Module 4

MEMS

Introduction and application areas for MEMS

Introduction:
The micro mechanical device embedded with electronics/electrical system fabricated through a mix of
integrated circuit manufacturing and micro-machining process where material is shaped by etching away
micro layers is called Micro Electro Mechanical System (MEMS). MEMS are miniature devices, which
integrate actuators, sensors, and processors to form intelligent systems. The most popular material used for
MEMS is Silicon for it's semiconductor, physical and commercial properties. MEMS consists of mechanical
elements, sensors, actuators, and electrical and electronics devices on a common silicon substrate.

The sensors in MEMS gather information from the environment through measuring mechanical, thermal,
biological, chemical, optical, and magnetic phenomena. The electronics then process the information derived
from the sensors and through some decision making capability direct the actuators to respond by moving,
positioning, regulating, pumping, and filtering, thereby controlling the environment for some desired
outcome or purpose. The advantages of semiconductor IC manufacturing such as low cost mass production,
reliability are also integral to MEMS devices. The size of MEMS sub-components is in the range of 1 to 100
micrometers and the size of MEMS device itself measure in the range of 20 micrometers to a millimeter.

Why Mems?

1. Miniaturization – Distributed Sensing And Actuation Coupled With Redundancy

2. Reduced Cost of Fabrication
3. Real Time Control – On-Line Active Process Control and Health Monitoring
4. Micro Devices Control Macro System

History of MEMS

 1948 Invention of the Germanium transistor at Bell Labs (William Shockley)

 1954 Piezo resistive effect in Germanium and Silicon (C.S. Smith)
 1958 First integrated circuit (IC) (J.S. Kilby 1958 / Robert Noyce 1959)
 1959 "There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom" (R. Feynman)
 1959 First silicon pressure sensor demonstrated (Kulite)
 1967 Anisotropic deep silicon etching (H.A. Waggener et al.)
 1968 Resonant Gate Transistor Patented (Surface Micromachining Process) (H. Nathanson, et.al.)
 1970’s Bulk etched silicon wafers used as pressure sensors (Bulk Micro-maching Process)
 1971 The microprocessor is invented
 1979 HP micro machined ink-jet nozzle
 1982 "Silicon as a Structural Material," K. Petersen
 1982 LIGA process (KfK, Germany)
 1982 Disposable blood pressure transducer (Honeywell)
 1983 Integrated pressure sensor (Honeywell)
 1983 "Infinitesimal Machinery," R. Feynman 1985 Sensonor Crash sensor (Airbag)
 1985 The "Buckyball" is discovered
 1986 The atomic force microscope is invented
 1986 Silicon wafer bonding (M. Shimbo)
 1988 Batch fabricated pressure sensors via wafer bonding (Nova Sensor)
 1988 Rotary electrostatic side drive motors (Fan, Tai, Muller)
 1991 Polysilicon hinge (Pister, Judy, Burgett, Fearing)
 1991 The carbon nanotube is discovered
 1992 Grating light modulator (Solgaard, Sandejas, Bloom)
 1992 Bulk micromachining (SCREAM process, Cornell)
 1993 Digital mirror display (Texas Instruments)
 1993 MCNC creates MUMPS foundry service
 1993 First surface micro machined accelerometer in high volume production (Analog Devices)
 1994 Bosch process for Deep Reactive Ion Etching is patented
 1996 Richard Smalley develops a technique for producing carbon nanotubes of uniform diameter.
 1999 Optical network switch (Lucent)
 2000s Optical MEMS boom
 2000s BioMEMS proliferate
 2000s The number of MEMS devices and applications continually increases
 2000s NEMS applications and technology grows

