Signals and Systems
Classification of signals
Continuous-time signal
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Discrete-time signal
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
1
Periodicity
Let x(t) be an expression of a signal. The signal x(t) is periodic if
x(t ) = x(t ± nT ), n ∈ℤ
Non-periodic signal
x(t ) ≠ x(t ± nT ), n ∈ℤ
Deterministic/random
A deterministic signal can be described explicitly using a
mathematical expression at any point of time in its domain.
x(t ) = cos(100π t )
e.g.
x(t ) = e−2t + e − t + cos(2π t )
A random signal cannot be predicted precisely at any point in time.
However, probabilistic and statistical methods are used to
understand its effects.
2
Amplitude
-1
-2
-3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time
Figure: A random signal
2
Causality
A signal x(t) is called causal if the signal assumes a value of zero for
all instances of t less than zero.
x(t ), t≥0
x (t ) =
0, t<0
A signal that does not satisfy the above definition is non-causal.
Even/Odd signals
Even Signal: x(t ) = x(−t )
Odd signal: x(t ) = − x(−t )
Also, a signal x(t) can be expressed as a combination of even and odd
signals, i.e.,
x (t ) = xeven (t ) + xodd (t )
where
1
xeven (t ) = ( x(t ) + x(−t ) )
2
1
xodd (t ) = ( x(t ) − x(−t ) )
2
3
Energy/Power signals
A signal x(t) is called an energy type signal if the following integral is
defined and is finite.
∞ T
∫ ∫
2
2 2
E= x(t ) dt = lim x(t ) dt
T →∞
−∞ − T2
2
Note that for some real signal x(t), x(t ) = x 2 (t )
A signal is classified as a power type if the following integral is
defined and is finite.
1
T
∫
2
2
P = lim x(t ) dt
T →∞ T
− T2
i.e. x(t) is a power type is signal if 0 < P < ∞ .
NB.
1. Most periodic signals are power-type and their power is
expressed as
T
∫
1 2
2
P= x(t ) dt
T − T2
2. The energy content of a periodic signal is infinite. Hence, a
signal cannot be a power-type and an energy-type, at the same
time.
4
Some basic signals
The complex exponential signal
x(t ) = Aeα t , A,α ∈ℂ
Consider the case where A,α ∈ℝ , then the signal x(t) is called a real
exponential signal.
5
Let x(t ) = Ae jωt , α = jω
x(t) is now called a complex exponential
Is x(t) periodic?
x(t ) = x(t ± nT )
= Ae jω ( t ±nT )
= Ae jωt e ± jωnT
= Ae jωt
6
The unit step function
1, t ∈(0, ∞)
u (t ) = 12 , t =0
0, t < (−∞,0)
u (t )
1
2
The signum signal
1, t ∈ (0, ∞)
sgn(t ) = −1, t ∈ (−∞,0)
0, t =0
sgn(t )
−1
7
The rectangular pulse signal
The rectangular pulse signal is defined by
1, t ∈(− 12 , 12 )
∏ (t ) = 12 , t = ± 12
0, elsewhere
∏ (t )
1
2
t
− 12 1
2
The triangular signal
1 − t , t ∈ (0, 1)
Λ(t ) = t + 1, t ∈ (−1, 0)
0, elsewhere
Λ (t )
t
−1 1
8
The sinc signal
sin(π t )
, t ≠0
sinc(t ) = π t
1, t =0
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
The unit-impulse signal
δ (t )
∫δ τ
du (t )
δ (t ) = u (t ) = ( )dτ
dt
−∞
9
Classification of systems
A signal x(t) can be transformed into another signal y(t) after passing
through some system.
x(t ) y (t )
One can use the following notation to indicate an input-output
relationship of the system
x(t ) → y (t )
A continuous-time system
x(t ) y (t )
A discrete-time system: x[ n] → y[ n]
x[n] y[n]
10
Linearity
A system is linear if for some inputs x1 (t ) and x2 (t ) , and their
respective outputs of the system, y1 (t ) and y2 (t ) , a linear
combination of the inputs should give a linear combination of the
individual outputs. i.e.
if x1 (t ) → y1 (t )
x2 (t ) → y2 (t )
then α x1 (t ) + β x2 (t ) → α y1 (t ) + β y2 (t )
Example.
11
Time invariance
A system is described as time-invariant if for some time translation of
the input signal, the output signal is also translated by the same
amount.
if x (t ) → y (t )
then x (t − to ) → y (t − to ) , for some to
Causality
A system is said to be causal if the output at any time to depends on
value of the input at t= to and t < to
12
