Unit 5

Sedimentation of Water Resources

Sediments play an important role in elemental cycling in the aquatic environment. They are
responsible for transporting a significant proportion of many nutrients and contaminants.
They also mediate their uptake, storage, release and transfer between environmental
compartments. Most sediment in surface waters derives from surface erosion and
comprises a mineral component, arising from the erosion of bedrock, and an organic
component arising during soil-forming processes (including biological and microbiological
production and decomposition). An additional organic component may be added by
biological activity within the water body.

Sedimentation: Sediment is fragmented material, which is transported or deposited by

water, air or ice as natural agents. Eventually sediment settles out and accumulates after
transport; this process is known as deposition. Among all, water is the most widespread
agent of sediments transport. Therefore, sediment yield from soil surface and its
transportation by water is commonly considered for study purposes. When land
disturbance activities occur, soil particles are transported by surface water movement. Soil
particles transported by water are often deposited in streams, lakes, and wetlands. This soil
material is called sediment. Sediment is the largest single nonpoint source pollutant and
the primary factor in the deterioration of surface water quality. Land disturbing activities
such as road construction and maintenance, timber harvesting, mining, agriculture,
residential and commercial development, all contribute to this problem. There are three
basic types of sediments: rock fragments, or clastic sediments; mineral deposits, or
chemical sediments; and rock fragments and organic matter, or organic sediments.
Dissolved minerals form by weathering of rocks exposed at the earth's surface. Organic
matter is derived from the decaying remains of plants and animals.

Sedimentation: It is the processes of letting suspended material settle by gravity.

Suspended material may be particles, such as clay or silts, originally present in the source
water. More commonly, suspended material is created from material in the water and the
chemical used in coagulation or in other treatment processes, such as lime softening.
Sedimentation is accomplished by decreasing the velocity of the water being treated to a
point below which the particles will no longer remain in suspension. When the velocity no
longer supports the transport of the particles, gravitational force will remove them from the
flow. Sedimentation is a general term for the processes of erosion, transport and deposition.

Sedimentology: It is the study of sediments and sedimentation.

Sources of Sedimentation

Sediment is delivered from two broad erosion sources. The first being sheet erosion and
second being channel type erosion. Sheet erosion is primarily an upland source of sediment
while channel type erosion; resulting from the concentrated flow of water; is comprised
mainly of gully erosion, valley trenching, streambed and stream bank erosion.
The sources of sediment can be listed as below:
1. Erosion from agricultural, forest and waste lands,
2. Movement of soil mass due to landslides, slumps and soil creeps,
3. From gully by concentrated runoff,
4. Stream bank erosion including cutting of banks and scouring from bed,
5. Erosion caused by occurrence of flood in the watershed,
6. Incident to the roads, railroads, cleaning of houses, industries etc. and
7. Mining and dumps left as waste materials over the ground surface.

In sediment analysis, the estimation of total sediment load carried away through any
stream has primary importance because based on the total sediment load, several
preventive measures can be adopted. The relative contribution of different sediment sources
varies from catchment to catchment. Therefore, consideration must be given to those
sources whose contribution is more effective and steps should be taken for controlling
them.
Factors Affecting Sedimentation of Water Resources

Several factors affect the separation of settleable solids from water. Some of the common
types of factors are:

1. Land Use and Soil Type: Sediment yield is closely related to the soil type and land
use. Vegetation provides cover on the soil surface in the form of blanket to protect it from
the impact force of the rainfall. The energy of rain drop is dissipated resulting in reduction
of splashing effect over the ground surface. At the same time vegetation also creates a
hindrance in the flow of runoff; resu1ting in the reduction of flow velocity and ultimately
causing minimal scouring of soil particles from the soil surface. Furthermore, the
infiltration rate gets enhanced, which reduces the runoff and thereby sediment yield, too.

Soil type is an important variable to affect the sediment yield. For example if there are two
types of soil, one is sandy and the other is clay soil; the sandy soil has greater problem of
particles detachment due to its coarser characteristics, while the clay soil can not be
detached easily due to finer nature. In sandy soil, the soil loss (sediment yield) is more
compared to the later one. However, once detached, the clay particles can be transported
more easily.

2. Catchment Size: There is an association between the rate of sediment production and
size of catchment area, because of the fact that the total runoff yield is dependent upon the
aerial extent of watershed. The peak flow per unit area decreases as the area increases
while the period of surface runoff increases with area. The reason behind this is that; a
catchment of lager area has greater time of concentration. As a result, more time is
available to the water for infiltrating into the soil. Ultimately there would be higher runoff
and soil loss or sediment yield. In a small size catchment there is a reverse trend. The
relationship between sediment yield per unit area and catchment area

Relationship between sediment yield and mean

Relationship between Sediment Yield and Area of annual Rainfall.
Watershed

3. Climate and Rainfall: The relationship between sediment production and mean annual
rainfall of the area has been investigated by several scientists. The general relationship
between them is shown in Fig. 19.2 from which it can be seen that under dry conditions
there is no surface runoff and no sediment movement, while under high rainfall conditions,
there is a peak flow of surface runoff resulting in greater sediment yield.

4. Particle Shape: The shape of the particle affects its settling characteristics. A round
particle, for example, will settle much more readily than a particle that has rugged or
irregular edges. All particles tend to have a slight electrical charge. Particles with the same
charge tend to repel each other. This repelling action keeps the particles from congregating
into flocs and settling.

5. Water Temperature: Another factor responsible for sedimentation process is the

temperature of the water. When the temperature decreases, the rate of settling becomes
slower. With the highest temperature, the settling process becomes much faster as density
of water decreases at higher temperature.
Losses due to Sedimentation of Water Resources

Worldwide reservoir sedimentation is a serious problem and considered as a silent

enemy. The gradual reduction of capacity reduces the effective life of dams and diminishes
benefits for irrigation, hydropower generation, flood control, water supply, navigation and
recreation. On the other hand sediment deposition propagates upstream and up tributaries,
raises local groundwater table, reduces channel flood carrying capacity and bridge
navigation clearance and affects water division and withdrawals. On the other hand, the
reduction of sediment load downstream can result in channel and tributary degradation,
bank erosion and changes of the aquatic habits suited to a clear water discharge.

Loss of Reservoir Storage Capacity: The key impact of reservoir sedimentation is the
reduction in the useful life of the reservoir. Sediment deposition is a key factor reducing the
life of dams around the world. Reservoirs are expensive to build and their construction
usually entails high social and environmental costs. Entire communities may be forced to
relocate and ecosystems are destroyed due to their construction. However, it is recognized
that dams also bring many benefits such as water storage, power generation and flood
mitigation. Extending the life of dams through careful management of sediment, therefore,
should be a key priority.

