Structured Systems Analysis and Design

CONTENTS
INRODUCTION 1
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEMS
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Unit Objectives
1.2 Effective Communication in Systems Analysis
1.3 Expert Systems
1.3.1 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
1.3.2 Supply Chain Management (SCM)
1.3.3 Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
1.4 Problem Definitions
1.5 Tools of Systems Analysis
1.5.1 Data Flow Diagrams
1.5.2 Data Dictionary
1.6 Process Organization and Interaction
1.7 Decision Tables
1.7.1 Developing Decision Table
1.8 Decision Trees
1.8.1 Practical Example of a Decision Tree
1.9 Data Collection
1.9.1 Requirements Analysis and Specification
1.10 Data Analysis
1.11 Summary
1.12 Key Terms
1.13 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
1.14 Questions and Exercises
UNIT 2 SYSTEM PLANNING AND ALTERNATIVES
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Unit Objectives
2.2 Understanding System Planning
2.3 System Design Consideration
2.3.1 Processes and Stages of Systems Design
2.3.2 Design Methodologies
2.4 User and Management Involvement
2.5 Project Selection
2.6 Systems Feasibility
2.7 Preliminary Investigation of Project Selection
2.8 Selection of a System Plan
2.9 Systems Proposal
2.10 Planning Alternatives
2.11 Summary
2.12 Key Terms
2.13 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
2.14 Questions and Exercises

UNIT 3 SYSTEM COST DETERMINATION

3.0 Introduction
3.1 Unit Objectives
3.2 System Cost and System Benefit
3.3 Costs and Benefits Analysis/Identification
3.3.1 Principles of Cost-Benefit Analysis
3.4 Data Processing Cost
3.4.1 Cost Centre Concept Data Processing
3.5 Summary
3.6 Key Terms
3.7 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
3.8 Questions and Exercises
UNIT 4 A STRUCTURED APPROACH TO SYSTEM DESIGN
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Unit Objectives
4.2 Structured Design
4.2.1 Structured Top-down and Bottom-up Design
4.3 Logical Design Requirements
4.4 Auditable Systems
4.4.1 Level-to-Level Validation
4.4.2 Data Validation
4.4.3 Process-to-Process Validation
4.4.4 Zero-Based Evaluation
4.4.5 Audit Trails
4.4.6 Monitoring
4.4.7 Transaction Processing Controls
4.4.8 Application Controls
4.4.9 Preventative, Detective and Corrective Controls
4.5 Forms Requirement Design
4.6 CRT Screen Design
4.7 Program Specification
4.7.1 Differences between a Program and a Software Product
4.7.2 Differences between a Program Manager and a Project Manager
4.7.3 Project Planning Approaches
4.7.4 Role of a Manager as a Problem Solver
4.7.5 Structured Programming
4.8 Development Completion Schedule
4.9 Data Administration
4.10 Structured Walkthroughs
4.11 Summary
4.12 Key Terms
4.13 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
4.14 Questions and Exercises
UNIT 5 PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Unit Objectives
5.2 Project Management
5.2.1 Challenges of Technical Management
5.2.2 Objectives of Project Management
5.2.3 Changes in the Management Framework over the Years
5.2.4 Responsibilities of a Software Project Manager
5.2.5 Skills Necessary for Software Project Management
5.2.6 Organizational Structure
5.2.7 Advantages of Functional Organization over Project Organization
5.2.8 Unsuitability of Functional Format in Small Organizations
5.2.9 Team Structures
5.3 Project Development Standards
5.4 Project Control
5.5 Project Tool
5.6 Diagrams and Charts
5.6.1 Diagrams
5.6.2 Charts
5.6.3 Gantt Charts
5.6.4 PERT
5.6.5 Critical Path Method (CPM)
5.7 Project Evaluation
5.7.1 Allocation of Resources
5.7.2 Evaluation Techniques, Cost-benefit Analysis and Risk Evaluation
5.8 Software Project Management
5.8.1 Project Management
5.8.2 Process Management
5.8.3 Configuration Management
5.8.4 Change Management
5.8.5 Software Project Planning
5.8.6 Metric for Project Size Estimation
5.9 Summary
5.10 Key Terms
5.11 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
5.12 Questions and Exercises
UNIT 6 SYSTEM CONVERSION AND IMPLEMENTATION
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Unit Objectives
6.2 Planning Considerations
6.2.1 Steps in Software Project Planning
6.3 Conversion Methods
6.4 Conversion and Operation Plans
6.5 System Follow-up
6.6 Quality Assurance of New System
6.7 Summary
6.8 Key Terms
6.9 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
6.10 Questions and Exercises

