides 1000981 «Wot ae of te sis High of wa B10 x Dx 10% Ex 1.0= 9810 mx 1S x 5 = 231143 N Difference in pressure on the sides 2311.43 ~ 1133 = 1178.43 N. Ans. 5.10.5 Closed Cylindrical Vessels. If a cylindrical vessel is closed at the top, which contains some liquid, the shape of paraboloid formed due to rotation of the vessel will be as shown in Fig. 5.20 for different speed of rotations. Fig. 5.20 (a) shows the initial stage of the cylinder, when it is not rotated. Fig. 5.20 (b) shows the shape of the paraboloid formed when the speed of rotation is (. Ifthe speed is increased further say , the shape of paraboloid formed will be as shown in Fig. 5.20 (c). In this case the radius of the parabola at the top of the vessel is unknown. Also the height of the paraboloid formed corresponding to angular speed @ is unknown. Thus to solve the two unknown, we should have two equations. One ‘equation is 28 ‘The second equation is obtained from the fact that for closed vessel, volume of air before rotation is equal to the volume of air after rotation, ‘Volume of air before rotation = Volume of closed vessel ~ Volume of liquid in vessel Zz me xZ 2 J T I ‘Volume of air after rotation = Volume of paraboloid formed 1 »? I i @ © ° Fig. 5.20, Problem 5.26 A vessel, cylindrical in shape and closed at the top and bottom, contains water upto 4 height of 80 cm. The diameter of the vessel is 20 cm and length of vessel is 120 cm. The vessel is rotated at a speed of 400 r.p.m. about its vertical axis. Find the height of paraboloid formed.