Effects of Sediment on Hydropower Operations and Reservoir Operations: The build-

up of sediment in front of power intakes may result in significant costs for hydropower
operations. Dredging is often required to remove excess sediment and allow a full flow of
water through the intakes. If the sediment accumulation is high, the reservoir outlet works
(intake and bottom outlet structures) may also become clogged. Abrasion of hydraulic
machinery may also occur, decreasing its efficiency and increasing maintenance costs.

Impacts on Infrastructure: Too little sediment, especially downstream of dams, may

encourage accelerated erosion around structures on/in riverbeds or riverbanks due to a
lack of sediment recharge. In extreme cases, excessive erosion has led to incidents such as
bridge collapses. Cracks in infrastructure such as bridges and other structures are typical
results of such erosion. Aside from dams, sediment can have impacts on other man-made
infrastructure. Too much sediment can disrupt the normal functioning of irrigation pump
house intakes and can also disrupt irrigation when excess sediment is deposited in canal
systems. Deposition in canal systems can lead to high costs for those reliant on these
systems as a water supply. Dredging may be required to remove surplus sediment.
Sediment deposition may also result in blockages or inefficiencies in irrigation
infrastructure (including pumps and distribution networks) and may even impact upon the
produce. Sediment also has negative impacts on domestic water supplies, causing problems
in both water treatment plants and distribution networks. Failure of water treatment
plants, especially in poor regions, can mean that the water is unsuitable for human
consumption. As a result populations may suffer from health problems.

Flooding: Flooding occurs when a watercourse is unable to convey the quantity of runoff
flowing downstream. The frequency with which this occurs is described by a return period.
Flooding is a natural process, which maintains ecosystem composition and processes, but it
can also be altered by land use changes including river engineering. Increased sediment
accumulation in river systems can raise the level of the riverbed, subsequently increasing
water levels. This deposition can have significant implications for flooding, and may cause
floods to pose a risk to human settlements which would otherwise be contained by banks
and levees.

Navigational Issues: The sedimentation of water courses can also make them unsuitable
for navigation without regular dredging work. This dredging is often costly to operate.

Impacts on Wetlands and In-stream Ecosystems: Where dams do not exist to trap
sediment, excessive sediment inputs may have negative impacts on wetland areas. This is
especially the case where wetlands occur close to agricultural areas and where land use
change has resulted in increased rates of soil loss, increased downstream sediment loads
and increased rates of sedimentation in wetland areas. The impact of excessive sediment
deposition in wetlands may create ecological disruption. Sedimentation results in alteration
of aquatic food webs, nutrient cycling and biogenic processes that transform and sequester
pollutants. Eventually sediment deposition may entirely smother wetlands resulting in
limited biological diversity.

Impacts on Water Quality (Turbidity and Sediment-associated Pollutants): Sediment is

a pollutant in its own right. Even where sediment is uncontaminated by agricultural
fertilizers and pesticides and industrial or human waste, they cause turbidity in the water
which limits light penetration and prohibits healthy plant growth on the river bed. The
accumulation of sediments on the river bed can smother or disrupt aquatic ecosystems by
reducing food sources, and degrading spawning grounds (such as gravel and rocky
environments) and the habitats of desirable fish species. Turbidity may also result in
eutrophication where nutrient rich sediments are present (particularly sediments from
agricultural land with high fertilizer contents). Eutrophication creates a situation where the
dissolved oxygen present in the water system is reduced and the fish species may be unable
to survive in the water column. Eutrophication, where it results from toxic algal blooms,
can also be a serious risk to human health. Sediments in areas with high human activity
often contain chemical pollutants which may pose a risk to human health and the health of
surrounding ecosystems. Potable water supplies can be compromised by the presence of
excess sediment (whether contaminated by toxins or not) as purification facilities may not
be able to cope with the sediment in the water leading to temporary breakdowns and
subsequent risks to the safety of the drinking water. Contaminated surface waters also
cause a risk by altering the metabolic processes of the aquatic species that they host. These
alterations can lead to fish kills or alter the balance of populations present. Other specific
impacts are on animal reproduction, spawning, egg and larvae viability, juvenile survival
and plant productivity.

Sediment Transport and Measurements

Transport of particles in flowing water takes place through sliding, rolling, saltation and
suspension. Different mechanisms of transport are discussed below.

Mechanics of Sediment Transportation

The four modes of particle transport in water are sliding, rolling, saltation and suspension.
Sliding particles remain in continuous contact with the bed, merely tilting to and fro as they
move. Rolling grains also remain in continuous contact with the bed, whereas saltation
grains „jump‟ along the bed in a series of low trajectories. Sediment particles in these three
categories collectively form the bed load. The suspended load consists of particles in
suspension. These particles follow long and irregular paths within the water and seldom
come in contact with the bed until they are deposited when the flow slackens. Sliding and
rolling are prevalent in low velocity flows, whereas; saltation and suspension take place in
high velocity flows. The region of flow influenced by proximity to the surface is called
the boundary layer. A boundary layer develops wherever a fluid moves over a surface.

The friction between flowing water and the bed generates a boundary layer in which
turbulent flow is dominant, except very close to the bed. Movement of sediment (erosion)
occurs when the shear stress generated by the frictional force of water flowing over the
sediment overcomes the force of gravity acting on the sediment grains and the friction
between the grains and the underlying bed. Shear stress is proportional to the square of the
mean current speed (and to the density of the water. Movement of grains of a given size
begins when the shear stress at the bed reaches a critical value (critical shear stress).

Cohesive sediments contain a high proportion of fine-grained clay minerals and are more
difficult to erode than non-cohesive sediments, which often consist mostly of quartz grains.
For cohesive sediments, the smaller the particle size, the greater the water velocity required
to erode them. Once in suspension, clay particles are transported for long distances by the
currents that would be much too weak to erode them. Shear stress is proportional also to
the velocity gradient in the boundary layer and to the viscosity of the water.

Types of Sediments Transported Along with Streams

Sediment transport is the movement of solid particles (sediment), typically due to a

combination of the force of gravity acting on the sediment, and/or the movement of
the fluid in which the sediment is entrained. An understanding of sediment transport is
typically used in natural systems, where the particles are clastic rocks
(sand, gravel, boulders, etc.), mud, or clay; the fluid is air, water, or ice; and the force of
gravity acts to move the particles due to the sloping surface on which they are resting.

