With oil & gas production from mature fields declining, prospects offshore and in deeper

waters are attracting more attention as a source to meet increasing oil & gas
consumption. Such projects require Subsea Umbilicals, Risers & Flowlines (SURF) to be
developed.

Subsea production of oil & gas is very complex, with the production wellhead situated on
the seabed rather than on a platform.

When considering the SURF system it can be divided into two main groups: • Umbilicals -
these are control elements that have no contact with produced fluids • Risers and
Flowlines - these elements become the main transport system for produced fluids from the
subsea production system to the surface processing system.

An umbilical, or umbilical cable, is a static or dynamic cable that is the vital link between
subsea production and processing systems and the surface, as well as between elements
within the larger subsea system via flying leads. Umbilicals are composite cables that
have the ability to carry out a large range of processes. Their purpose includes: hydraulic
power and chemicals; electric power; and telecommunications (fibre optics). Umbilicals
are able to complete an assortment of tasks, including activating wells, managing subsea
control panels, feeding information about temperatures, pressures, flows and well integrity
back to the surface control teams, supplying hydraulic and electric power to wellheads
and manifolds, as well as delivering chemicals to the subsea wells and into the production
flows.

Flowlines transport unprocessed fluids from the subsea well to the riser. The riser then
transports the fluids to the surface processing system. They are part of the wider flowline,
riser and pipeline system, although retain very distinctive characteristics. The flowline is
also called the production line or import line in some cases and is separate from the
pipeline system.

Risers connect the flowlines to the surface facility. They provide transportation of the
production fluid, as well as transporting injection fluids, control fluids and gas lift to the
subsea system. Due to their vertical positioning, risers experience a range of incredibly
harsh conditions, and as such, are susceptible to fatigue.

Umbilical: https://www.scmdaleel.com/category/subsea-umbilical/216

Umbilical (also known as umbilical cable, or power cable) is cable and/or hose that is used
as a connection between subsea infrastructure and surface facilities/platforms, to provide a
critical connection to control subsurface equipment. In addition, umbilicals can be used to
supply required utilities (power & communication, instrument air, injection gas) from a
“mother” platform to a smaller / satellite platform next to it. Umbilical functions are design
to provide the following:
 Hydraulic pressure to activate valves
 Electrical power to power up subsea control equipment
 Fibre optics to transmit data
 Chemical injection
 Gas lift for gas injection
 Various electrical (control) signals for reading and
monitoring systems
Umbilical can be of several types, namely:
 Power umbilicals and cables used to provide power and various control
systems
 Steel Tube umbilicals are more of an integrated system that includes
powers, control, hydraulic, fiber optic, chemical injection and all other utilities
required.  Sometimes it is also referred to as multicore umbilical.

There are various types of installation methods and the choice is made
based on the project requirements and many other factors.

Type of Lays:…..

…..

…..

In addition to pipelines, many inline and end structures like Wye, Tee
joints, Pipeline End Terminals (PLET) and Sleds are installed in the
catenary between pipe segments.

Inline structures facilitate future tie-in of pipelines coming from these

fields. This would avoid the installation of separate trunk lines.

Refer page 20 and 21 for info and diagram for structures installation

During installation of pipeline with inline structures, pipeline will be

subjected to additional loads in terms of bending moment, tension (axial
force), and rotational effect due to the offset of COG and external
hydrostatic load due to the presence of the structure. The inline structure
passes through various stages of the installation process and the load on
the pipeline will be different at each stage.

In gas pipelines low temperatures may cause the formation of hydrates,

while in oil pipelines waxing and viscosity problems may arise.

Some of the main elements of pipeline system design are:

• the establishment of operational parameters: it is necessary to

know the operational parameters for the pipeline system. Such
parameters are: the amount of medium to be transported; the
composition of the transported medium; the temperature of the
medium, etc. The operational parameters will normally be selected
as the design basis for a given product.

• pipeline size determination: The determination of the pipeline

diameter is performed on the basis of the main operational
parameters for the pipeline system, such as: • annual flow; •
expected system availability (load factor); • requirements for
delivery pressure; • properties of the transported medium

• flow simulations: For gas pipelines as well as for oil pipelines

thermodynamic simulations have to be performed to evaluate the
conditions of the flowing medium. For gas pipelines it is necessary
to analyse the possibility of liquid drop-out, of both water and
 hydrocarbons, as well as hydrate formation. For oil pipelines it is
wax deposition or two-phase (gas–liquid) flow that are of concern.