 1947 Invention of the Point Contact Transistor - In 1947, William Shockley, John Bardeen, and
Walter Brattain of Bell Laboratories built the first point-contact transistor. The first transistor used
germanium, a semi-conductive chemical. It demonstrated the capability of building transistors with
semi-conductive materials.
 1954 Discovery of the Piezoresistive Effect in Silicon and Germanium - Discovered in 1954 by C.S.
Smith. The piezoresistive effect of semiconductor can be several magnitudes larger than that in
metals. This discovery showed that silicon and germanium could sense air or water pressure better
than metal.
 1958 Invention - First Integrated Circuit (IC)-An IC includes the transistors, resistors, capacitors,
and wires. If a circuit could be made all together on one substrate, then the whole device could be
made smaller. In 1958, Jack Kilby from Texas Instruments built a "Solid Circuit“ on one germanium
chip: 1 transistor, 3 resistors, and 1 capacitor.
 1959 "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom" -Richard Feynman’s “There’s Plenty of Room at the
Bottom” was presented at a meeting of the American Physical Society in 1959. The talk popularized
the growth of micro and nano technology.
 1968 The Resonant Gate Transistor Patented- In 1964, Harvey Nathanson from Westinghouse
produced the first batch fabricated MEMS device. This device joined a mechanical component with
electronic elements and was called a resonant gate transistor (RGT).
 1971 The Invention of the Microprocessor- In 1971, Intel publicly introduced the world's first single
chip microprocessor - The Intel 4004. It powered the Busicom calculator. This invention paved the
way for the personal computer.
 1960's and 1970’s Bulk-Etched Silicon Wafers as Pressure Sensors- "Electrochemically Controlled
Thinning of Silicon" by H. A. Waggener illustrated anisotropic etching of silicon (removes silicon
 selectivity). This technique is the basis of the bulk micromachining process. Bulk micromachining
etches away the bulk of the silicon substrate leaving behind the desired geometries.
 1979 HP Micromachined Inkjet Nozzle- Hewlett Packard developed the Thermal Inkjet Technology
(TIJ). The TIJ rapidly heats ink, creating tiny bubbles. When the bubbles collapse, the ink squirts
through an array of nozzles onto paper and other media.
 1982 LIGA Process Introduced-LIGA is a German acronym for X-ray lithography (X-ray
Lithographie), Electroplating (Galvanoformung), and Molding (Abformung). In the early 1980s
Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Center in Germany developed LIGA. It allows for manufacturing of
high aspect ratio microstructures.
 1986 Invention of the AFM- In 1986 IBM developed a microdevice called the atomic force
microscope (AFM). The AFM maps the surface of an atomic structure by measuring the force acting
on the tip (or probe) of a microscale cantilever. The cantilever is usually silicon or silicon nitride.
 Other Developments in the 1980's- In 1988 the first rotary electrostatic side drive motors were made
at UC Berkley. In 1989 a lateral comb drive emerged where structures move laterally to the surface
 1992 Grating Light Modulator- The deformable grating light modulator (GLM) was introduced by
Solgaard in 1992. It is a Micro Opto Electro Mechanical System (MOEMS). It has been developed
for uses in various applications: Display technology, graphic printing, lithography and optical
communications
 1993 Multi-User MEMS Processes (MUMPs) Emerges- A foundry meant to make microsystems
processing highly accessible and cost effective for a large variety of users. A three layer polysilicon
surface micromachining process.
 1993 First Manufactured Accelerometer-In 1993 Analog Devices were the first to produce a surface
micro machined accelerometer in high volume. The automotive industry used this accelerometer in
automobiles for airbag deployment sensing.
 1994 Deep Reactive Ion Etching is Patented- In 1994, Bosch, a company from Germany, developed
the Deep Reactive-Ion Etching (DRIE) process. DRIE is a highly anisotropic etch process used to
create deep, steep-sided holes and trenches in wafers.

Figure: Flow Chart of MEMS fabrication process

 Figure: Flowchart of a MEMS device design process that integrates reliability simulation prior to fabrication start.

Introduction to fabrication technologies

The roots of most of the microfabrication techniques are embedded in standard fabrication methods
developed for the semiconductor industry. A clear understanding of these techniques is essential before
taking up the fabrication of MEMS. Thin film deposition, etching and VLSI micro fabrication disciplines are
among them.