Sediment movement in streams and rivers takes two forms. Suspended sediment is the
finer particles which are held in suspension by the eddy currents in the flowing stream, and
settle out only when the stream velocity decreases, such as when the streambed becomes
flatter, or the stream discharges into a pond or a lake. Larger solid particles are rolled along
the streambed and are called the bed load. There is an intermediate type of movement
where particles move downstream in a series of bounces or jumps, sometimes touching the
bed and sometimes carried along in suspension until they fall back to the bed. This is called
movement in saltation, and is a very important part of the process of transport by wind, but
in liquid flow the height of the bounces is so low that they are not readily distinguished
from rolling bed load.

Sediment transport is a direct function of water movement. During transport in a water

body, sediment particles become separated into three categories: suspended material which
includes silt + clay + sand; the coarser, relatively inactive bed load and the saltation load.

Bed Load: Bed load is the clastic (particulate) material that moves through the channel
fully supported by the channel bed itself. These materials, mainly sand and gravel, are kept
in motion (rolling and sliding) by the shear stress acting at the boundary. Unlike the
suspended load, the bed-load component is almost always capacity limited (i. e. a function
of hydraulics rather than supply). A distinction is often made between the bed-material load
and the bed load.

Bed-material load is that part of the sediment load found in appreciable quantities in the
bed (generally > 0.062 mm in diameter) and is collected in a bed-load sampler. The bed
material is the source of this load component and it includes particles that slide and roll
along the bed (in bed-load transport) but also those near the bed transported in saltation or
suspension phase. Bed load, strictly defined, is just that component of the moving
sediment that is supported by the bed (and not by the flow). The term “bed load” refers to a
mode of transport and not to a source. Since bed load consists of stony material (gravel and
cobbles), it moves by rolling along the bed of a river because it is too heavy to be lifted into
suspension by the current of the river. Bed load is especially important during periods of
extremely high discharge and in landscapes of large topographical relief, where the river
gradient is steep (such as in mountains). It is rarely important in low-lying areas. The
portion of the sediment load that is transported along the bed by sliding, rolling or hopping
can be termed as the bed load. Bed load moves at velocities slower than the flow and
spends most of its time on or near the stream bed. In many streams, grains smaller than
1/8 mm are always suspended while grains great than 8 mm travel as bed load. The
strength of flow determines the transport mechanism of grains in between these two sizes.
Sediment transport can also be categorized based on the source of the grains: 1) bed
material load, which is grains found in the stream bed; and 2) wash load, which is finer
grains found as less than a percent or two of the total amount in the bed.

Suspended Load: Suspended load consists of sediment particles that are mechanically
transported by suspension within a stream or river. This is in contrast to bed or traction
load, which consists of particles that are moved along the bed of a stream and dissolved
load which consists of material that has been dissolved in the stream water. In most
streams, the suspended load is composed primarily of silt and clay size particles. Sand-size
particles can also be part of the suspended load if the stream flow velocity and turbulence
are great enough to hold them in suspension.

The suspended load can consists of particles that are intermittently lifted into suspension
from the stream bed and of wash load and also those which remains continuously
suspended unless there is a significant decrease in stream flow velocity. Wash load particles
are finer than those along the stream bed, and therefore must be supplied by bank erosion,
mass wasting, and mass transport of sediment from adjacent watersheds into the stream
during rainstorms. Water density is proportional to the amount of suspended load being
carried. Muddy water high in suspended sediment will therefore increase the particle
buoyancy and reduce the critical shear stress required to move the bed load of the stream.

Suspended load comprises sand + silt + clay sized particles that are held in suspension
because of the turbulence of the water. The suspended load is further divided into the wash
load which is generally considered to be the silt + clay sized material (< 62 μm in particle
diameter) and is often referred to as “fine-grained sediment”. The wash load is mainly
controlled by the supply of this material (usually by means of erosion) to the river. The
amount of sand (> 62 μm in particle size) in the suspended load is directly proportional to
the turbulence and mainly originates from erosion of the bed and banks of the river. In
many rivers, suspended sediment (i.e. the mineral fraction) forms most of the transported
load. Particulate sediment that is carried in the body of the flow is of the following types.

 Suspended load moves at the same velocity as the flow.

 The Hjulstrom curve shows that a much higher velocity is required to entrain clay
and fine silt than coarse sand. However, once the fine sediment is in suspension, a
much lower velocity is required to maintain it in suspension.
 The quantity and quality of the load is defined in terms of competence and
capacity. Competence is the large size clast that a stream can carry, whereas
capacity is the volume of sediment carried. Competence (caliber) is a function of
velocity and slope whereas capacity is a function of velocity and discharge.
 A small particle (e.g. clay and fine silt), with a large relative surface area, is held in
suspension more easily because of the electrostatic attraction between the
unsatisfied charges on the grain's surface and the water molecules. This force,
tending to keep the particle in the flow, is large compared to the weight of the
particle.

Wash/Dissolved Load: Although wash load is part of the suspended-sediment load it is

useful to make a distinction. Unlike most suspended-sediment load, wash load does not
rely on the force of mechanical turbulence generated by the flowing water to keep it in
suspension. It is so fine (in the clay range) that it is kept in suspension by thermal
molecular agitation. Because these clays are always in suspension, wash load is that
component of the particulate or clastic load that is “washed” through the river system.
Unlike coarser suspended-sediment, wash load tends to be uniformly distributed
throughout the water column and therefore moves with the mean velocity of main stream.
That is, unlike the coarser load, it does not vary with height above the bed.

Wash load concentrations are approximately uniform in the water column. This is described
by the end member case in which the Rouse number is equal to 0 (i.e. the settling velocity is
far less than the turbulent mixing velocity), which leads to a prediction of a perfectly
uniform vertical concentration profile of material. The Rouse number is a ratio of sediment
fall velocity to upward velocity.

Dissolved load is the term for material; especially ions from chemical weathering that are
carried in solution form by a stream. The dissolved load contributes to the total amount of
material removed from a catchment. The amount of material carried as dissolved load is
typically much smaller than the suspended load, though this is not always the case.
Dissolved load comprises a significant portion of the total material flux out of a landscape,
and its composition is important in regulating the chemistry and biology of the stream.
Factors that govern the percentage of dissolved and suspended loads in the flowing streams
include:

1. Climate: Temperature, Precipitation, Vegetation.

2. Vegetation: Type and Amount.
3. Activity by Man: Mining, Construction, Clear Cutting, etc.
4. Rock Solubility: e.g. Hard Water in Carbonate Terranes.
5. Erodibility of Materials in the Drainage Basin.
6. Relief and Slope.

