By
Anshuman Shukla
October 27th, 2007
What is analog device?
A analog device is a device which is designed to
operate over a continuous range of voltage/current.
All natural quantities are analog by default; all
measurements are digital!
Characteristics are defined in term of voltage-current
relation (temporal response) or frequency response.
Ex: radio, fan, etc.
Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a material which is neither a
conductor nor an insulator.
Somewhat similar to resistors.
P type: contains electron deficient ‘impurities’; acts as
(+)ve charge.
N type: contains electron rich ‘impurities’; acts as
(-)ve charge.
Isolated P or N type material has no appreciable
characteristics.
Diode
A diode is the simplest semiconductor devices,
formed by joining one N type and one P type material.
Electrical properties: I D = I S (eV / nV - 1)
D T
IS = reverse saturation or scaling current
VT = thermal voltage (=25.7mV at 300K)
VD,ID = voltage & current across the diode
Forward bias: when N side (e- rich) is at connected to
negative terminal of battery.
Reverse bias: when N side (e- rich) is at connected to
positive terminal of battery.
Diode characteristics
Diode in forward bias
Linear model: battery + resistance
iD = (vD-VD0)/rD
~0.7V ~20 Ohm
Values shown is figure are for illustration only; not for analysis.
Small signal model
rd = nVT/ID
Bipolar Junction Transistor
A BJT is a 3 terminal device (Emitter, Base &
Collector), which contains two junction. Hence on
the basis of structure, there are two types of BJTs:
NPN
PNP
General Configuration
There are three types of general configurations:
Common Emitter (most popular)
Common Base
Common Collector
The classification is based on the terminal used as
‘common’ between input and output.
1. Common 1. Common 1. Common
emitter base collector
Analysis of CE configuration
A BJT has following regions of operation:
Cut-off
Active
Saturation
Inverse
Cut-off region is defined by Base-emitter voltage.
All other regions are defined by Collector-Emitter
voltage.
The onward analysis is done by taking a NPN transistor into consideration.
The cut-off region
A BJT is said to be in cut-off region if base-emitter
voltage drops below a certain value, Vt.
Although the current through transistor is very small,
still it is non-zero.
Ideal cut-off is only achieved when the base current
becomes zero; or the base is open circuited.
Very small and equal reverse saturation current exists
between collector-base and base-emitter, which means
that base-emitter voltage may not be zero! (very small
although)
The active region
A BJT is said to be in active region if base-emitter
junction is fully forward biased and collector-
emitter voltage is greater that a certain value,
VCEsat (which is close to zero).
Collector acts as a perfect current sink (or source
for PNP), which means; the collector voltage is
decided entirely by the load NOT by transistor.
These relations hold true:
IC = b I B where b is collector-base current gain.
I E = (b + 1) I B Value ranges from 10-50 upto 600-700!
Base-emitter junction acts as a diode; offering a
resistance of b re as ‘seen’ from base. The value of
base-emitter resistancere is computed from the
diode resistance model equation;nVT / I E
Through out the active region, the base-emitter
voltage is fairly constant owing to logarithmic
relationship with current.
Active region model
T – model
IC
ro
IB IC = b I B
I E = (b + 1) I B
re
IE
Active region model
p – model
IC IC
ro ro
IB IB ro IC
IB
(b + 1)
(b + 1) re re
b
re (b + 1)re = rp
IE ro
I
T Model IE
E
IC = b I B p Model
I E = (b + 1) I B
The saturation region
A BJT is said to be in saturation region if base-
emitter junction is fully forward biased and
collector-emitter voltage is less that VCEsat .
Collector no more acts as a perfect current sink
(or source).
The collector-base relationship is:
I C = s b I B , where 0<s <1
s is not a constant, it depends on collector-
emitter voltage; but collector voltage depends on
collector current, which in-turn depends ons !
The inverse region
A BJT is said to be in saturation region if
collector-base junction is forward biased!
Analysis may be done by assuming collector as
emitter and vice-versa.
Mostly used in TTL logic gates in common base
type configuration in input stage to offer very high
input impedance!
BJT characteristics
Small signal analysis….?
The circuit components are biased with a DC voltage,
to ensure that the region of operation is ‘active’.
Input signal to be processed (eg: amplified) is a AC
signal, satisfying following conditions:
|Vmax|, |Vmin| << Vbias
The output voltage swing should not drive the
transistor into saturation.
Quiescent point: DC voltage and current
Small signal analysis of CE amp.
ac model
Not working…??
Most common error in output is distortion; one cycle
of waveform is correct, the other one distorted.
Responsible factors: transistor saturation and non-
linearity of base-emitter junction.
Operation amplifier
Equivalent opamp circuit:
Common error diagnosis
Finite output resistance.
Input/Output offset voltage
Common mode gain.
Output saturation.
Feedback
Negative feedback
A proportion of output is subtracted from input.
Often results in virtual short condition between input
terminals of a differential input amplifier; but is NOT
necessary!
Positive feedback
A proportion of output is added to input.
Results in saturation at output.
Useful in designing oscillators.
Negative feedback
Common applications are: inverting/non-inverting
amplifiers, integrator, differentiator, etc.
Errors: oscillations instead of virtual short.
Positive feedback
Common applications are oscillators.
Theoretically, oscillator are highly frequency selective
circuit, which amplify some particular frequencies to
infinity, others to zero.
A simple square wave generator.
Wien-bridge oscillator
For finite output, virtual
short condition should be
satisfied.
The equation are:
Vo
V- =
3 + j ( RC w - 1/ RC w)
Vo
V+ =
1 + RF / RL
For stable oscillations:
V- = V+ , which gives
RF = 2 RL & w = 1/ RC