*Liquid dropout: In the case of two-phase (oil and gas)

flow, slugs may form, particularly at low points in areas
with uneven seabed. Gas hydrates: The presence of free
water in a gas pipeline may result in the formation of gas
hydrates, which are ice-like deposits that are formed under
certain temperature and pressure conditions, depending on
the composition of the gas. The hydrates have a strong
tendency to agglomerate and stick to the pipe wall, thereby
plugging up the pipeline

As part of the pipe size optimisation, important decisions have to be made

regarding the pipeline system:

• single or dual pipeline; • selection of pipe material (carbon

steel, corrosion resistant alloy, etc.); • pipeline coating and
insulation.

DEH WIP:

Advantage

Long heating circuits Piggyback cable strapping and protection

Big diameter (up to 30” ID)

Field proven

Can be installed by S,J and Reel lay Limited application for water up to 1000m

Cable and components could be

repaired/retrofitted.

DEH PIP

Advantage

Applicable in Deepwaters Long power cables required for electricity

supply at mid pipeline location

Field proven Not applicable for continuous heating.

Can be installed by J and Reel lay S-lay not preferred.

Cable and components could be

repaired/retrofitted.
EHT PIP

Advantage Disadvantages

Use of fibre optic monitoring system Limited ID (12”) pipeline lengths.

Field proven Short heating circuits (25km)

Can be installed by only Reel lay or towing S lay and J-lay not possible.

Highly reliable with redundancy up to 300% Not repairable after installation.

Site Investigation: Geophysics is the non-invasive investigation of subsurface conditions in the

earth through measuring, analysing and interpreting physical fields at the surface, whereas
geotechnical investigations are based on indirect measurements of soil properties, either in situ or
on soil samples in the laboratory.

Geophysical investigations typically apply seismic reflection and refraction, gravity, magnetic,
electrical, electromagnetic and radioactivity methods. Some studies are used to determine what is
directly below the surface (the first metre or so), other investigations extend much deeper.

Metocean survey: The objective is to establish hydrographic data and parameters to be used in the
design, installation and operation of the marine pipeline. The most important data describe the
wave, current and water level conditions along the pipeline route. Other data that may have
significant impact on the pipeline project are water temperature and salinity. Wind data are often
considered useful in pipeline projects because of the close correlation between wind and waves.

Route Selection: One of the most important engineering activities, which can have a significant
influence on the overall cost for the installation and operation of a pipeline system, is the definition
of the pipeline route.

Normally the most cost effective solution will be the shortest possible route. However, different
features along the pipeline route, such as severe seabed conditions, environmentally sensitive areas,
historical or archaeological sites, existing facilities for oil/gas production, wind farms, heavy traffic
shipping lanes, etc. may force the pipeline away from the most direct route

Seabed Soil Classification: The classification of the soil is based on visual inspection and laboratory
testing.

Backfill Materials: Engineered soil materials may be used for modification of the seabed and in the
case of pre-lay intervention these materials replace the natural seabed as the foundation for the
pipeline. Soil replacement to improve the foundation properties would typically employ dredged
sand, whereas crushed rock is commonly used for purposes of support or protection.

Backfilling is required to ensure long-term hydrodynamic stability, upheaval buckling resistance, or

mechanical protection
Risk reducing measures:

Concreate coating: The primary function of the concrete coating is to provide negative buoyancy to
the pipeline, and the concrete density is increased by the addition of iron ore aggregate.

An important part of risk management is the introduction and evaluation of risk reducing measures.
Such risk reducing measures depend on the hazards against which the system is to be protected.
Typical risk reducing measures are: • trenching of pipelines to a specified depth; • rock cover on
pipelines; • protective covers on valve assemblies, tees and spools;

Installation Loads:

In addition to gravity forces (self-weight, buoyancy and hydrostatic pressure) environmental loads
are primarily generated by wave and current action.

Installation of marine pipelines is to a great extent weather dependent, and part of the installation
engineering is the determination of the acceptable limits (wind speed, wave height, current) for the
installation to take place. Actions during the construction phase should be carefully evaluated for the
specific method of construction, i.e.: • transport of pipe joints (bare and coated); • installation of
pipe strings (laying, reeling, towing, pulling); • tie-in; • trenching and backfilling;

Pipeline and Riser Type: Flexible or Rigis/Steel pipeline??

……..

…….