Methods of in Stream Sediment Measurements

There are different methods for stream sediment measurements: such as bed load,
suspended load, wash load, dissolved load and saltation load measurements.

Bed Load-Measurements

Bed load gauging (also called bed load transport measurement) is often mixed up with bed
material sampling. Bed load gauging is the measurement of the amount of sediment that is
moving as “bed load”, i.e. rolling, sliding and bouncing (in “saltation”) on or over the stream
bottom, while bed material sampling is the collection of the material comprising the stream
bottom. Bed load is extremely difficult to measure directly because the measuring
instrument (bed load sampler) invariably interferes with the flow. Most bed load movement
occurs during periods of high discharge on steep gradients when the water level is high and
the flow is extremely turbulent. Such conditions also cause problems for field
measurements.

A commonly used type of bed-load sampler is shown in Fig. In small streams where the
sampler can often be placed on the bed so that it is appropriately oriented towards the flow,
the sample collected may be meaningful although there is always some bed scour at the
inlet that distorts the actual bed-load transport in the vicinity of the instrument. In large
rivers where the sampler must be lowered from a boat by cable to an unseen bed,
measurements can be highly inaccurate and must be repeated many times before reliable
results can be obtained. The problems relate largely to the fact that the operator is unable
to see the position of the sampler on the bed. If the sampler settles on a boulder or dune
face, for example, it may push the sampler inlet into the bed and as a result the sampler
may drastically over sample the rate of bed-load transport. At other times the sampler
position and the bed morphology may be such that scouring of the bed at the sampler inlet
could be severe leading to over sampling.

Fig. A Commonly Used Type of Bed-load Sampler

When the bed-load sampler is appropriately oriented towards the flow direction, bed-load
material enters the sampler through the inlet and the divergent flow within the sampler
reduces the flow velocity, allowing the sediment to accumulate. A fine mesh provided at the
rear of the sampler allows the incoming water but not the bed-load sediment to pass
through. After an appropriate measured time-interval the sampler is taken out and the
trapped sediment is removed for weighing.

A different problem during sampling occurs if the bed-load sampler settles on the back of a
dune or perhaps the front of the sampler settles on an object that keeps the inlet from
contacting the bed. For these reasons river scientists often prefer to rely on other methods
to estimate bed-load transport rates in rivers. Methods other than direct measurement by
bed-load sampler include:

1. Bed-load Pits or Traps

These are the installations that divert sediment from a channel and convey it to a
measurement facility where it is weighed and then returned once again to the channel so
that the sediment-transport system is not unduly disrupted. Obviously such a facility is
expensive to build and operate and there are few of them. The main purpose of such a
facility is to calibrate bed-load transport equations for se on other river channels.

2. Morphological Methods

a) Bed Form Surveys

Where bed-material is moving as bedforms such as dunes, bedform surveys can be used to
track the downstream movement of sediment. This technique relies on high-resolution
sonar imaging of the river bed to construct profiles that can be differenced to determine the
volumetric bed-load sediment transport rate.

b) Channel Surveys

Channel surveys can be used to produce sequential morphologic maps of a reach of river
that can be differenced (using GIS) to yield amounts of erosion and deposition over time.
The principle here is the same as that for bedform surveys but in this case involves the
entire three-dimensional channel morphology. Like the bedform-based calculation,
differencing channel morphology as a basis for calculating bed-load sediment transport
relies on the assumption that there is no sediment throughput. That is, all transported bed-
load is involved in local deposition and erosion and not simply transported through the
reach without contributing to the changing channel morphology

c) Sedimentation-zone Surveys

Sedimentation-zone surveys are one of the most reliable methods of determining

representative long-term bed-load transport rates in rivers. This morphologic method relies
on measuring the accumulating sediment in a feature such as a delta that a river is
gradually building into a lake or embayment

Suspended Load-measurements

The simplest way of taking a sample of suspended sediment is to dip a bucket or other
container into the stream, preferably at a point where the sediment is well mixed, such as
downstream from a weir or rock bar. The sediment contained in a measured volume of
water is filtered, dried and weighed. This gives a measure of the concentration of sediment
and when combined with the rate of flow gives the rate of sediment discharge. For
determining suspended sediment load, it is necessary to consider all particle sizes (sand +
silt + clay). Therefore, a depth-integrating sampler must be used to ensure that the depth-
dependent sand-sized fraction is correctly sampled. There are two generally accepted
methods for measuring suspended sediment concentration for load determination as
described below:
1. Equal-discharge-increment Method: This method requires that at first a complete flow
measurement be carried out across the cross section of the river. Using the results, the
cross-section should be divided into five (more on large or complex rivers) intervals (i.e.
vertical sections) having almost equal discharge in each interval. The number n of the
intervals is selected based on experience. Depth integrated suspended sediment sampling is
carried out at one vertical within each of the equal-discharge-intervals, usually at a location
most closely representing the centroid of flow for that interval. The sediment concentration
for each equal-discharge- interval should be measured. The mean discharge-weighted
suspended sediment concentration (SSc) should be obtained by taking the average of the
concentration values C obtained for each interval i.

The discharge-weighted suspended sediment load (SSL), in tonnes per day, for the river
cross-section have to be obtained by multiplying the concentration, C in ppm (mg/l) by the
discharge, Q, in m3/s of each equal-discharge-interval, i and summing for all the intervals.
This method is very time-consuming, but is the most used by the sediment recording
agencies.

2. Equal-width-increment Method: This method is used without making flow

measurements and is usually used in small to medium rivers and especially rivers that are
shallow enough for wading. The operator marks off 10-20 equal intervals across the river
cross-section. At the deepest point, the operator takes a depth-integrated sample, noting
the transit rate of the sampler (i.e. the uniform speed at which the sampler is lowered, then
raised to the surface). Using that same transit rate, a suspended sediment sample is taken
at each of the intervals. Because each vertical will have a different depth and velocity, the
sample volume will vary with each vertical sampled. Care should be taken to see that the
bottle is never over-filled. All samples are collected in a single container which is then
agitated and sub-sampled, usually two or three times and analysed for suspended sediment
concentration. The average of these values is the mean cross sectional suspended sediment
concentration. In this method, the results are corrected for differences in discharge at each
section caused due to the same transit rate (and the same nozzle diameter) used at all
sections although a shallow section with less discharge produces a proportionally smaller
suspended sediment sample than a deep section having a higher discharge.