Lithography

Lithography is the technique used to transfer a designed pattern onto a substrate. This pattern is
subsequently used to etch an underlying thin film for various purposes. Lithography using an ultra violet
(UV) light source is most widely used lithography technique in microelectronic fabrication. Electron-beam
(e-beam) and X-ray lithography are two other alternatives that have attracted considerable attention in the
MEMS and nanofabrication areas.
a. Photolithography

Photolithography is the photographic technique to transfer copies of a master pattern, usually a circuit layout
in IC applications, onto the surface of a substrate of some material (usually a silicon wafer). In
microfabrication techniques photolithography is the most successful technology. Since its invention in 1959,
it has been used in semiconductor industry. All the essential components of ICs are made by this technology.
The photolithographic techniques used for fabricating microstructures are based on a projection of UV rays
through the mask designed using MEMS designing software onto a thin film of photoresist that is spin-
coated on a wafer through a high numerical aperture lens system. Multi-layered structures can be achieved
with the combination of accurate alignment of a successive set of photomasks and exposure of these
successive patterns. Photolithography has matured rapidly by continuous improvements in the ability to
resolve ever-smaller features. Figure below shows the photolithography and pattern transfer involving a set
of process steps. Photolithographic process has its own specific requirements, but there is a basic common
flow of process that are common to most procedures. The substrate is covered with a thin film of some
material, usually silicon dioxide (SiO2), in the case of silicon wafers, on which a pattern of holes will be
formed (Figure). A thin layer of an organic polymer, which is sensitive to ultraviolet radiation, is then
deposited on the oxide layer; this is called a photoresist. A photomask, consisting of a glass plate
(transparent) coated with a chromium pattern (opaque), is then placed in contact with the photoresist coated
surface. The wafer is exposed to the ultraviolet radiation transferring the pattern on the mask to the
photoresist which is then developed in a way very similar to the process used for developing photographic
films. The radiation causes a chemical reaction in the exposed areas of the photoresist of which there are two
types; positive and negative. Positive photoresist is strengthened by UV radiation whereas negative
photoresists are weakened. On developing, the rinsing solution removes either the exposed areas or the
unexposed areas of photoresist leaving a pattern of bare and photoresist-coated oxides on the wafer surface.
The resulting photoresist pattern is either the positive or negative image of the original pattern of the
photomask.
 Figure: Process flow of basic photolithography followed by pattern transfer

Materials for MEMS manufacturing

Silicon

Silicon is the material used to create most integrated circuits used in consumer electronics in the modern industry. In
single crystal form, silicon is an almost perfect Hookean material, meaning that when it is flexed there is virtually no
hysteresis and hence almost no energy dissipation. As well as making for highly repeatable motion, this also makes
silicon very reliable as it suffers very little fatigue and can have service lifetimes in the range of billions to trillions of
cycles without breaking.

So silicon is a mechanical material and which is having single crystal and it has got diamond crystal structure. Its
density we have seen is equal to aluminum, nearly equal to aluminum but one third of the steel. So in their respect the
silicon is lighter than steel. In a second pointits hardness. Hardness is half of steel and greater than iron tungsten and
aluminum. So called a hardness is concerned the silicon hardness is greater than the iron tungsten and aluminum.
Thermal expansion coefficient is a half of steel. There is a good thing that in thermal expansion and coefficient is not
very hard.
So now, other properties are yield strength. Yield strength is 2 times greater than steel. Young’s modulus is almost
equal to steel, thermal conductivity that is 1.5 times of steel, deform elasticity and remember not plasticity. Difference
between elasticity and plasticity has been discussed in last lecture. So the deform elasticity and it has no hysteresis. So
silicon and its derivatives, particularly silicon dioxide and silicon nitride are some of the best electrically characterized
materials in the world. So in different MEMS structure, we take help of these derivatives of silicon. That is silicon
nitride and silicon dioxide and their properties and their characteristics are well known to us. That is one of the
advantages in case of silicon.

Polymers

Polymers on the other hand can be produced in huge volumes, with a great variety of material characteristics. MEMS
devices can be made from polymers by processes such as injection molding, embossing or stereolithography and are
especially well suited to microfluidic applications such as disposable blood testing cartridges.

Metals

Metals can also be used to create MEMS elements. While metals do not have some of the advantages displayed by
silicon in terms of mechanical properties, when used within their limitations, metals can exhibit very high degrees of
reliability. Metals can be deposited by electroplating, evaporation, and sputtering processes. Commonly used metals
include gold, nickel, aluminium, copper, chromium, titanium, tungsten, platinum, and silver.

Ceramics

The nitrides of silicon, aluminum and titanium as well as silicon carbide and other ceramics are increasingly applied in
MEMS fabrication due to advantageous combinations of material properties.