Installation methods:

The choice of installation method is influenced by the water depth, pipeline type and material, time
and cost among other things. There are 4 major pipeline installation methods, each with its own
benefits and short comings:

1. S-Lay 2. J-Lay 3. Reel Lay 4. Towing

S Lay:

In S-lay system, a firing line composed of welding, non-destructive evaluation (NDE), and field joint
coating application station runs down the length of the vessel and terminates in a stinger that
guides the pipeline into the water. 1st weld is root pass, 2nd weld is hot pass (purpose is to remove
deficiencies in the root pass), 3rd weld is filler pass are conducted by automatic welding machines
which can rapidly lay down large volumes of weld material. Final weld is cap pass which fills the
residual groove. After welding is completed, the weld is tested for defects by X-ray or ultrasonic
evaluation. Following this NDE process, a field joint coating is applied to protect the weld area from
corrosion.
 Stinger supports the pipe on v-shaped rollers. The angle suspended by the stinger can be adjusted
to accommodate installation at various depths. The suspended pipeline is held by tensioners that are
usually located on the ramp. The section of the pipe on the stinger is subjected to bending and high
tension. If the length of stinger is too short, the pipeline leaving the stinger will undergo excessive
bending at the end of the stinger and will buckle. This buckle might fracture the pipeline and
subsequently flood the line (wet buckle). This will in turn increase the weight of the pipeline which
might become too heavy to be held by tensioners resulting in the loss of the line.

The pipeline bends twice during the S-lay. The upper curved part is known as overbend. This
curvature can be controlled by controlling the tension on the pipeline and changing the angle of the
stinger. Further down, it straightens and then gradually bends in the opposite direction and it is
termed as sagbend. The maximum curvature occurs closer to the seabed at the sagbend. It is
essential to ensure that the pipeline can sustain the combined load of bending and external pressure
at the sagbend.

Traditionally S-lay has been the main pipe installation method for water depths up to 1000 m.

Advantages:

S Lay can handle very shallow water by adjusting the stinger angle accordingly.  The long firing line
provides opportunity to perform better welding and thorough nondestructive testing.  The lay
speed is faster than J Lay

Disadvantages:

There is larger wave action and load on the stinger and the pipeline as it enters the water.  It
cannot handle very deep water as the tension and buckling limits are breached.  It cannot weather
wane easily under rough weather.

J Lay:

No firing line, which means that girth welding and field joint coating must take place in one or at
most two stations only. Thus traditional welding procedures are too time consuming, and
sophisticated methods such as friction welding, electron beam welding or laser welding are used.
Even so, double jointing, or even triple or quadruple jointing, is essential to sustain a reasonable lay
rate. J-lay barges are therefore equipped with a high tower to support the two to four pipe joints
while they are being added to the pipe string.

J-lay is an alternative installation method in which the pipeline leaves the vessel from a nearly
vertical position. The tower angle varies between 0 to 15 degrees. As the pipeline approaches the
seabed it attains the characteristic J-Shape from which the name J-Lay is derived. As the water depth
increases the tension requirements goes up in a conventional S-lay configuration and the stinger
shape becomes more complex. These tough requirements are overcome in J-lay and also the
suspended length is reduced in comparison to s-lay.

However the vertical stance of the stinger leaves the vessel with just one welding and inspection
station usually. To overcome this longer pipe section are used to increase the speed and efficiency of
the operation. They usually consist of two to four 12 m sections pre-welded on shore. Each multiple
length section is then raised to the tower aligned with the suspended pipe, welded to it, inspected
and coated. An additional advantage of lower tension in the line on the seabed translates into
shorter free spans. J-lay is slower than the conventional S-lay but it can install pipes even at a water
depth of 3350 m.

The J-Tower is the core part of the J-Laysystem with the main components being similar across allthe
barges/vessels. An erector arm is used to bring the pipestalk up the vertical tower where it is held in
the tower byan elevator system (Fig.3). Once the welded joint has beencompleted, the elevator
lowers the complete string downto the working table and the process begins again.

Advantages:

The steep ramp angle means that tension is only dictated by the need to limit bending in the
sagbend. Hence the tension requirements are usually lesser than S-Lay  There is no need for stinger
 There is far lesser wave splash zone loads  The lesser tension means that free spans are smaller
and the complex seabed profiles are better negotiated.  It is better suited for congested area as it
can be better positioned than S-lay vessel. This is because the reduced tension ensures that the
touch down point is not as far behind the barge.  It can weathervane better in severe weather.
Installation rigid and heavy pipelines in deepwater. Installation of fatigue sensitive pipes such as
risers. Easy installation of PLETs, ILTPs though the moonpool. Larger weather window. Fast and
relatively safe abandonment and recovery.