For suspended sediment quality, where the primary interest is the chemistry associated
with the silt + clay (< 0.63 μm) fraction, sampling can be greatly simplified because this
fraction is not normally depth dependent. While there are no universally accepted rules for
sampling, many scientists collect a grab sample from a depth of 0.5 m at the point of
maximum flow in the cross-section. For larger rivers, or rivers where there is concern over
cross-sectional variation, grab samples can be taken from several locations across the
section. For more precise work where accurate loads are required, especially for micro-
pollutants, sampling should be carried out using either of the methods mentioned above. It
is particularly important to avoid sampling near river banks (or lake shores) where elevated
concentrations of suspended matter occur and which are often contaminated by garbage
and other anthropogenic materials.

In-stream Sediment Measurements:In-stream sediment measurement is very important

as most precise information on sediment flow can be obtained from this measurement.
Different techniques followed for this measurement are discussed in this chapter.
Location of Measurement: When the question „where to measure‟ comes to our mind the
most obvious answer in a broader sense is where the data can be collected, however the
answer is not so simple. It becomes quiet complex when sediment concentrations or loads
of an entire large area need to be characterized which largely depends on the information
wanted and the particular situation being studied. Generally, measurements should be
made downstream as close as possible to the area of disturbance. The effect of a sediment-
producing condition is attenuated and its effect is confounded with the effects of dilution
and other sediment sources farther downstream. If the downstream effects of a disturbance
are being studied, it is better to measure at the affected site.

The location of measuring station also depends on the hydraulic conditions in the stream.
In some streams, control can be affected by geology or large organic debris. Bedrock
cropping out at the crest of major riffles or falls can provide excellent control in natural
channels. In some situations, well emplaced logs stabilize the channels and provide suitable
locations to measure both the suspended sediment concentration and discharge. Along with
location, depth is the other factor which affects the concentration of sediment in the
streams i.e. near the stream bed it is more, in the middle relatively less, while on the top of
the surface it is too less. Thus it is very difficult to select the sampling point, which can
accurately define the sediment concentration in vertical cross-section of stream.

Frequency of Measurement

Frequency of sampling depends upon the sediment concentration in the stream flow. It is
well known that the sediment concentration increases rapidly on the rising phase of the
hydrograph than the falling phase. Therefore, sediment samples should be collected more
frequently at the beginning of runoff and it should be continued up to the peak stage of
runoff. The sample should be taken at every 15 minutes interval.

Number of Monitoring Stations

In most of the cases the entire runoff of the watershed is drained from a single point known
as the outlet, the collection of the sediment sample should be carried out from the outlet
point. The outlet is an ideal location of monitoring station for the entire watershed.
Similarly, in case of drainage system, where flow is drained from more than one points,
gauging station should be provided at each outlet point for sampling.

Observation and Collection of Sediment Samples: There are several methods which are
used today for evaluation of sediment transport in rivers. The total number of sampling
points to be considered for collecting the sediment samples depends on the width of the
stream flow.

Table. Number of Sampling Points in the Stream.

Width of No. of Sampling

Location of Point from Site
Stream (m) Points
25, 50 and 75% of the stream width
< 30 3
25, 35, 50, 65 and 80% of the stream width
30 - 300 5
15, 30, 40, 50, 60,70 and 85% of the stream
> 300 7 width

Apart from width-wise sediment sampling, the depth-wise sampling is also carried out
using the following points:
 1. In case of single point sampling, the sample should be collected from the depth
of 0.6 d, measured from the surface (d = the depth of the stream).
2. In case of double point sampling, one sample should be collected from the point
near the top of water surface i.e. at a depth of about 0.2 d and other near the
stream bed at about 0.8 d. The concentration of sediment is weighted equally.
3. For three point sampling: one sample should be taken near the top of water
surface, second from mid depth of stream and the third near the stream bed,
and weighted equally.
4. Similarly, in case of multiple sampling, there should be several samples from
several points of vertical section of the stream flow. This helps to elaborate the
sediment distribution in the stream.
5. The sediment sampler should be kept in vertical position from the stream bed.
6. The mouth of the sampler should be opened after reaching the desired depth of
stream flow.
7. Whenever it is expected that the distribution of sediment is uniform in the
stream flow, sampling should be done only at 0.6d of the stream flow.

Estimation of Different Loads from Samples

Bed load is not amenable to theoretical treatment. The following two methods are generally
used for estimation of bed load.
1. Analytical Method
2. Stream Sampling

1. Analytical Method: Computation of bed-load movement using analytical method

involves several relations; these relations can be empirical or analytical. The derivation of
the relation is done based on the following two basic concepts:
1) A minimum fluid force is exerted on the soil particles before initiating their movement.

2) The force exerted by the soil particles on the channel bed is not constant, but varies
about some mean value. This concept is based on the theory of turbulent flow.

The different forces acting on the soil particles of non-cohesive material are basically the
gravity and fluid forces. The analytical method for computing the bed load transport
involves several empirical relations. Few of them are described as under:

Du Boys Formula: This formula is based on the theory of tractive force, which was derived
on the assumptions that the coarser particles are moved in the form of layers and subject to
uniform tractive force and vertical velocity gradient of the moving coarser particles is linear.
The formula for bed load estimation is written as under:

where, qs = rate of bed load transport (volume per second per unit stream width); cs =

coefficient, depends upon the shape and size of the sediment particle = , where d is
the grain diameter (mm); T0 = average shear stress exerted on the channel boundary
and Tc = critical shear stress.

An estimate of the average boundary shear stress (T0) exerted by the fluid on the bed is:
where, γ = the specific weight of water, D = the flow depth (~ hydraulic radius), and Sf = the
friction slope.

And the estimate of Critical shear stress () can be defined by equating the applied forces to
the resisting forces. For soil grains of diameter d and angle of repose on a flat bed, the
following relations can approximate the critical shear for various sizes of sediment:

For clays,

For silts and sands,

For gravels and cobbles,

where,

And = the unit weight of the sediment; = the unit weight of the water/sediment mixture; G =
the specific gravity of the sediment; g = gravitational acceleration; v = the kinematic
viscosity of the water/sediment mixture

Shield’s Formula: Shield's formula is applied for estimating the bed load movement
consisting of uniform size of sediments. The equation was derived by considering the effect
of specific gravity of the sediment. The Shield's formula is written as:

where, Ss = specific gravity of sediments, such as stone grains; S = stream bed slope
(mm); qs = discharge rate (m3/s per unit width of stream); q = discharge per unit channel
width; = specific gravity of the fluid; d = diameter of sediment (mm).

