Viscometer:-

A viscometer (also called viscosimeter) is an instrument used to measure the viscosity of a fluid. For

liquids with viscosities which vary with flow conditions, an instrument called arheometer is used.
Viscometers only measure under one flow condition.

In general, either the fluid remains stationary and an object moves through it, or the object is stationary
and the fluid moves past it. The drag caused by relative motion of the fluid and a surface is a measure of
the viscosity. The flow conditions must have a sufficiently small value of Reynolds number for there to
be laminar flow.

At 20.00 degrees Celsius the viscosity of water is 1.002 mPa·s and its kinematic viscosity (ratio of
viscosity to density) is 1.0038 mm2/s. These values are used for calibrating certain types of viscometer.

Standard laboratory viscometers for liquids

U-tube viscometers
These devices also are known as glass capillary viscometers or Ostwald viscometers, named
after Wilhelm Ostwald. Another version is the Ubbelohde viscometer, which consists of a U-shaped glass
tube held vertically in a controlled temperature bath. In one arm of the U is a vertical section of precise
narrow bore (the capillary). Above this is a bulb, with it is another bulb lower down on the other arm. In
use, liquid is drawn into the upper bulb by suction, then allowed to flow down through the capillary into the
lower bulb. Two marks (one above and one below the upper bulb) indicate a known volume. The time
taken for the level of the liquid to pass between these marks is proportional to the kinematic viscosity.
Most commercial units are provided with a conversion factor, or can be calibrated by a fluid of known
properties.

The time required for the test liquid to flow through a capillary of a known diameter of a certain factor
between two marked points is measured. By multiplying the time taken by the factor of the viscometer, the
kinematic viscosity is obtained.

Such viscometers are also classified as direct flow or reverse flow. Reverse flow viscometers have the
reservoir above the markings and direct flow are those with the reservoir below the markings. Such
classifications exists so that the level can be determined even when opaque or staining liquids are
measured, otherwise the liquid will cover the markings and make it impossible to gauge the time the level
passes the mark. This also allows the viscometer to have more than 1 set of marks to allow for an
immediate timing of the time it takes to reach the 3rd mark, therefore yielding 2 timings and allowing for
subsequent calculation of Determinability to ensure accurate results.]
Falling sphere viscometers

Stokes' law is the basis of the falling sphere viscometer, in which the fluid is stationary in a vertical glass
tube. A sphere of known size and density is allowed to descend through the liquid. If correctly selected, it
reaches terminal velocity, which can be measured by the time it takes to pass two marks on the tube.
Electronic sensing can be used for opaque fluids. Knowing the terminal velocity, the size and density of
the sphere, and the density of the liquid, Stokes' law can be used to calculate the viscosity of the fluid. A
series of steel ball bearings of different diameter is normally used in the classic experiment to improve the
accuracy of the calculation. The school experiment uses glycerine as the fluid, and the technique is used
industrially to check the viscosity of fluids used in processes. It includes many different oils,
and polymer liquids such as solutions.

In 1851, George Gabriel Stokes derived an expression for the frictional force (also called drag force)
exerted on spherical objects with very small Reynolds numbers(e.g., very small particles) in a
continuous viscous fluid by solving the small fluid-mass limit of the generally unsolvable Navier-Stokes
equations:

where:

 F is the frictional force,

 r is the radius of the spherical object,
 η is the fluid viscosity, and
 v is the particle's velocity.
If the particles are falling in the viscous fluid by their own weight, then a terminal velocity, also
known as the settling velocity, is reached when this frictional force combined with thebuoyant
 force exactly balance the gravitational force. The resulting settling velocity (or terminal velocity)
is given by:

where:

 Vs is the particles' settling velocity (m/s) (vertically downwards if ρp > ρf, upwards if ρp < ρf),
 r is the Stokes radius of the particle (m),
 g is the gravitational acceleration (m/s2),
 ρp is the density of the particles (kg/m3),
 ρf is the density of the fluid (kg/m3), and
 μ is the (dynamic) fluid viscosity (Pa s).
Note that Stokes flow is assumed, so the Reynolds number must be small.