Thermal oxidation

This is one of the most basic deposition technologies. It is simply oxidation of the substrate surface in an oxygen
rich atmosphere. The temperature is raised to 800°C - 1100°C to speed up the process. This is also the only
deposition technology which actually consumes some of the substrate as it proceeds. The growth of the film is
spurned by diffusion of oxygen into the substrate, which means the film growth is actually downwards into the
substrate. As the thickness of the oxidized layer increases, the diffusion of oxygen to the substrate becomes more
difficult leading to a parabolic relationship between film thickness and oxidation time for films thicker than
~100nm. This process is naturally limited to materials that can be oxidized, and it can only form films that are
oxides of that material. This is the classical process used to form silicon dioxide on a silicon substrate. A schematic
diagram of a typical wafer oxidation furnace is shown in the figure below.

Use thermal oxidation?

This is a simple process, which unfortunately produces films with somewhat limited use in MEMS components. It
is typically used to form films that are used for electrical insulation or that are used for other process purposes later
in a process sequence.
Thin Film Deposition

Thin Film Deposition processes place thin, uniform coatings of various materials onto wafers. This can be
accomplished using a variety of methods, ranging from physical vapor deposition (PVD) processes such
as evaporation and sputtering to chemical deposition processes such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
and electrochemical deposition (ECD). Each of these methods has its advantages and disadvantages, and is capable of
depositing a variety of materials.

Evaporation is a physical vapor deposition process in which the wafer is placed in a chamber and subjected to very
low pressures as the gases in the chamber are removed using a vacuum pump. Once the chamber is free of residual
gases, the material to be deposited is subjected to a temperature sufficient to cause it to evaporate. The evaporated
molecules are dispersed throughout the chamber, landing on the wafer (and the chamber walls) and condensing,
coating the wafer uniformly. Evaporation is typically used for materials with high vapor pressures, such as metals,
although it is also used occasionally for dielectric films such as SiO2 and MgF2, commonly used in the optics industry.

Sputtering is another physical vapor deposition process which occurs in a vacuum chamber. A large piece of the
material to be deposited, known as a target, is bombarded with high energy argon ions from a glow discharge. When
the argon ions strike the target, they knock off target atoms and molecules, which are then conveyed through the
vacuum to the wafer, where they condense and form a thin film. Sputtering is most commonly used for depositing
metal films, but, like evaporation, can also deposit insulating films with some slight process and equipment variations.

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Process

CVD is capable of producing thick, dense, ductile, and good adhesive coatings on metals and non-metals such as glass
and plastic. Contrasting to the PVD coating in the "line of sight", the CVD can coat all surfaces of the substrate. -
APCVD, LPCVD, PECVD. MOCVD

Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) Process

PVD coatings involve atom-by-atom, molecule-by-molecule, or ion deposition of various materials on solid substrates
in vacuum systems- Thermal evaporation, sputtering
Etching Process

Etching is another fundamental fabrication step which is very important in VLSI technology. In VLSI and micro/nano
fabrication various conducting and dielectric thin films deposited using mask must be removed at some point or
another. In addition to thin film etching in micro/nano fabrication sometimes substrate also need to be removed in
order to create various MEMS structures. Selectivity and directionality are the important parameters in etching
process. In case of isotropic etching, the etchant attacks the material in all directions at the same rate. On the other
hand in case of anisotropic etching, the dissolution rate depends on specific directions. Semicircular profile under the
mask is obtained in isotropic etching where as in case of anisotropic straight side walls and non circular profile are
obtained shown in below figure.

Figure: Profile for isotropic (a) anisotropic (b) Etch through a photoresist mask

1. Wet Etching
Wet etching describes the removal of material through the immersion of a material (typically a silicon wafer) in a
liquid bath of a chemical etchant. This covers any form of etching where etching is performed by immersing the wafer
in a bath of the chemical etchant. The chemical etchants can be split into two types, isotropic and anisotropic.
Isotropic etchants will etch a given material at the same rate whatever direction it is etching in, by contrast anisotropic
etchants will etch at different rates in a given material depending on a number of factors, the most useful one being the
crystal structure and orientation.