Disadvantages:

Low pipelaying rates due to single welding, NTD, coating station; Not suitable for shallow pipelaying;
Because of the steep ramp angle which can accommodate only fewer simultaneous operations, the
lay speed is slower.  The added weight of the ramp high up in the vessel might affect its stability in
rough weather  It is not suited for shallow waters as the ramp angle has to be lowered to a smaller
angle.

Reel Lay Method: Can be used to handle flexible pipe, rigid pipe, and
umbilical.
In reeling method, several kilometers of pipeline are fabricated at an onshore spool base. Then they
are wound onto a large diameter reel mounted on a pipeline installation vessel which travels to the
project location and starts the installation process by unreeling the pipeline.

This facilitates the existing reel vessels to lay at a speed of up to two knots per hour. Most of the
fabrication process – assembly, welding, inspection, and coating are done on-shore which results in
significant reduction in installation time and cost of the process.

Reel technology also provides a safer and more stable work environment, thus
speeding pipeline installation. Reeled pipelines can be installed up to 10 times faster
than conventional pipelay. The greater speed allows pipelines to be laid during a
short weather window.
This can extend the normal construction season. Reel pipelay can be used on
pipelines up to 18 inches in diameter. The reel method reduces labor costs by
permitting much of the welding, x-raying, corrosion coating, and testing to be
accomplished onshore, where labor costs are generally lower than comparable labor
costs offshore. 

Horizontal reel vessels lay pipelines in shallow to intermediate water depths using
a stinger and S-lay method. The station-keeping of vessels with horizontal reels can
be by anchors or DP. The vertical reel vessel can normally install pipelines from the
intermediate water depths to deepwater and station-keeping is always DP. For
deepwater, the J-lay configuration is used and no stinger is required.

Vertical reel vessel:

The vessel moves ahead while it slowly unreels the pipeline from the drum. When the end of
the pipeline on the drum is unreeled, a pullhead connected to a wire rope is attached. The
end of the pipeline is lowered to the seabed by paying out the A&R (abandonment and
recovery) wire rope from the reel vessel slowly in a controlled method always maintaining
sufficient tension in the pipeline. A buoy is attached at the end of the A&R cable. The reel
vessel returns to the spool base to load more welded pipeline on the reel drum. On
returning, it pulls the end of the pipeline using the A&R cable, removes the pullhead, and
welds it to the pipeline on the drum. It then begins the unreeling process again.

The main disadvantages of the reeling method are:

 Connecting the ends of the pipeline segments

 Amount of time to re-reel the pipeline to remove a buckle
 Establishing a spool base close to the location where the pipeline is
to be laid
 Concrete-coated pipelines cannot be reeled
 Only specifically designed pipe-in-pipe pipelines can be reeled
 The pipeline is plastically deformed and then straightened. Some
thinning of the wall and loss of yield strength of the material in localized
areas can occur
Pipeline is reeled off by passing over an aligner and then through the straightener system located on
the vessel ramp (or tower). The pipe is reversed bent in the straightener system to remove the
residual curvature from the reel. It then passes through tensioner that grip the pipe and apply an
upward force to maintain the catenary of the pipeline as it passes down from the vessel to the
seabed.

The reels can be installed either horizontal or vertical. Horizontal reel barges can do only S-
lay installation; however, vertical reel barges can perform both J-lay and S-lay pipeline
installation.

Advantages:

Improved control on fabrication standards since it happens at the spool base. b. Influence of bad
weather is reduced due to fast installation speed. c. Minimum preparation to assemble spools of
various sizes of pipes for continuous installation. d. Can also be used for pipeline bundles.

Disadvantages:
 a. Maximum pipeline size limited up to 18-inch diameter. b. Relatively thick wall thickness
required to accommodate the plastic strain induced during the process of spooling and
unspooling. Limited length of pipeline that can be reeled into a single reel. The larger the
diameter, the lesser the length of pipeline that can be reeled. d. Cement coating cannot be
performed and if any internal lining is made then it needs proper analysis to avoid wrinkling.

Towing:

Towing is another method of pipeline installation that is ideal for shorter pipeline sections, shore
approaches as well as bundles. A section of pipeline is constructed onshore and is then towed to the
installation site. An advantage of this method is that welding, inspection and testing are conducted
onshore before installation. There are 4 different types of towing methods:

Pic….