Mathematical Foundations of Computer Science

INTRODUCTION 1
UNIT 1 ALGORITHMS
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Unit Objectives
1.2 Algorithms: An Introduction
1.2.1 Definition, Characteristics and Properties of Algorithms
1.2.2 Types of Algorithms
1.2.3 Areas of Research in the Study of Algorithms
1.2.4 Algorithm for Sequential Search
1.2.5 Algorithms as Technology
1.2.6 Algorithms and Other Technologies
1.2.7 Measuring the Running Time of an Algorithm
1.2.8 Algorithm Design Strategies
1.2.9 Analysis of Algorithms
1.2.10 Merits and Demerits of Algorithm
1.2.11 Flowchart and Algorithms
1.2.12 Designing an Algorithm using Flowcharts
1.3 Exponentiation
1.3.1 How to Compute Exponentiation Fast?
1.4 Linear Search
1.4.1 Algorithm for Linear Search
1.4.2 Analysis of Linear Search algorithm
1.5 Binary Search
1.5.1 The Search Method
1.5.2 Algorithm for Binary Search
1.5.3 Analysis of Binary Search Algorithm
1.5.4 Fibonacci Search
1.6 Big Oh Notation (or Big O Notation)
1.6.1 Properties of the Big O Notation
1.6.2 General Rules
1.6.3 Finding Prime Factor of a Given Number
1.6.4 List of Prime Numbers
1.7 Worst Case
1.8 Advantage of Logarithmic Algorithms Over Linear Algorithms
1.9 Complexity
1.9.1 Space Complexity
1.9.2 Time Complexity
1.9.3 Practical Complexities
1.9.4 Performance Measurement
1.10 Algorithm Representation through a Pseudocode
1.10.1 Coding
1.10.2 Program Development Steps
1.10.3 Software Testing
1.11 Amortized Analysis
1.12 Summary
1.13 Key Terms
1.14 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
1.15 Questions and Exercises
1.16 Further Reading
UNIT 2 GRAPH THEORY
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Unit Objectives
2.2 Graphs: Types and Operations
2.2.1 Bipartite Graphs
2.2.2 Subgraph
2.2.3 Distance in a Graph
2.2.4 Cut-Vertices and Cut-Edges
2.2.5 Graph Connectivity
2.2.6 Isomorphic Graphs
2.2.7 Homeographic Graphs
2.2.8 Cut-Sets and Connectivity of Graphs
2.2.9 Operations on Graphs
2.3 Degree of Vertex
2.4 Adjacent and Incidence Matrices
2.5 Path Circuit
2.5.1 Floyd’s and Warshall’s Algorithms
2.5.2 Eulerian Path and Circuit
2.5.3 Hamiltonian Graphs
2.6 Graph Colouring
2.6.1 Four Colour Theorem
2.7 Summary
2.8 Key Terms
2.9 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
2.10 Questions and Exercises
2.11 Further Reading
UNIT 3 TREES
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Unit Objectives
3.2 Trees: Basics
3.2.1 Trees and Sorting
3.3 Minimum Height and Minimum Distance Spanning Trees
3.3.1 Depth-First Search and Breadth-First Search
3.3.2 Optimal Spanning Graph
3.4 Planar Graphs
3.5 Summary
3.6 Key Terms
3.7 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
3.8 Questions and Exercises
3.9 Further Reading
UNIT 4 RECURSION
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Unit Objectives
4.2 Mergesort
4.3 Insertion Sort
4.4 Bubble Sort and Selection Sort
4.4.1 Bubble Sort
4.4.2 Selection Sort
4.5 Binary and Decimal Numbers
4.5.1 Binary Number System
4.5.2 Decimal Number System
4.5.3 Binary to Decimal Conversion
4.5.4 Decimal to Binary Conversion
4.5.5 Double-Dabble Method
4.5.6 Decimal Fraction to Binary
4.6 Recursion and Recurrence Relations
4.6.1 Recursion and Iteration
4.6.2 Closed Form Expression
4.6.3 Sequence of Integers
4.6.4 Recurrence Relations
4.6.5 Linear Homogenous Recurrence Relations (LHRR)
4.6.6 Solving Linear Homogeneous Recurrence Relations
4.6.7 Solving Linear Non-Homogeneous Recurrence Relations
4.6.8 Linear Homogeneous Recurrence Relations with Constant Coefficient (LHRRWCC)
4.6.9 Divide and Conquer Recurrence Relation (DCRR)
4.7 Recursive Procedures
4.7.1 Functional Recursion
4.7.2 Recursive Proofs
4.7.3 The Recursion Theorem
4.7.4 Infinite Sequences
4.7.5 Recursive Function and Primitive Recursive Function
4.8 Summary
4.9 Key Terms
4.10 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
4.11 Questions and Exercises
4.12 Further Reading
UNIT 5 NUMBER THEORY
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Unit Objectives
5.2 Number Theory: Basics
5.2.1 Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
5.2.2 Prime Numbers
5.2.3 Division Algorithms
5.2.4 Divisibility
5.2.5 Absolute Value
5.2.6 Order and Inequalities
5.3 Greatest Common Divisor
5.3.1 Linear Diophantine Equation
5.4 Euclidean Algorithm
5.5 Fibonacci Numbers
5.6 Congruences and Equivalence Relations
5.6.1 Congruences Relations
5.6.2 Equivalence Relations
5.7 Public Key Encryption Schemes
5.7.1 Message Authentication Code
5.7.2 Digital Structure
5.8 Summary
5.9 Key Terms
5.10 Answer to ‘Check Your Progress’
5.11 Questions and Exercises
5.12 Further Reading