2. Dry Etching
Dry etching relies on vapour phase or plasma-based methods of etching using suitably reactive gases or vapours
usually at high temperatures. This type of etching does not use any chemicals directly on the wafer, instead the most
popular method involves accelerating ions towards the wafer to be etched, and these ions will etch the most in the
direction in which they are travelling. This method is called reactive ion etching (RIE). RIE is an anisotropic etching
method as the direction of the etching controls the rate of etching

Doping

Doping is primarily a means of altering the electronic properties of semiconductors by introducing impurities that
contribute free carriers (electrons and holes).The doping of semiconductors is one of the oldest and most fundamental
processes used in making semiconductor devices. Doping processes alter the concentration and distribution of free
carriers in a semiconductor matrix, making possible electronic devices based on p−n junctions or metal–oxide–
semiconductor structures. Doping processes are also critical for the successful formation of electrical contacts in
devices fabricated from semiconductors, not only for transistors and other electronic systems but also for MEMS
devices based on silicon or other materials. The scientific literature related to doping processes for electronic devices
is quite extensive, describing details of dopant distribution and electrical activation important in forming ever-
shallower dopant profiles for devices at smaller length scales. In contrast, the role of doping processes in current
MEMS fabrication is relatively straightforward and primarily affects creation of electrically conductive layers and
layers modified to alter material etch properties. Doped MEMS structures are most heavily utilized as resistive
structures for heaters in thermally driven actuator devices, as heaters in micro chemical reactors, or as piezoresistors in
sensor devices. More indirectly, doping processes can be utilized in sophisticated fabrication techniques utilizing
differential etch rates between volumes of silicon doped by different dopant species or concentrations. Most of
discussion here is limited to silicon applications as much of MEMS work to date is focused on silicon, but all the
concepts are generally applicable to other semiconductor materials.

Micromachining techniques

MEMS fabrication techniques are commonly used to build various microdevices (microsensors and microactuator).
Micromachining technologies are recently developed for the fabrication of MEMS devices. A greater interest is
focused on the achievement of 3D sculptured surfaces and high aspect ratios with complex fine shapes. The
dimensional spectrum of the microstructures that can be fabricated using these techniques ranges down to few micron.
A wide variety of techniques which are capable of creating micro/nano structures with various degrees of quality and
speed are developed. In this section various forms of micromaching techniques are discussed.

a. Bulk Micromachining

Bulk micromachining involves the removal of part of the bulk substrate. It is a subtractive process that uses wet
anisotropic etching or a dry etching method such as reactive ion etching (RIE), to create large pits, grooves and
channels. Materials typically used for wet etching include silicon and quartz, while dry etching is typically used with
silicon, metals, plastics and ceramics.

Dicing

Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) include a large variety of miniaturized intelligent mechanical systems
such as accelerometers, flow sensors, motion mirrors and radio-frequency devices. MEMS are manufactured by the
combination of well-established methods for the fabrication of integrated circuits (ICs) together with various
micromachining processes to selectively etch away desired portions of the silicon wafer upon which the device is
based or to create additional layers of material, thus forming a three-dimensional functional structure. The final
component may contain minute and extremely delicate structures such as cantilevers, bridges, hinges, gears,
membranes and other sensitive features that necessitate special handling and care. Several basic differences make the
dicing of MEMS significantly more challenging than that of typical ICs or other microelectronic components. MEMS
may contain membranes, high aspect-ratio topography and other pressure-sensitive components that cannot withstand
the impact of water encountered during dicing and the subsequent cleaning cycle, and raise the need for a protective
mechanism to shield them from the constant flow of liquid. In addition, MEMS often have moving parts that are
supersensitive to contamination, and in which the presence of tiny debris particles may hinder or even halt movement
altogether. Specific types of MEMS (e.g. electrostatic actuators) are especially sensitive to ESD phenomena and may
fail upon spontaneous electrostatic discharges.
There are several approaches for dicing MEMS that may be employed in order to overcome the challenges created by
their fragility and sensitivity to contamination. One approach is to permanently cap the MEMS, thus creating a
physical barrier between the micromechanical parts and the environment. This method both prevents the
contamination of the MEMS device by debris and protects it from the impact of the flow of cooling water during
dicing and rinse water in the cleaning step that follows. It also reduces the hazards of ESD by eliminating direct
contact of sensitive components with the surroundings. Various materials – such as silicon and glass – are used for
capping, and several sealing method may be utilized in order to attach the cap. After dicing, the cap remains as a
permanent part of the MEMS. A variation of the capping method is the use of a temporary protective sacrificial layer
that covers the MEMS device during the actual dicing step, and is later removed or washed away. In most cases, this
protective layer is a polymeric film that may be removed by either dry or wet techniques. The methods outlined above
necessitate additional manufacturing steps and processes in order to place the permanent cap or to form and remove
the temporary protective film, and add to the overall cost of manufacturing the device

