THE CLASSICAL AGE

VOCAL MUSIC: (MOSTLY ITALIAN) OPERA

THE DIFFERENT TYPES: OPERA BUFFA
• Italian comic opera or Opera buffa: ‘Term… first applied to the
genre of comic opera as it rose to popularity in Italy and abroad
over the course of the 18th century.’ (Grove)
• Did not feature in official designations at first, but only in
informal writings & ordinary conversation. Some of the commoner
terms used for the genre include dramma giocoso, dramma
comico & commedia per musica. In time, opera buffa emerged to
cover all the above.
• Full length work with several singing characters; usually sung
throughout, unlike in other countries where comic opera could
also involve speech.
OPERA BUFFA (Cont.)
• Unlike previous eras where plots centred around histories, myths &
legends, Italian comic opera focussed on ordinary people & their lives, the
humour arising from their interactions with each other, often containing
satire, moral overtones, etc.
• Comic opera was very often found to caricature certain ‘stock characters’
like ‘aristocrats and commoners, vain ladies, miserly old men, awkward
and clever servants, deceitful husbands and wives, pedantic lawyers,
bungling physicians, and pompous military commanders.’ (Burkholder et
al)
• Comic case often complemented by serious characters, e.g. in love affairs.
• Probably why the earliest audience for this genre comprised the middle
class, with aristocrats & higher society (who initially considered the genre
low class) warming up to it only gradually.
OPERA BUFFA (Cont.)
• Although the genre dabbled briefly with sentimentality during the middle
of the 18th Century (e.g. in La buona figliuola with libretto by Carlo
Goldoni & music by Egidio Duni), the buffa characteristics won through
eventually.
• Opera buffa became the dominant form of theatre music everywhere,
eclipsing the importance of other forms considerably—‘Its history in the
later 18th century becomes virtually that of opera in general and its
composers.’ (Grove)
• Works of the prominent Italian composers of the comic opera were often
performed abroad, while non-Italian composers also adopted the style &
became famous at it. The peak of the buffa style was, of course, the 3
crowning masterpieces by a non-Italian, Mozart: Le nozze di Figaro (1786,
Vienna), Don Giovanni (1787, Prague) and Così fan tutte(1790, Vienna).
OPERA SERIA
• Term used to signify Italian opera on a heroic/tragic subject.
• Similar to the opera buffa, the term opera seria was rarely used at the
time. A more widely used term was dramma per musica.
• Compared to comic opera, the opera seria afforded librettists/
composers much greater scope for telling tales of bravery, heroism &
so on, often drawn from Latin/Greek myths & legends.
• At the beginning of the 18th Century, reformist operatic composers in
Italy sought to ‘bring the libretto into accordance with the principles
of classical Greek drama as set forth in Aristotle's Poetics’, as opposed
to the ‘undisciplined, irrational and often licentious opera librettos
then in use.’ (Grove)
OPERA SERIA (Cont.)
• Certain conventions, stemming from the ‘standardising’ of
operatic repertoire, arose as a result (which varied greatly with
time)—
▪ Tragic endings were NOT particularly looked upon favourably.
▪ ‘Poets were expected to portray what, according to an orderly
moral system, should have happened rather than what actually
did happen’. (Grove)
▪ Death was to be avoided if possible, else to happen off stage;
also the manner of death was regulated (death in battle was
‘tolerable’, as opposed to murder).
▪ History was preferred to fables/myths.
OPERA SERIA (Cont.)
• Much of the opera seria form was standardised in composers’
setting to music the literary works of the Italian poet Pietro
Metastasio (1698 – 1782). His early success in various cultural
centres in Italy led to a permanent, lifelong position as court poet
in Vienna.
• A tone of conflict was often the hallmark of Metastasio’s works:
Human passions (love vs. duty, benevolence vs. tyranny of rulers).
• ‘His operas were intended to promote morality through
entertainment and to present models of merciful and enlightened
rulers, in tune with Enlightenment thought.’ (Burkholder et al)
OPERA SERIA: DRAMA & MUSIC
• Metastasian librettos often involved 2 pairs of lovers surrounded by
other characters, providing opportunities for pastoral scenes, ‘martial
episodes, solemn ceremonies,’ (Burkholder et al) etc.
• Almost always consisted of alternations between aria (often a dramatic
soliloquy where the character reacts to previous happenings) &
recitative (dialogues & monologues).
• Metastasio’s librettos were set to music by the prominent composers of
the day, e.g. Gluck & Mozart (La Clemenza di Tito, a tale of love &
jealousy).
• The role of the orchestra, at first only in the capacity of the
accompanist, became much more prominent during the course of the
18th Century.
ARIA
• The centrepiece of the opera in the 18th Century was the aria,
both in the comic & the serious genres.
• The form underwent several changes throughout the century,
depending on the genre of opera it was written for.
• Comic opera: Arias in galant style, with ‘short tuneful phrases,
often repeated or varied, organized into periods, and
accompanied by simple harmonies and figuration.’ (Burkholder
et al) In some cases, instrumentation consisted of a 4-part
string ensemble, while in other cases it would be confined to a
solitary continuo part.
ARIA (Cont.)
• Form: The arias favoured the Da capo form, e.g. Metastasio’s 2-
stanza texts that provided the ideal platform.
• Arias could reflect a single mood throughout, or present contrasting
moods (especially suited for da capo arias whose B sections could
provide the intended contrast).
• Some arias also did away with the B section altogether, opting
instead for variations of the single section, surrounded by ritornello
passages.
• The vocal part usually dominated the texture, with orchestral
sections rarely coming to the fore (except in ritornellos where they
could become independent).
READING
• Burkholder et al. A History of Western Music, pp. 483 – 493.
• Grove articles on opera, opera buffa & opera seria (relevant
sections).