A limiting factor on the validity of this result is the Roughness of the sphere being
used.

A modification of the straight falling sphere viscometer is a rolling ball viscometer

which times a ball roling down a slope whilst immersed in the test fluid. This can be
further improved by using a patented V plate which increases the number of
rotations to distance traveled, allowing smaller more portable devices. This type of
device is also suitable for ship board use.

Falling Piston Viscometer

Also known as Norcross viscometer due to inventor, Austin Norcross. Principle of viscosity measurement
in this rugged and sensitive industrial device is based on piston and cylinder assembly. Piston is
periodically raised by an air lifting mechanism, drawing the material being measured down through the
clearance(gap)between the piston and the wall of the cylinder into the space which is formed below the
piston as it is raised. The assembly is then typically held up for a few seconds, then allowed to fall by
gravity, expelling the sample out through the same path that it entered, creating a shearing effect on the
measured liquid, which makes this viscometer particularly sensitive and good for measuring certain
thixotropic liquids. The time of fall is a measure of viscosity, with the clearance between the piston and
inside of the cylinder forming the measuring orifice. The viscosity controller measures the time of fall
(Time-of-fall seconds being measure of viscosity) and displays the resulting viscosity value. Controller can
calibrate time-of-fall value to cup seconds(known efflux cup), SSU or centipoise.
Industrial use is popular due to simplicity, repeatability, low maintenance and longevity. This type of
measurement is not affected by flow rate or external vibrations. Principle of operation can be adopted for
many different conditions, making it ideal for process control environment.

Oscillating Piston Viscometer

Sometimes referred to as Electromagnetic Viscometer or EMV viscometer, was invented at Cambridge
Viscosity in 1986. The sensor (see figure below) comprises a measurement chamber and magnetically
influenced piston. Measurements are taken whereby a sample is first introduced into the thermally
controlled measurement chamber where the piston resides. Electronics drive the piston into oscillatory
motion within the measurement chamber with a controlled magnetic field. A shear stress is imposed on
the liquid (or gas) due to the piston travel and the viscosity is determined by measuring the travel time of
the piston. The construction parameters for the annular spacing between the piston and measurement
chamber, the strength of the electromagnetic field, and the travel distance of the piston are used to
calculate the viscosity according to Newton’s Law of Viscosity. 

The Oscillating Piston Viscometer technology has been adapted for small sample viscosity and micro-
sample viscosity testing in laboratory applications. It has also been adapted to measure high pressure
viscosity and high temperature viscosity measurements in both laboratory and process environments. The
viscosity sensors have been scaled for a wide range of industrial applications such as small size
viscometers for use in compressors and engines, flow-through viscometers for dip coating processes, in-
line viscometers for use in refineries, and hundreds of other applications. Improvements in sensitivity from
modern electronics, is stimulating a growth in Oscillating Piston Viscometer popularity with academic
laboratories exploring gas viscosity.

Vibrational viscometers
Vibrational viscometers date back to the 1950s Bendix instrument, which is of a class that operates by
measuring the damping of an oscillating electromechanical resonator immersed in a fluid whose viscosity
is to be determined. The resonator generally oscillates in torsion or transversely (as a cantilever beam or
tuning fork). The higher the viscosity, the larger the damping imposed on the resonator. The resonator's
damping may be measured by one of several methods:

Measuring the power input necessary to keep the oscillator vibrating at a constant amplitude. The higher
the viscosity, the more power is needed to maintain the amplitude of oscillation.Measuring the decay time
of the oscillation once the excitation is switched off. The higher the viscosity, the faster the signal decays.

Measuring the frequency of the resonator as a function of phase angle between excitation and response
waveforms. The higher the viscosity, the larger the frequency change for a given phase change.
The vibrational instrument also suffers from a lack of a defined shear field, which makes it unsuited to
measuring the viscosity of a fluid whose flow behaviour is not known before hand.

