Echo Sounder – Principle, Working &

Errors
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One of the dangers faced by a ship is that of running aground. Usually, a vessel
determines its position by means of GPS, Radar, Decca, Loran or visual bearings. The
depth of water is checked from the echo sounder just as a matter of routine to see that
the depth obtained matches with that show on the chart. However when the position is
not accurately known while approaching the port, or crossing over a bar, or near the
mouth of a river, or in a poorly surveyed area, the under-keel clearance and depth of
water needs to be known. The echo sounder comes in handy in such situation.

An Echo Sounder is a type of SONAR (Sound Navigation And Ranging) device used to
determine the depth of water by transmitting sound pulses into water

Principle
It works on the principle of transmitting sound waves from ship’s bottom and then
measuring the time taken for the echo to be returned from sea. If the velocity of sound
in water is known the time will be proportional to the distance travelled.

The time taken by the waves to travel to and from the seabed is measured and depth
can be determined, by the formula Distance=Velocity x Time/2
Reason for using sound waves
For using the principle of ranging it is necessary to send some for energy signal and
measure the time duration for its reflection to arrive. In case of echo sounder, the signal
cannot be electromagnetic, as there is heavy attenuation in water. It cannot be light
because water is not transparent and there is no mirror-like reflecting surface at the
seabed. Sound propagation is by setting up vibrations in the medium. Water is virtually
incompressible so if vibrations of very small magnitude are set up they can travel great
distances.

Creation of sound waves

This can be done by two methods viz. magnetostriction and electrostriction.

Magnetostriction
Ferromagnetic material such as iron, cobalt, nickel experience change in length when
placed in a magnetic field. This occurs due to the rearranging of the domains or
molecules within the material.
In case of iron and cobalt the change in length is expansion and then contraction but in
case of nickel, it is the only contraction. Nickel is more commonly used, as its change
per unit length is highest of all. The process is also reversible; meaning that if the length
of such materials is changed it will create a magnetic field around itself. The change in
length will take place even if the direction of the field is reversed. Therefore, if an
alternating current is used to create the field then the frequency of nickel contraction will
be double of that of the current. This handicap is overcome by using a permanent
magnet to create a magnetic bias. The field created by the alternating current will either
increase or decrease but it never changes direction. If bias field says 5 units and the
current creates a field of 4 units then the results will vary between 1 and 9 units.
Frequencies up to a few hundred kHz are therefore possible with magnetostriction.

Electrostriction
Crystals of certain materials like lead zirconate, lead titanate and barium titanate and
quartz etc. experience potential between two faces when the crystal is stressed.

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If a face gets a positive charge on compression, then it will get a negative charge if
tensional force is applied. This property is also reversible i.e. if the potential is applied to
two faces the crystal will experience tensional or compressive forces leading to change
in dimension. For a given crystal the change in dimension is maximum along a
particular axis. So while cutting a crystal care is to taken see that the faces selected will
provide a maximum amplitude of vibration. The natural frequency of vibration will
depend upon physical dimensions of the slice. For creating very high frequency a very
thin slice is used. Frequencies up to 1 MHz are possible.

Working
The acoustic pulses of very short duration are transmitted vertically at the rate of 5 to
600 pulses per minute having a beam width of 12 to 25°. These pulses strike the
seabed and get reflected back towards the receiving transducer as echoes. These
received echoes are converted into electrical signals by the receiving transducer and
after passing through the different stages of the receiver, the current is supplied to the
stylus which bums out the coating of the thin layer of aluminium powder and produces a
black mark on the paper indicating the depth of the seabed.

Errors of the Echo Sounder

1. The velocity of propagation in water The velocity of acoustic wave changes if
temperature, salinity or pressure changes and since velocity is not correct, the
depth recorded will be inaccurate.
2. Stylus speed error: The stylus is rotating with a certain constant speed and the
speed of the stylus that the time is taken for the stylus to travel from top to bottom
is exactly equal to that for an acoustic pulse to travel twice the distance of the
range selected. Due to the fluctuation in the voltage, the speed of the stylus motor
changes hence the depth recorded Will be inaccurate. It should be checked
periodically and adjusted as per the instruction is given in the manual.
 3. Multipath Echoes: The echo may be reflected a number of times between the keel
and the seabed, thereby giving multiple depth marks on the record, in such case
the first echo is the correct depth.
4. Pythagoras error: This error is found when two transducers are used one for
transmission and other for reception.
5. Thermal and Density layer. The density of the water varies with temperature and
salinity, which will tend to form different layers. It is possible for echoes to return
from the surface of these layers and a faint line appears between zero and actual
depth.
6. Zero line adjustment error If the zero adjustment is not correct, the depth recorded
will not be correct.

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What are an Echo Graph and Echometer?

Echo Graph
It consists of paper coated with aluminium or other good conductors, stylus, belt,
conducting bar, sensors, actuator magnet, time delay unit and trigger unit. Paper may
be graduated or a scale may be provided next to it. Calibration is in metres.

When the actuator magnet passes over the sensor, the sensor sends a signal to trigger
unit. This activates transmitter after a time delay, which feeds high voltage signal to
transducer for onward transmission of sound waves. The transmitter also sends a weak
electrical impulse to stylus via the conducting rail. The stylus moves over a paper which
is coated with electrically conductive material and which moves over a metal plate. The
electrical impulse carried by stylus causes a layer of paper to be burned off making a
mark on the paper. This mark coincides with the zero of graduation. The time delay is
such that the mark on the paper is made to coincide with departure of sound wave from
the transducer. When the echo returns the mechanical vibrations set up electrical
signal, which is fed to the stylus. The stylus makes a second mark on the paper. The
depth can be read from the graduation s on the paper or by help of a scale, which is
next to the stylus. If echo were received after the stylus has gone past the paper area
there would be no visible indication. In other words the movement of the stylus outside
paper area will be unutilised. In order to put this to use more than one sensor is fitted. In
the figure three sensors are shown. By selecting sensor No.2 the actuator will activate
the transmitter before the stylus has reached the zero mark. The echo will be received
while the stylus is on the paper. If at sensor No.1 the range is say 0-50 m. at sensor 2 it
50-100 and sensor 3 it is 100-150 m. Thus if the seabed is 75 m. from the keel the
stylus will make a mark at halfway on the paper provided sensor 2 is in use. While using
sensor s 2 or 3 there is no zero mark indication.

Related Article: Magnetic Compass & Ship Magnetism - Simplified Explanation

This method of increasing the range is called ‘phasing’ because the start of the pulse is
not synchronised (not in phase) with the position of the stylus on zero line on the paper.
Another way of increasing the range is by changing the speed of stylus. Suppose the
speed of stylus is reduced to 1/4th then it will take four times the time to travel the
length of the paper. With speed of sound remaining unchanged the paper will then
represent a range of 0-200 (four times of 0-50), while on sensor 1, 200-400 on sensor 2
and 400-600 meters. on sensor 3.

The control switch, which changes the stylus speed, also changes the duration of pulse,
pulse repetition rate (PRR) and the time delay for making the zero mark. Pulse will be
longer, PRR will be smaller and time delay will be increased, as the stylus will take a
longer time to reach the zero line. Echo meters usually use a combination of phasing as
well as the change of stylus speed, to achieve a wide detection range and retain good
resolution at short and medium ranges.

Echometer
This gives an analogue or digital readout of the soundings.