Bonding

In order to form more complex and larger MEMS structures, micro-machined silicon wafers can be bonded to other
materials in a process known as fusion bonding. It is a technique that enables virtually seamless integration of multiple
layers and relies on the creation of atomic bonds between each layer either directly (with heating and pressure in the
case of glass to wafer bonding), or through a thin film of silicon dioxide. The resulting composite has very low
residual stress due to matching coefficients of thermal expansion from each layer. In addition, the mechanical strength
of the bond is comparable to that of the adjoining layers resulting in a very strong composite fabrication technique for
enclosed cavities and channels. High-aspect ratio structural layers can also be bonded to silicon substrates in a similar
manner. Photoresist and poly-methylmethacrylate (PMMA) are used as MEMS fusion bonding media and have
proved very successful for the bonding of polyimide.

Silicon based

• Invented by Dr. Muller and Dr. Howe of Berkeley

• Established sacrificial etching process using

– polysilicon as a mechanical structural material

– oxide as a sacrificial material

Some of the advantages of MEMS devices are,

1. Very small size, mass, volume

2. Very low power consumption
3. Low cost
4. Easy to integrate into systems or modify
5. Small thermal constant
6. Can be highly resistant to vibration, shock and radiation
7. Batch fabricated in large arrays
8. Improved thermal expansion tolerance
9. Parallelism

Typical Applications:

There are plenty of applications for MEMS. As a breakthrough technology, MEMS is building synergy
between previously unrelated fields such as biology and microelectronics, many new MEMS and
Nanotechnology applications will emerge, expanding beyond that which is currently identified or known.

MEMS technology finds applications in the below general domains

Automotive domain:
1. Airbag Systems
2. Vehicle Security Systems
3. Inertial Brake Lights
4. Headlight Levelling
5. Rollover Detection
6. Automatic Door Locks
7. Active Suspension

MEMS pressure sensors - sense, monitor and transmit

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

MEMS devices used in Space exploration field include

1. Accelerometers and gyroscopes for inertial navigation

2. Pressure sensors
3. RF switches and tuneable filters for communication
4. Tuneable mirror arrays for adaptive optics
5. Micro-power sources and turbines
6. Propulsion and attitude control
7. Bio-reactors and Bio-sensors, Microfluidics
8. Thermal control
9. Atomic clocks

Consumer domain:
1. Appliances
2. Sports Training Devices
3. Computer Peripherals
4. Car and Personal Navigation Devices
5. Active Subwoofers

Industrial domain:
1. Earthquake Detection and Gas Shutoff
2. Machine Health
3. Shock and Tilt Sensing

Military:
1. Tanks
2. Planes
3. Equipment for Soldiers

Biotechnology:

1. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) microsystems for DNA amplification and dentification
2. Micro machined Scanning Tunnelling Microscopes (STMs)
3. Biochips for detection of hazardous chemical and biological agents
4. Microsystems for high-throughput drug screening and selection
5. Bio-MEMS in medical and health related technologies from Lab-On-Chip to biosensor & chemo sensor.

The commercial applications include:

1. Inkjet printers, which use piezo-electrics or thermal bubble ejection to deposit ink on paper.
2. Accelerometers in modern cars for a large number of purposes including airbag deployment in collisions.
3. Accelerometers in consumer electronics devices such as game controllers, personal media players / cell phones
and a number of Digital Cameras.
4. In PCs to park the hard disk head when free-fall is detected, to prevent damage and data loss.
5. MEMS gyroscopes used in modern cars and other applications to detect yaw; e.g. to deploy a roll over bar or
trigger dynamic stability control.
6. Silicon pressure sensors e.g. car tire pressure sensors, and disposable blood pressure sensors.
7. Displays e.g. the DMD chip in a projector based on DLP technology has on its surface several hundred thousand
micro mirrors.
8. Optical switching technology, which is, used for switching technology and alignment for data communications.
9. Interferometric modulator display (IMOD) applications in consumer electronics (primarily displays for mobile
devices).
10. Improved performance from inductors and capacitors due the advent of the RF-MEMS technology
Magnetic shape memory alloy