Mayer Peter’s Formula: This was developed based on the effect of grain diameter, slope of
channel bed and discharge characteristics of flow on bed load movement. It is written as:
where, Gs = rate of bed load transport per unit width of channel (kg/h.m); = Mannning‟s
roughness coefficient for plain bed = , in which d is the effective grain diameter; N = actual
value of Manning's roughness coefficient for rippled bed. Generally, the value of N is taken
as 0.020 for discharge of more than 11 m 3/s and 0.0225 for a lower discharge value; = unit
tractive force exerted by flowing water = 0.97·. RS; = critical shear stress required to
displace the sediments = 0.07 d, kg/m2; R = hydraulic mean depth and S = stream bed
slope.

Chang Formula: Chang proposed the following formula for estimating the bed load:

where, Gi = rate of bed-load transport in pounds/second/unit width; k = constant; n =

Manning's roughness coefficient; = unit tractive force due to stream water flow, = critical
shear stress required to displace the sediment = 0.0175 (1.65 d)x when specific gravity of
the sediment is 2.65; in which, d is sediment diameter (mm); x = exponent which is either
equal to unit or half, depending upon whether the value of 1.65 d is greater or less than
unity respectively.

Schoklitsch Formula: This formula was developed based on experimental data, obtained
by installation of flume in the stream. The Schoklitsch formula assumes that the bed-load
contains the materials of uniform size.

The formula may be written as:

where, Gi = rate of bed-load transport (F.P.s) (kg/s); d = particle diameter (m); S = slope of
stream bed; q = observed discharge (m3/s); qc = critical discharge (m3/s); it is given

by

2. Stream Sampling [Bed Load Sampling] : The estimation of rate of bed load movement
through the stream flow is carried out by placing the sampler over the bed and measuring
the amount of materials collected for a given time. The samplers used for collecting the bed
load sample are known as bed load samplers. The sampler is kept in position by a rod,
when the depth of stream flow is low or by a cable from the boat, from a trolley or pulley
running on a cable spanned across the river or from a bridge. The lowering and raising of
the sampler is done with the help of a winch. Based on the construction and principles of
operation, bed-load samplers are of different types. They are:

1. Basket Type
2. Tray or Pan Type
3. Pressure Difference Type
For estimating the bed load, the samples collected through the samplers are dried and
weighted. The dry weight is then divided by the time taken for measurement and width of
the stream bed to get the bed load movement per unit stream width per unit time. A curve
between the rate of movement and stream flow can also be drawn. From this rating curve,
the rate of bed load movement for different discharges of the stream can be determined.
This is usually practiced as continuous discharge measurement using stage level recorder
is much easier compared to continuous monitoring of bed load.
Bed load is the sum of saltation load and surface creep. It is obtained either by using bed
load samplers or can be computed by using several formulae. In case, the measurement of
bed load is not possible due to some unforeseen reasons, then depending upon bed load
materials, an amount ranging from 2.5% to 15% of suspended load is added to the
suspended load as bed load to get the amount of sediment load transported by stream flow.

Reservoir Sedimentation

Reservoirs are constructed by incurring a huge sum of capital expenditure. Therefore, they
should provide service with a long useful life. Sedimentation is a big problem as it reduces
the life of the reservoir considerably. Therefore, it is essential to know the sedimentation
process in the reservoirs to evolve some strategy to tackle the problem.

Distribution of Sediments in Reservoirs

The integrated development of river basin also involves the construction of storage body i.e.
reservoir for solving the problems of irrigation, power generation, flood control etc. The
sedimentation is one of the main problems in reservoir operation. The problem should be
essentially considered in the design and maintenance of reservoirs, because deposition of
sediments in the reservoirs reduces their net storage capacity. The sedimentation process
starts in the reservoir due to the fact that as river water enters the storage area, the velocity
of flow is reduced due to increased cross-sectional area of the channel. In course of
sedimentation, if water already stored in the reservoir is clear and the inflow is muddy,
then these two fluids of different densities involve different velocities. The turbid water
tends to flow along the channel bed towards the dam due to gravity force. This type of flow
is referred as stratified flow and the under flow is called as density current. Basically, the
density currents are the gravity flow. All these processes of sediment deposition in the
reservoir refer to the reservoir sedimentation.

In reservoir design, allowance for deposition of sediment must be provided. The volume of
reservoir which is to be used for irrigation, power generation etc., is called as live storage; it
should be fixed after providing allowance for sediment deposition. On the basis of
observations taken from several existing reservoirs, it has been found that the major
portion of sediments get deposited in the live storage part, which greatly affects the
functioning of the reservoir. The knowledge on the distribution pattern of sediments in the
reservoir plays an important role in its planning and design.

1. It provides an idea about how sediments tend to deposit near the dam during a
given time period, on the basis of which the levels of outlet for water flow and
penstock gates etc. can be decided.
2. The allocation of the various storages of reservoir is carried out, on the basis of
distributed silts throughout the reservoir depth.
 3. It helps to determine the region of delta formation in the reservoir and thereby
increase in back water level.
4. The sediment distribution pattern also helps to decide the sites for locating
the recreational facilities such as swimming, boating areas etc.
All reservoirs formed by dams on natural water courses are subject to some degree of
sediment inflow and deposition. The problem confronting the project planner is to estimate
the rate of deposition and the period of time before the sediment will interfere with the
useful function of the reservoir. Provisions should be made for sufficient sediment storage
in the reservoir at the time of design so as not to impair the reservoir functions during the
useful life of the project or during the period considered as the minimum economic life.
There are a series of basic steps to be followed in studying the sedimentation processes in
reservoirs. First, sediment transported by the upstream river system into a reservoir is
deposited and/or transported at a reduced rate further into the reservoir, the distance
being dependent on the decreased water velocities. As sediment accumulates in the
reservoir, storage capacity is reduced. The continued deposition develops distribution
patterns within the reservoir which are greatly influenced by both operations of the
reservoir and timing of large flood inflows. Deposition of the coarser sediments occurs in the
upper or delta reaches while finer sediments may reach the dam and influences the design
of the outlet works. A major secondary effect is the downstream degradation of the river
channel caused by the releases of clear water.
Sedimentation processes in a reservoir are quite complex because of the wide variation in
the many influencing factors. The most important being (1) hydrological fluctuations in
water and sediment inflow, (2) sediment particle size variation, (3) reservoir operation
fluctuations and (4) physical controls or size and shape of the reservoir. Other factors that
may be quite important for some reservoirs are: vegetative growth in upper reaches,
turbulence and/or density currents, erosion of deposited sediments and/or shoreline
deposits, and operation for sluicing of sediment through the dam.