Shore approach Construction:

Shore Pull

Offshore Pull

Flexible Pipe:

flexible pipes are an alternative to rigid steel flowlines and risers. In particular, the use of flexible
pipes in connection with floating production systems (FPS) is an area that has been subject to a rapid
growth. their ability to work under extreme dynamic conditions and their relatively good insulating
and chemical compatibility properties compared with rigid carbon steel pipes. Furthermore, flexible
pipes are used as tie-in jumpers due to their ability to function as expansion spools, and the jumpers
can be installed without carrying out a detailed metrology survey. The flexible pipes are used for a
multitude of functions, including production and export of hydrocarbon fluids, injection of water, gas
and chemicals into an oil/gas reservoir, and service lines for wellheads. Flexible pipes can be
manufactured in long continuous lengths. Consequently, long flowlines can be installed without
introducing intermediate joints, thus minimising the risk of leaking flange connections.

flexible pipes are custom designed, complex multi-layered structures, built from a number of
helically wound metallic wires or strips combined with concentric layers of polymers, textiles, fabric
tapes and lubricants. The number, type and sequence of the component layer depends on the
specific design requirements.

Flexible pipe installation is characterised by being a fast operation that can use even a relatively
narrow weather window.

Trenching of a flexible pipe may be required to protect it from third party damage, for example from
fishing equipment, or to obtain additional thermal insulation properties. The trenching operation
may be carried out simultaneously with the pipe laying, or subsequent to it.

It is recognised that a majority of flexible pipe failures occur during the installation phase. A common
failure is damage of the outer sheath due to interference with, for example, steel wires or trenching
equipment.
Risers:

Riser system is defined as the interface between a static subsea facility and the dynamic Floating Production
Unit (FPU) at the sea surface.

Riser Body: The conduit marked as 2 is the riser body which depending upon the project
requirements can be made of metal or flexible pipe. Its main purpose is to transfer
produced fluid between the subsea facility and FPU at sea surface.

System Interface: While designing riser system, designer should not only focus on the
design of the riser body but he must also pay attention to the top and bottom interface of
the riser with FPSO and seabed respectively. At both these locations all the components
and equipments must be present which are required for connection, installation, operation,
maintenance and removal of the riser body

These riser systems can be categorized into two groups:

Coupled Riser: The risers which are directly connected from FPSO to seabed such that
host vessel motions are directly transferred to the riser segment and the TDZ, are called as
coupled riser. These include:
 Catenary or Free Hanging Unbonded Flexible Riser
 Lazy Wave Unbonded Flexible Riser
 Pliant Wave Unbonded Flexible Riser
 Steel Catenary Riser (SCR)
 Steel Lazy Wave Riser (SLWR)

Un-coupled Risers: The riser concepts in which the subsurface buoy acts as an
interface between the rigid riser (vertical or catenary) connected to seabed and the flexible
jumper attached to FPSO, such that most of the vessel motion is taken by jumper thereby
making rigid portion of the riser free from vessel motions are called as uncoupled riser
concepts. These include:
 Hybrid Riser Tower (HRT)
 Single Hybrid Riser (SHR)
 Buoyancy Supported Riser (BSR)

Free hanging catenary:

Advantages:
 Simple concept with minimal subsea infrastructure.
 Easy and cheap to install.

Disadvantages:
 Lower fatigue life and high bending stress at TDP.
 High vessel payload.
 Possibility of steel tensile armor “birdcaging”.
 High top tension requirements in deepwater.
 Possibility of snatch loads at TDP.
Lazy Wave: “Free hanging catenary modified by a section with distributed buoyancy modules.” Since in harsh
environments free hanging catenary is not feasible so it becomes necessary to decouple the host vessel
response form the riser portion at seabed interface by employing distributed buoyancy modules along the
specified length of the riser.

Advantages:
 Due to decoupling of vessel motions from Touch Down Zone (TDZ) of riser, the fatigue life
of riser at TDP is improved and vessel payload is reduced.
 Preferred to Steep Wave as it requires minimum structures on seabed.
 More complaint than Lazy S-configuration, which makes it suitable for harsher
environments as it allows larger vessel offsets. [Anderson and Connor, 2012].

Disadvantages:
 Expensive than free hanging catenary due to usage of buoyancy modules.
 Configuration changes considerably with the change in bore content density.
 The probability of riser clashing increases in case of large transverse currents. In order to
prevent clashing of adjacent risers and buoyancy modules the heading between them
should be approximately 10 degree. This heading requirement puts a restriction on number
of risers that can be adjusted with the mooring system

Pliant (Tethered) wave: Contrary to lazy wave in which the tension of the riser is transferred to the TDP, this
configuration utilizes tether and anchor to take all the riser tension from its TDP.
Advantages:
 It allows use of variety of liquids having different density as it is less prone to change in
bore content density when compared to Lazy Wave [Bai & Bai, 2005].
 It also permits large vessel motions without overstressing of the riser.
 The fatigue life at TDP is improved as the vessel motion is transferred to tether.
 Less vessel payload.
 It does not require bend stiffener and separate riser base as it is connected directly to the
well.
 Well intervention can be done through host vessel as the riser is connected to the subsea
well located in close vicinity of the vessel.