Digital Electronics

INRODUCTION
UNIT 1 BASICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Unit Objectives
1.2 Crystalline Structure of the Solids
1.2.1 Crystal Structure
1.2.2 Crystal Lattice
1.3 Band Theory of Solids
1.4 Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors
1.4.1 Semiconductor Basics
1.4.2 Types of Semiconductors
1.5 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors
1.6 Summary
1.7 Key Terms
1.8 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
1.9 Questions and Exercises
1.10 Further Reading
UNIT 2 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Unit Objectives
2.2 Formation of PN Junction and Depletion Layer
2.3 Biasing of a PN Junction
2.3.1 Types of Biasing Condition
2.3.2 Zener Diode
2.4 PN Diodes as Amplifier
2.4.1 PN Diode as a Rectifier
2.5 Summary
2.6 Key Terms
2.7 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
2.8 Questions and Exercises
2.9 Further Reading
UNIT 3 JUNCTION TRANSISTORS
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Unit Objectives
3.2 Formation of Junction Transistors
3.3 Bipolar Junction Transistor Basics
3.3.1 Bipolar Transistor Construction
3.3.2 Operating Modes of the BJT
3.4 Various Junction Transistor Configurations
3.4.1 Common Base Configuration
3.4.2 Common Base Amplifier Circuit
3.4.3 Common Emitter Configuration
3.4.4 The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit
3.4.5 The Common Collector Configuration
3.4.6 The Common Collector Amplifier Circuit
3.5 PNP Transistors
3.5.1 Working of P-N-P Transistor
3.6 NPN Transistors
3.6.1 Working of an N-P-N Transistor
3.7 Transistor Working as a Switch and as an Amplifier
3.8 Various Gains of Junction Transistors
3.9 Summary
3.10 Key Terms
3.11 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
3.12 Questions and Exercises
3.13 Further Reading
UNIT 4 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Unit Objectives
4.2 Number Systems
4.2.1 Binary Number System
4.2.2 Octal Number System
4.2.3 Hexadecimal Number System
4.2.4 Transformations between Bases
4.3 Boolean Algebra
4.4 Boolean Functions
4.5 Duals and Complements of Boolean Functions
4.6 Canonical and Standard Forms
4.7 Boolean Theorems and Postulates
4.8 Algebraic Manipulation of Boolean Function
4.9 Summary
4.10 Key Terms
4.11 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
4.12 Questions and Exercises
4.13 Further Reading
UNIT 5 BASIC GATES
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Unit Objectives
5.2 Basic Digital Concepts
5.3 Logic Inputs and Outputs
5.4 Basic Logic Gates
5.4.1 Understanding Truth Tables
5.4.2 AND Gate
5.4.3 OR Gate
5.4.4 NOT Gate
5.5 Derived Gates
5.5.1 NAND Gate
5.5.2 NOR Gate
5.5.3 Exclusive-OR, or XOR Gate
5.5.4 Ex-NOR Gate
5.6 Positive and Negative Logic
5.6.1 General Logic
5.6.2 Positive Logic
5.6.3 Negative Logic
5.7 Summary
5.8 Key Terms
5.9 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
5.10 Questions and Exercises
5.11 Further Reading
UNIT 6 SIMPLIFICATION OF BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Unit Objectives
6.2 Karnaugh Map
6.3 The K-Map Simplification
6.4 Mapping of Boolean Functions on a K-Map
6.5 Simplification of Boolean Functions
6.5.1 Inverse Function
6.5.2 Simplifying Functions Using K-Maps
6.6 Product of Sum Simplification
6.7 Don’t Care Conditions
6.8 Summary
6.9 Key Terms
6.10 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
6.11 Questions and Exercises
6.12 Further Reading
UNIT 7 COMBINATIONAL CIRCUITS
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Unit Objectives
7.2 Combinational Logic Design
7.2.1 Evaluation of the Design of a Combination Circuit