Vibrating viscometers are rugged industrial systems used to measure viscosity in the process condition.
The active part of the sensor is a vibrating rod. The vibration amplitude varies according to the viscosity of
the fluid in which the rod is immersed. These viscosity meters are suitable for measuring clogging fluid
and high-viscosity fluids, including those with fibers (up to 1,000 Pa·s). Currently, many industries around
the world consider these viscometers to be the most efficient system with which to measure the
viscosities of a wide range of fluids; by contrast, rotational viscometers require more maintenance, are
unable to measure clogging fluid, and require frequent calibration after intensive use. Vibrating
viscometers have no moving parts, no weak parts and the sensitive part is very small. Even very basic or
acidic fluids can be measured by adding a protective coating or by changing the material of the sensor to
a material such as 316L, SUS316, Hastelloy, or enamel.

Rotational viscometers
Rotational viscometers use the idea that the torque required to turn an object in a fluid is a function of the
viscosity of that fluid. They measure the torque required to rotate a disk or bob in a fluid at a known
speed.

'Cup and bob' viscometers work by defining the exact volume of a sample which is to be sheared within a
test cell; the torque required to achieve a certain rotational speed is measured and plotted. There are two
classical geometries in "cup and bob" viscometers, known as either the "Couette" or "Searle" systems -
distinguished by whether the cup or bob rotates. The rotating cup is preferred in some cases because it
reduces the onset of Taylor vortices, but is more difficult to measure accurately.

'Cone and Plate' viscometers use a cone of very shallow angle in bare contact with a flat plate. With this
system the shear rate beneath the plate is constant to a modest degree of precision and deconvolution of
a flow curve; a graph of shear stress (torque) against shear rate (angular velocity) yields the viscosity in a
straightforward manner.

Stabinger viscometer
By modifying the classic Couette rotational viscometer, an accuracy comparable to that of kinematic
viscosity determination is achieved. The internal cylinder in the Stabinger Viscometer is hollow and
specifically lighter than the sample, thus floats freely in the sample, centered bycentrifugal forces. The
formerly inevitable bearing friction is thus fully avoided. The speed and torque measurement is
implemented without direct contact by a rotating magnetic field and an eddy current brake. This allows for
a previously unprecedented torque resolution of 50 pN·mand an exceedingly large measuring range from
0.2 to 20,000 mPa·s with a single measuring system. A built-in density measurement based on
the oscillating U-tube principle allows the determination of kinematic viscosity from the measured dynamic
viscosity employing the relation

The Stabinger Viscometer was presented for the first time by Anton Paar GmbH at the ACHEMA in the
year 2000. The measuring principle is named after its inventor Dr. Hans Stabinger.

Stormer viscometer
The Stormer viscometer is a rotation instrument used to determine the viscosity of paints, commonly used
in paint industries. It consists of a paddle-type rotor that is spun by an internal motor, submerged into a
cylinder of viscous substance. The rotor speed can be adjusted by changing the amount of load supplied
onto the rotor. For example, in one brand of viscometers, pushing the level upwards decreases the load
and speed, downwards increases the load and speed.

The viscosity can be found by adjusting the load until the rotation velocity is 200 rotations per minute. By
examining the load applied and comparing tables found on ASTM D 562, one can find the viscosity
in Krebs units (KU), unique only to the Stormer type viscometer.This method is intended for paints applied
by brush or roller.

Bubble viscometer
Bubble viscometers are used to quickly determine kinematic viscosity of known liquids such as resins and
varnishes. The time required for an air bubble to rise is inversely proportional to the visosity of the liquid,
so the faster the bubble rises, the lower the viscosity. The Alphabetical Comparison Method uses 4 sets
of lettered reference tubes, A5 through Z10, of known viscosity to cover a viscosity range from 0.005 to
1,000 stokes. The Direct Time Method uses a single 3-line times tube for determining the "bubble
seconds", which may then be converted to stokes.[1]

Miscellaneous viscometer types

Other viscometer types use balls or other objects. Viscometers that can characterize non-Newtonian
fluids are usually called rheometers or plastometers.

In the I.C.I "Oscar" viscometer, a sealed can of fluid was oscillated torsionally, and by clever
measurement techniques it was possible to measure both viscosity and elasticity in the sample.