Distribution and Estimation of Reservoir Sedimentation

Sediment is the end product of erosion or wearing away of the land surface by the action of
water, wind, ice and gravity. Water resource development projects are most affected by
sediment transported by water. The total amount of onsite sheet and gully erosion in a
watershed is known as the gross erosion. However, all the eroded material does not enter
the stream system; some of the material is deposited at natural or manmade barriers within
the watershed and some may be deposited within the channels and their flood plains. The
portion of the eroded material which travels through the drainage network to a downstream
measuring or control point is referred to as the sediment yield. The sediment yield per unit
of drainage area is the sediment yield rate. Most methods for predicting sediment yields are
either directly or indirectly based on the results of measurements. Direct measurements of
sediment yields are considered the most reliable method for determination of sediment
yields. This is accomplished by either surveying of reservoirs or sampling the sediment load
of a river. Both the methods are described in the subsequent sections. Other methods for
predicting sediment yields depend on measurements to derive empirical relationships or
utilize empirically checked procedures such as the sediment yield rate weighting factors or
the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE). Sediment yield rate factors are the factors which
determine the sediment yield of a watershed and they can be summarized as follows:

1. Rainfall amount and intensity, Soil type and geologic formation,

2. Ground cover,
3. Land use,
4. Topography,
5. Upland erosion (nature of drainage size, and alignment of channels),
6. Runoff,
 7. Network-density, slope, shape, sediment characteristics such as grain size,
mineralogy, etc. and
8. Channel hydraulic characteristics.

Gross erosion includes sheet, rill and gully erosion. In the small drainage basins, sheet and
rill erosions are the major source of reservoir sediments. The USLE and the Musgrave
equation are commonly used to compute the sheet and rill erosion. These equations were
derived by empirical methods from small experimental plot data. The universal soil loss
equation is:

A = RKLSCP (22.1)

where, A = the average annual soil loss (tons per ha) predicted by the equation; R = the
rainfall factor; K = the soil erodibility factor (tons per ha per year); LS = the length and
steepness of slope factor; C = the cropping and management factor; and P = the supporting
conservation practice factor (terracing, strip cropping, and contouring).

The Musgrave equation is as follows:

where, E = the sheet and rill erosion (inches per year); I = the erosion from continuous
row crop from the given soil (adjusted to 1.25 inches rainfall) in inches per year; R' =
the cover factor (fallow or continuous row crop equals 100); S = the degree of land slope in
percent (with 10% as standard); L = the length of land slope in feet (with 72.6 feet as
standard); P30 = the maximum 30-minute rainfall amount, 2-year frequency, in inches
(with 1.25 inches as standard). The factor, I, was not available for the soils used in this
study. The equation was modified by substituting the product „0.59 KR‟ for I and by adding
the practice factor P, both from the universal soil loss equation. The product KR is the soil
loss from continuous fallow. Thus, multiplying the product KR by 0.59, the soil loss from
continuous row crop is obtained which is comparable to the soil loss given by I. The
term [P30/1.25]1.75 was dropped because rainfall is included in the R factor. Assuming the
average volume-weight of the upland soils as 150 tons per acre-inch, the modified equation
becomes:

where E' is the sheet and rill erosion in inches per year.

Factors Affecting the Sedimentation of Reservoirs

Sedimentation is the process of letting suspended material settled by gravity. Suspended

material may be particles, such as clay or silts, originally present in the source water.
Sedimentation occurs due to the decrease in velocity of the water to a point below which the
particles will no longer remain in suspension. When the velocity no longer supports the
transport of the particles, gravity will remove them from the flow. Several factors affect the
sedimentation of reservoirs. Some of the more common types of factors to be considered
are:
1. Slope of Stream: The deposition of the sediment takes place in the bottom
portion, of the reservoir which are constructed on a stream having steep slope
and longer reach whereas, deposition of the sediment takes place in higher
elevation of the reservoir which are constructed on the stream with flat slope.
2. Reservoir Length: The distribution of sediment in the reservoir is affected
greatly by its length. It has been observed that the large size sediment is
deposited in the lower portion of the reservoir for a shorter length and the
smaller size sediment is deposited at the higher elevation of the reservoir for
longer length.
3. Reservoir Constriction: If there is constriction in the reservoir, the deposition
of the sediment takes place in the upper portion comparatively in large
proportion. The sediment deposition pattern is flatter in the constricted portion
but it does not follow the natural slope of the stream.
4. Size of Sediment: The size and type of particles have a significant effect on the
sedimentation. Because of their density, sand or silt can be removed very easily.
The velocity of the water-flow in stream is slowed down as soon as they enter
into the reservoir, and most of the gravel and grit settle down by simple
gravitational forces.
5. Capacity Inflow: The capacity inflow is one of the most important factors which
play a great role in the distribution pattern of sediment in the reservoir. A small
reservoir in a large size river passes most of the finer particles along the inflow
very quickly into the storage area, they do not get the time to settle down in the
reservoir but they are disposed off downstream. In case of large reservoirs, the
water for a long time resulting into complete deposition of suspended sediments.
6. Vegetal Growth: vegetal growth on the upstream part of the reservoir and in
nearby areas helps in trapping the sediments and thus affecting the entry of silts
in large amount into the reservoir.
7. Reservoir Operation: The reservoir operation technique greatly affects the
pattern of sediment deposition. The reservoir may be operated for single purpose
and for multipurpose both. Single purpose reservoir operations are generally
performed relatively at constant level and as such the primary patterns of
sediment deposition is not much affected. But in case of multipurpose
reservoirs, the operation is conducted within a wide range of elevations to fulfill
the various demands, throughout the year. It causes significant variations in the
primary sediment distribution pattern, because it flushes down some deposited
sediments from live storage of the reservoir at higher elevation due to seasonal
reduction in the reservoir water level.
8. Inflow Patterns of the Stream: A stream, in which flood occurs during the early
part of the monsoon, the amount of sediment reaching the reservoir being more
tends to settle down in the reservoir. But when major flood occurs during the
later part of the monsoon period, a reverse trend is obtained.
9. Sediment Load in River Flow: The amount of sediment load carried by the river
flow varies greatly both in quantity and quality, depending on the watershed
characteristics with regard to the land use as well as the climatic conditions. In
addition, trapping of sediment is a function of retention period, which is reduced
with the age of reservoir. The sedimentation pattern in the reservoir is greatly
affected by these variations.
10. Shape of Reservoirs: The shape of a reservoir also plays a key role in sediment
distribution pattern. For example in a reservoir of regular shape, the suspended
sediment tends to deposit uniformly over the bed along the direction of flow, with
decreasing depth away from the dam. But there would be a large variation in the
depth of sediment deposition at the bottom, if the shape of reservoir is irregular.
 11. Outlets: If the outlet of the reservoir has adequate capacity and is located at
lower elevation then the density current tends to pass out very rapidly. As a
result the deposited sediment mixed in the density current near the dam of the
reservoir is removed.
12. Sediment-reservoir Volume Ratio: If the inflow volume of water and sediment
is large compared to the reservoir volume, water cannot be retained in the
reservoir for a longer period. In that case deposition of the percentage of inflow
sediment will be much less as the retention period is low.