7.3 Arithmetic Logic Circuits
7.3.1 Half Adder
7.3.2 Full Adder
7.3.3 Parallel Adders
7.3.4 Carry-Lookahead Adder
7.3.5 Subtractor
7.4 Magnitude Comparator, Encoder and Decoder
7.4.1 Magnitude Comparator
7.4.2 Encoder and Decoder
7.5 Multiplexer and Demultiplexer
7.6 Implementation of Boolean Function with MUX
7.7 Summary
7.8 Key Terms
7.9 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
7.10 Questions and Exercises
7.11 Further Reading
UNIT 8 SEQUENTIAL DIGITAL SYSTEMS
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Unit Objectives
8.2 One bit Storage Cell
8.2.1 Sequential Logic Basics
8.2.2 Synchronous and Asynchronous Sequential Logic
8.3 Sequential Logic Circuit
8.4 Flip-Flops
8.4.1 NAND Gate Flip Flops
8.4.2 NOR Gate Flip Flops
8.4.3 SR Flip-Flop
8.4.4 Gated or Clocked SR Flip-Flop
8.4.5 The JK Flip-Flop
8.4.6 Master-Slave JK Flip-Flop
8.4.7 Data Latch
8.5 Frequency Division
8.6 Transparent Data Latch
8.7 Summary
8.8 Key Terms
8.9 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
8.10 Questions and Exercises
8.11 Further Reading
UNIT 9 SHIFT REGISTER
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Unit Objectives
9.2 Shift Registers
9.2.1 Serial-In to Parallel-Out
9.2.2 Serial-In to Serial-Out
9.2.3 Parallel-In to Serial-Out
9.2.4 Parallel-In to Parallel-Out
9.2.5 Bi-directional Shift Registers
9.3 Applications of Shift Registers
9.4 Counters
9.4.1 Asynchronous (Ripple) Counters
9.4.2 Synchronous Counters
9.5 Summary
9.6 Key Terms
9.7 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
9.8 Questions and Exercises
9.9 Further Reading
UNIT 10 MULTIVIBRATORS
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Unit Objectives
10.2 Application of Logic Gates in Timing Circuits
10.2.1 Monostable Circuits
10.2.2 Astable Circuits
10.2.3 Bistable Circuits
10.3 Operation of Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)
10.3.1 Ideal Operational Amplifier
10.4 Op-Amp Types
10.4.1 Inverting Amplifier
10.4.2 Non-Inverting Amplifier
10.4.3 Summing Amplifier
10.4.4 Differential Amplifier
10.4.5 Instrumentation Amplifier
10.4.6 The Integrator Amplifier
10.4.7 The AC or Continuous Integrator
10.4.8 The Differentiator Amplifier
10.4.9 Improved Differentiator Amplifier
10.5 Schmitt Trigger
10.5.1 Comparator Implementation
10.5.2 Applications
10.6 Summary
10.7 Key Terms
10.8 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
10.9 Questions and Exercises
10.10 Further Reading
UNIT 11 ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Unit Objectives
11.2 Error Detection Codes
11.3 Check Sums
11.4 Error Correcting Codes
11.5 Hamming Codes
11.6 Detecting and Correcting an Error
11.7 Solved Problems
11.8 Summary
11.9 Key Terms
11.10 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
11.11 Questions and Exercises
11.12 Further Reading
UNIT 12 PROCESSOR AND CONTROL LOGIC DESIGN
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Unit Objectives
12.2 Arithmetic Logic Unit
12.2.1 Design of Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
12.3 Organization of CPU Control Registers
12.3.1 Organization of Registers in Different Computers
12.3.2 Status and Control Registers
12.3.3 Issues Related to Register Sets
12.4 Hardwired Control
12.4.1 Hardwired Control Unit
12.5 Microprogram Control
12.5.1 Microprogrammed Control Unit ( MCU)
12.5.2 Writable Control Store
12.5.3 Organization of Control Memory
12.5.4 Address Sequencing
12.5.5 Opcode Mapping
12.5.6 Examples of Microprogramming
12.6 Hardwired vs Microprogrammed Computers
12.7 Summary
12.8 Key Terms
12.9 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
12.10 Questions and Exercises
12.11 Further Reading