Disadvantages:
 Installation and formation of configuration is complex.
 Challenge is faced to control the curvature of the riser at the position where it is tethered
to the anchor.
 Requires additional tethering arrangement and clamp which adds to cost and installation
complexity. Hence should be used only when other configurations are not possible.

Steel Risers: Rigid metallic risers are lengths of metal pipe (generally steel) extending from seabed to floater
unit in various configurations like vertical, catenary and lazy wave. When used with FPSO, vertical rigid risers
i.e. TTRs are not feasible due to large stroke motions of the FPSO. Hence only two configurations of steel risers
namely Steel Catenary Riser (SCR) and Steel Lazy Wave Riser (SLWR) have been field proven with FPSO in
deepwater till now.

SCR:
Such long length of steel riser when connected between FPU and seabed in catenary
position is termed as Steel Catenary Riser (SCR). This configuration is complaint enough to
absorb the host vessel motions and hence do not require any heave compensator like TTRs.
SCR when hooked to FPSO is suitable for benign environments because in moderate and harsh environments it
has significant dynamic response which can cause its fatigue damage at hang off and TDP location. Also at large
water depths SCR tend to impose huge vessel payload and its installation also becomes challenging. Therefore
to improve its fatigue life and reduce vessel payload lazy wave configuration (SLWR) is used in moderate
environments and large water depths.

SLWR: The primary advantages of SLWR over SCR are reduced vessel payload and improved fatigue life.
However installation of SLWR is challenging due to installation of discrete buoyancy modules.
Advantages
1. Less Costly: When compared to flexible risers, steel risers are approximately 50%
cheaper, which is a major advantage in favor of steel risers.

Light Weight: In comparison to flexible risers, steel risers are lighter and hence they
impose less vessel payloads. Due to this advantage steel risers are replacing flexible riser for
deepwater applications in benign environments.

High Collapse Resistance: Steel risers have larger collapse resistance when compared to
flexible risers which permits its use in deepwater even with large diameters.

Simple Design: SCR in particular is a very simple to design riser system as it does not
require ant complicated end fittings and bottom assemblies.

No Heave Compensator: When compared to Top Tensioned Risers (TTRs), steel risers do
not require any heave compensator as they are complaint enough to accommodate vessel
motions.

Non - Monopolized Market: Unlike flexible risers which can be manufactured by very few
manufacturers, steel risers can be fabricated and installed by large number of companies,
this eases the bidding process.

Suitable for Sour Service Conditions: Steel risers having internal clad layer are suitable
for sour service conditions and hence can replace flexible risers in such conditions.

Easy Installation: SCRs particularly can be installed by large number of methods such as
J-lay, S-lay and reel lay which are industry proven. Also large number of contractors can
install SCRs.

Wide Application Range: Steel risers are suitable for large range of diameters varying from
6” to 30” in water depths varying from 600m to 2000m

Assists the Mooring System: Steel risers being complaint in nature has a tendency to
assist the mooring system in keeping the floater unit stationed at a particular position.

11. Suitable for HP/HT Conditions: Steel risers can be used as an alternative to flexible
risers for HP/HT conditions as flexible riser technology is still not qualified for these
conditions.

12. Large Local Content: Construction of steel riser unlike flexible riser is generally
carried out in local yard which involves large number of local workforce. Thus providing
employment opportunities to the local workforce.

Limitations
1. High Dynamic Response: Steel risers especially SCRs have high dynamic response
especially when they are tied back to FPSO/semi-sub in harsh environments.

2. Poor Fatigue Performance: As a result of high dynamic response the fatigue life of SCR
at hang off and TDP is reduced considerably which results in poor fatigue performance.

3. Large Subsea Footprint Area: Particularly for SCR and SLWR the riser spread is very
large which means that these riser concepts cannot be used in congested seabed
conditions. SCRs require a radial spread of 1 to 1.5 times of the water depth they are
installed at. So with the increase in water depth the corresponding SCR spread increases
which can become a hassle for congested fields.
Clashing Issues: In case of large number of steel risers attached to host vessel, clashing
may occur between adjacent risers and mooring lines. This can lead to serious accident and
hence must be prevented.

Risk of Compression at TDP: In case of light weighted SCRs which are attached to FPSO
in harsh environment conditions which can have heave stroke up to 10m, the chances of
compression of SCR at TDP is huge.