Rate of Reservoir Sedimentation- Sediment Delivery Ratio, Trap Efficiency

Rate of reservoir sedimentation depends not only on the volume of reservoir inflow into the
reservoir but also on the trap efficiency.

Trap Efficiency

There are a large number of reservoirs in the world which have been built for different
purposes like water supply, irrigation, and flood control or for controlling downstream water
quality. The reduced flow velocity in these water storage structures causes sedimentation of
the transported particles. For most of the storage structures this is a drawback as their
retention capacity decreases due to sedimentation processes. Sediment volumes in small
ponds can be used to reconstruct sediment yield values and to study the spatial variation in
sediment yield over large areas. Especially, in developing countries, this technique can be
very helpful in establishing large data sets on sediment delivery as often no resources are
available for expensive monitoring programmes. However, when such studies are
undertaken, one has to take into account the efficiency of the pond in trapping sediments
which is known as the trap efficiency. This trap efficiency is dependent on the
characteristics of the inflowing sediment and the retention time of the water in the pond,
which in turn are controlled by pond geometry and runoff characteristics. Trap efficiency
(TE) is the portion of the incoming sediment that is deposited, or trapped, in a reservoir or
pond.

where, = the sediment mass entering a reservoir (= the sediment yield or delivery); = the
sediment mass leaving the reservoir with the out flowing water; = the sediment mass
deposited within the reservoir. To obtain data on TE for selected reservoirs or ponds, one
can use the following methods:

1. Reservoir survey with suspended-load measurements downstream,

2. Reservoir survey with suspended-load measurements upstream, and
3. Suspended-load measurements up and downstream.

Sediment Delivery Ratio: It is the ratio between the yield of sediment at the measuring
site and the gross erosion in the catchment.
where, SDR = the sediment delivery ratio; SD = the sediment amount delivered to downstream
at a particular gauging site; and SG = the total sediment generated over the land surface
catchment to the gauging point.
Reservoir Sedimentation Control: In order to increase the life of reservoirs, it is very
essential to control the problem of sedimentation i.e. deposition of sediment in the reservoir.
Various control measures which are adopted to control the reservoir sedimentation can be
classified into the following two types:
1. Pre Constructive Measures
2. Post Constructive Measures
1. Pre Constructive Measure: It refers to those measures which are adopted before and
during the execution work of the reservoir construction. These measures can be
enumerated as follows:
a) Selection of Dam Site: The amount of sediment reaching the reservoir from a
catchment area depends upon the soil erosion caused by water. If the catchment area is
less susceptible to erosion, then less silts are charged into the stream flow. As a result
reservoir silting will be less.
b) Design Capacity of Reservoir: The design capacity of reservoir plays a significant role
in the reservoir sedimentation. When the storage capacity is less than the volume of stream
flow coming into the reservoir, then a large volume of water will be out from the reservoir
quickly. This result in deposition of much less sediment in the reservoir compared to when
the reservoir capacity-inflow ratio is high.
c) Construction of Check Dam: Check dams play a key role in controlling the inflow of
sediment into the reservoir. The check dams are constructed across the stream/river to
trap the major portion of sediment load. These dams trap large amount of coarser
sediments.
d) Installation of Vegetative Screen: Vegetative screen is a vegetative cover through
which flood water passes, before entering into the reservoir. The control of sediment entry
into a reservoir by use of vegetative screen is based on the principle that vegetations trap
large amount of sediments by reducing the flow velocity and filtering the soil particles from
the flood water. It is one of the best and cheapest methods of silt control.
e) Construction of Sluice Gate under the Dam: There must a provision for installation
of sluice gate at the base of the reservoir dam to remove the silted water from the reservoir.
The sediment concentration is more at the bottom of the reservoir. Therefore, sluice gates
(silt excluder) should be located at the lower portion of the dam. This method is not much
suitable as the flow of water tends to develop a channel behind the sluice from where water
flow takes place and as a result most of the silts do not get flushed as they remain
undisturbed. It is very essential that the release of sediment from the reservoir through the
sluice gate must be simultaneously supported by mechanical loosening and scouring of the
neighbouring sediments to increase its effectiveness. However, since this method has
structural problem it is not widely used.
f) Reservoir Operation: The sediment delivery rate increases with the rate of volume of
discharge, which depends on the demand of water of the command area. The amount of
sediment trapped by the reservoir for a given drainage area, increases with the increase in
its capacity. The sedimentation rate decreases with more rigorous use of the reservoir. The
ratio of the reservoir capacity and the size of the drainage basin is one of the most
important factors which govern the annual rate of sediment accumulation in the reservoir.
g) Erosion Control: The erosion is a main source of sediment yield. To control
sedimentation problem of reservoirs, the control of erosion is most essential. The erosion
control measures include all those measures which are effective in preventing or delaying
the movement of sediment laden flow from the origin.
2. Post Constructive Measure: Post constructive measures are undertaken during the
operation of the reservoir. It includes the following methods.
a) Removal of Flood Water: It is well known that the sediment content is more in the
stream water during initial stage of the flood. Therefore, this phase of flood water is not
advised to be collected into the reservoir.
b) Stirring of Sediment: It is generally performed by using a mechanical stirrer. Due to
this, the deposited sediment is scoured and disturbed in the water, which is flushed outside
through the sluice gates.
c) Removal of Silt Deposits: The deposited sediments in the reservoir are also removed
by excavation, dredging and sluicing with hydraulic or mechanical agitators. Dredging
method is the most expensive method among all and is not economically feasible for all
water storage works.
Silt Detention Tanks: A detention dam is a dam built to catch surface runoff and
stream water flow in order to regulate the water flow in areas below the dam. Detention
dams are commonly used to reduce the damage caused by flooding or to manage the flow
rate through a channel. Detention dams can also be constructed to
replenish groundwater and trap sediment. Detention dams are one of three classifications of
dams which include: storage dams, diversion dams, and detention dams. Storage dams are
used to store water for extended lengths of time. The stored water then can be used
for irrigation, livestock, municipal water supply, recreation, and hydroelectric
power generation. Diversion dams are used to raise the water level in order to redirect the
water to the designated location. The diverted water can be used for
supplying irrigation systems or reservoirs.