This is new type of smart material called Magnetic Shape Memory Alloy (MSMA) which is an alloy of Ni-Mn-Ga. In
contrast to conventional heat driven shape memory alloys (SMAs), the magnetically driven MSMAs exhibit higher
operating frequency, making them attractive for actuation applications. Most of the work on characterization and
modelling of MSMAs has been focused on quasistatic actuation, i.e., strain dependence on magnetic field. MSMA can
be seen as a mixture of a classical shape memory alloy (SMA) and a magnetostrictive material. In a way, its
microscopic behaviour is similar to SMAs but strain is not only due to a martensite/austenite phase transformation but
is also due to a martensite reorientation under magnetic fields.
As seen before, the working principle of MSMA is quite similar to the working of SMA but its actuation can also
result from magnetic field application. When actuated by magnetic fields, a large strain (6 to 10 %) is obtained with a
response-time in the range of milliseconds (to compare with tenth of seconds or even seconds for SMA).

At high temperature, the MSMA sample is in austenitic phase (A). After a cooling process, the austenite phase is
transformed into a martensite phase. Therefore the resulting sample contains martensite variants into three equal
portions (M1, M2 and M3). If a mechanical stress is applied in a specific direction, then the fraction of variant with its
short axis in this direction grows. If this stress is high enough then the sample will only contain this variant (for
example M2). If the stress decreases, the volume fraction of the M2 variant also decrease but in an irreversible
behaviour (large hysteresis).

In a same way, if a magnetic field is applied, the variant with its easy magnetization axis in the field direction, is
favoured. For MSMA, the easy magnetization direction is the same as the short axis of the M1 variant. In this case,
this variant fraction increases by the application of a magnetic field perpendicular to the stress field. The balance
between magnetic field and mechanical stress allows a control of the macroscopic strain. With a pre-stress, one can
therefore obtain an actuator driven by the magnetic field only.

Magnetic Actuator

A magnetic actuator is a device that uses the microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) to convert an electric current
into a mechanical output by employing the well-known Lorentz Force Equation or the theory of Magnetism.

The operation of the magnetic actuator depends on the interaction between the field from an electromagnet and a static
field. To produce this static field, it is important to use the right material. In MEMS, permanent magnets have become
the favorite because they have a very good scaling factor and they retain their magnetization even when there is no
external field (meaning that they need not be continuously magnetized when they are in use).

Figure: Block diagram of a magnetic actuator

Input electrical energy in the form of voltage and current is converted to magnetic energy. The magnetic energy
creates a magnetic force, which produces mechanical motion over a limited range. Thus magnetic actuators convert
input electrical energy into output mechanical energy. As mentioned in the figure caption, the blocks are often
nonlinear.

Typical magnetic actuators include

 Electrohydraulic valves in airplanes, tractors, robots, automobiles, and other mobile or stationary equipment
 Fuel injectors in engines of automobiles, trucks, and locomotives
 Biomedical prosthesis devices for artificial hearts, limbs, ears, and other organs
 Head positioners for computer disk drives
 Loudspeakers.
 Contactors, circuit breakers, and relays to control electric motors and other equipment
 Switchgear and relays for electric power transmission and distribution

Advantages of magnetic actuators

 High actuation force and stroke (displacement)

 Direct, fully linear transduction (in the case of electrodynamic actuation)
 Bi-directional actuation
 Contactless remote actuation
 Low-voltage actuation
  A figure of merit for actuators is the density of field energy that can be stored in the gap between the
rotor and stator. Magnetic actuation has a potentially high energy density.

Issues with magnetic actuation

 High-power dissipation. This is a major problem for magnetic MEMS, but work is underway to circumvent
this.
 Fabrication of the coil
 Integration of the micromagnet into the MEMS device
 Process-material compatibility
 Integra ability into the overall microfabrication process (maintain cost and throughput)
 So that preexisting processes in the fabrication of the MEMS device will not be tampered with, deposition
temperatures and post-deposition treatment/conditions must be tolerable. Also, the micromagnet must be able
to withstand any chemical treatment that will come after its deposition
 Issues with magnetization (One may want to have more than one direction of magnetization; this creates a
problem)