6. Limited Thermal Performance: Steel risers cannot have OHTC of less than 3 W/m2K.
This is because as the thickness of wet insulation on the riser increases, it tends to become
lighter and hence is subjected to more severe dynamic motions thereby causing its fatigue.

7. Tighter Tolerances during Fabrication: SCRs which are tied back to FPSO has to be
fabricated to tighter tolerances in order to avoid fatigue issues. This is a daunting task and
it increases the fabrication cost on per weld basis [Subsea7, 2013].

8. Requirement of High Specification Welds: SCR and SLWR require high specification
girth welds for better fatigue performance. Also stringent acceptance criteria is used which
again require high quality welds.

9. Susceptible to VIV Fatigue Damage: For regions like US GoM where high current
velocities are dominant VIV may result in severe fatigue damage of steel risers.

Discussion & Conclusion

The key conclusions that can be made from the chapter are:
1. Steel risers are preferred over flexible riser for deep water because of their cost
effectiveness, less weight and high collapse resistance even at large diameters. The two
configurations in which steel risers are used is SCR and SLWR.

2. At present there are three SCRs and one SLWR installed with deepwater FPSO
worldwide. All three SCRs have been installed with spread moored FPSO in Nigeria while
one SLWR is installed with internal turret moored FPSO in offshore Brazil.

3. The key design issues with SCRs are low fatigue life of hang off and TDP, large subsea
footprint area and clashing.

4. It is a common industry practice to use metallurgical clad/mechanically lined pipe near

hang-off location and TDZ of SCR in order to improve its fatigue life.

5. A research program by RPSEA is being carried out presently where they are assessing
different rigid riser concepts and materials of riser for ultra-deepwater application. The
results will be published in August 2015 and will be interesting to see.

Hybrid Riser: Hybrid riser can be defined as an assembly of upper flexible section and lower rigid section
having an interface at subsurface buoy. The flexible riser section is connected to the host vessel while the
lower rigid riser section is connected to a foundation pile on the seabed.

Depending upon the shape of the lower rigid portion of the hybrid riser they can be classified as Free Standing
Hybrid Riser (FSHR) and Buoyancy Supported Riser (BSR). While in FSHR the rigid riser is a vertical section, the
same in case of BSR is having a catenary shape. Both also differ in the shape of subsurface buoy, with FSHR
having a cylindrical buoyancy tank/can while BSR having H-shaped buoy. However for both riser concepts the
buoy is generally placed 50 to 250m below the sea level where the wave, wind and current effects are minimal.
2nd and 3 Generation Hybrid Bundle Riser called as Hybrid Riser Tower (HRT)
rd

3rd Generation Single Hybrid Riser (SHR): An alternate hybrid riser arrangement is Single Hybrid Riser (SHR)
which unlike bundle HRT utilizes a single steel riser to transport well fluids from the seabed to the FPU thereby
mitigating the risk of failure of entire riser in case structural core fails.

Buoyancy supported riser:

7.6 Advantages & Limitations
7.6.1 Advantages
1. Low Vessel Payload: Since hybrid risers are un-coupled solutions with most of the load
of rigid riser being taken by sub-surface buoyancy tank, so they impose very less vessel
payloads when compared to flexible and steel riser. Even for water depths exceeding 2500m
the load due to increased rigid riser length is compensated by increasing the size of
buoyancy tank thus keeping the vessel payload minimal.

2. Excellent Fatigue Response: As most of the floater motions are taken by the flexible
jumper so the dynamic response of the rigid riser is minimal and hence the fatigue life is
much higher than SCRs.

3. Early First Oil: Hybrid risers can be installed prior to arrival of the floater unit which
allows the first oil to be produced early and thus adding to cost efficiency.

4. Excellent Insulation Properties: With hybrid risers having wet insulation of 150mm
thickness an OHTC of 1.7 W/m²K can be achieved with minimal riser dynamics [Marcoux &
Legras, 2011]. This favors the use of hybrid risers from flow assurance point of view.

5. Easy Installation: HRTs are generally towed to site and upended at the site, while most
of SHR are installed from the J-lay tower of the installation vessel. Both of these methods
are well proven in offshore industry and therefore easy to accomplish.

6. Large Local Content: Construction of hybrid riser unlike flexible riser is generally
carried out in local yard which involves large number of local workforce. Thus providing
employment opportunities to the local workforce.

7. Simplifies Field Layout: Since HRT has all the risers gathered in a bundle so they are
suited for congested field layout where flexible risers and SCRs can’t be used. Even SLOR
when used as Grouped SLOR can improve the field layout.

8. Less Severe Slugging: Because of use of top flexible jumper section, the severe slugging
in rigid section of hybrid risers is broken down into smaller slugs and thus results in less
severe slugging when compared to SCRs.

9. Large Number of Contractors Available: Unlike flexible riser which has only five
manufacturers in the world, hybrid risers can be fabricated and installed by large number
of contractors. This is especially highly cost efficient for operators as large number of
contractors offer varying prices due to competition.

10. Wide Range of Applicability: There is no known limit of water depth and pressure
with which hybrid riser can be used which means they can be used in ultra-deep water as
well [Marcoux & Legras, 2011].

11. Standardized Components: Most of the components used in HRT and SHR are being
standardized which lowers the requirement of equipment qualification testing.
7.6.2 Limitations
1. High Cost: Due to requirement of expensive bottom assemblies the overall cost of the
hybrid riser is several times higher than SCRs and even higher than flexible risers.

2. Complex Bottom Assemblies: The bottom assemblies of HRT and SHR are difficult to
design and are very bulky. Due to their large size installation seems to be a big a hassle
especially for SHR.

3. High Risk of Failure: Since all the production and service riser are bundled together in
HRT so failure of the core structural core pipe increases the risk of failure of the entire riser
system.
4. Clashing Issues: Due to difference in stiffness of the production risers, gas lift risers and
umbilicals their response to the wave and current loading is different. And if large numbers
of these risers are bundled together in HRT then chances of clashing is high. Also large
number of SHRs placed together can be subjected to clashing.

5. Inability to Inspect: For 1st and 2nd generation HRTs the production and service lines
are placed inside the foam module which restraints their visual inspection.

6. High Installation Fatigue: For HRTs which are generally towed to site, the fatigue due
to towing operation can be extremely high for harsh weather conditions of Northern
Norwegian Sea, due to which they can’t be installed at sites located in such harsh weather
conditions.

7.7 Discussion & Conclusion

The key conclusions that can be made from the chapter are:
1. Currently three configurations of hybrid risers namely Hybrid Riser Tower, Single Hybrid
Riser (single pipe & COR) and Buoyancy Supported Riser have been installed with FPSO in
deepwater up to 2500m.

2. Most of the hybrid risers have been installed in deepwater fields of WoA having benign
environment. The only exception to this are SHRs located in Cascade and Chinook field in
US GoM and BSRs located in 2 pre salt fields located in Santos Basin of Brazil.

3. HRT and SHR require complex, bulky and expensive bottom assemblies. Most of the
HRTs till date have been beach fabricated, towed to site and upended.

4. All of the SHRs have been installed by J-lay tower of installation vessel.

5. Main advantages of hybrid risers are reduced vessel payload, robustness, better dynamic
performance, low operational fatigue, high local content and optimum field layout.

6. Main disadvantages of hybrid riser are high cost, bulky bottom assemblies and clashing
issues amongst adjacent risers, jumpers and umbilicals.

7. The future of hybrid risers involves use of novel concepts like Grouped SLOR, COBRA
and Tethered Catenary Riser.

Remaining type of risers are :

The first type of riser to be

developed, attached risers are deployed on fixed platforms, compliant towers and concrete
gravity structures. Attached risers are clamped to the side of the fixed facilities, connecting
the seabed to the production facility above. Usually fabricated in sections, the riser section
closest to the seafloor is joined with a flowline or export pipeline, and clamped to the side of
the facility. The next sections rise up the side of the facility, until the top riser section is
joined with the processing equipment atop the facility.
Also used on fixed structures, pull tube risers are pipelines or flowlines that are
threaded up the center of the facility. For pull tube risers, a pull tube with a diameter
wider than the riser is preinstalled on the facility. Then, a wire rope is attached to a
pipeline or flowline on the seafloor. The line is then pulled through the pull tube to the
topsides, bringing the pipe along with it.

Used on TLPs and spars, top-tensioned risers are a completely vertical riser system that
terminates directly below the facility. Although moored, these floating facilities are able to
move laterally with the wind and waves. Because the rigid risers are also fixed to the
seafloor, vertical displacement occurs between the top of the riser and its connection point
on the facility. There are two solutions for this issue. A motion compensator can be included
in the top-tensioning riser system that keeps constant tension on the riser by expanding and
contracting with the movements of the facility. Also, buoyancy cans, can be deployed around
the outside of the riser to keep it afloat. Then the top of the rigid vertical top-tensioned riser
is connected to the facility by flexible pipe, which is better able to accommodate the
movements of the facility.

Installation: