Thermoregulation: Physiological Responses and

Adaptations to Exercise in Hot and Cold Environments

Body temperature is kept constant by balancing both heat gain and heat loss.
Humans need to maintain a constant body temperature of about 37°C. To
maintain this temperature at a constant point throughout the body’s internal
systems, mechanisms must be in place to accurately measure present body
temperature, and to regulate as needed. This system is known as the
thermoregulatory system. The metabolic heat generated by oxidation of food
in the visceral organs and tissues (body core) is a constant source of heat.
Core body temperature can also be dramatically increased with muscular
activity, nervous and hormonal factors (such as sympathetic nervous
activity), catecholamines, and thyroid hormones.

 Body temperature can vary in different regions. The tissues of the

extremities and the skin are far from the core (the core consists of the brain
and visceral organs and tissues in the trunk), and they are in direct contact
with the external environment. These tissues tend to have slightly lower
temperatures.

 For example: In a room temperature of 21°C, hand, foot and skin

temperatures are about 28 °C and 21 °C respectively.

Even core temperature is not a constant 37°C at all times. A circadian

(diurnal) cycle exists, core temperature being the lowest in morning (36.7 °C)
and highest in the evening (37.2°C).

Mechanisms by Which Our Body Regulates Temperature

Transfer of Body Heat

In temperature regulation, it is imperative that your body can transfer internal

heat out away from the body and into the external environment. To do this,
heat from the interior of the body needs to be moved to the skin via the blood.
Once the heat reaches the skin, it can be transferred to the external
environment in one of four ways: conduction, convection, radiation or
evaporation.

 
Heat conduction involves the transfer of heat from one material to another
through direct molecular contact. Heat from the body’s interior can transfer
itself from one tissue to an adjacent tissue until it reaches the outer surface of
the skin, where it is released into the atmosphere. This mechanism can work
both ways. If a hot object is pressed against the skin (such as a heating pad),
the heat from the object will transfer to the skin, heating the general area.

Convection involves moving heat from one place to another by the motion of
a gas or liquid across the heated surface. The air around us is in constant
motion. As it circulates over the skin of an individual, it displaces the air
molecules that have been warmed by their contact with the skin. The greater
the movement of air (or liquid, such as water), the greater the amount of heat
removal by convection. When convection is combined with conduction,
convection can cause the body to gain heat in an already hot environment
when the surroundings are hotter than the skin.

Although both of the aforementioned mechanisms of body heat transfer

remove body heat when the air temperature is lower than skin temperature,
their contribution to the body’s total heat loss is relatively small – only about
10% to 20%. If, however, an individual is submerged in cold water, the
amount of heat dissipated from the body to the water is nearly 26 times
greater than when the body is exposed to a similar air temperature. When air
or water temperature is greater than the skin temperature, the body will gain
heat through both conduction and convection. Therefore it can be concluded
that both conduction and convection can either contribute to heat loss or heat
gain, depending on whether or not the external temperature of the
environment exceeds that of the internal temperature of the individual. The
gradient works in both directions.

When the body is in its resting state, the primary method the body utilizes for
discharging extra internal heat is radiation. At normal room temperature (21-
25°C), the body loses about 60% of its heat via radiation. In this method of
thermoregulation, the heat is given off in the form of infrared rays, which are
a type of electromagnetic wave. The skin is constantly radiating heat in all
directions to the objects adjacent to it, such as clothing or furniture. The body
can also receive heat from objects around it via radiation from objects that are
warmer. If the temperature of the surrounding objects is greater than that of
the skin, the body will experience a net heat gain through radiation. A
tremendous amount of radiational heat is received from exposure to the sun.
 

Evaporation is the primary avenue for heat dissipation. As fluid evaporates,

heat is lost into the external environment. Evaporation accounts for about
80% of the total heat loss during activity, but only about 20% at rest.
Whenever body fluid is brought into contact with the external environment,
such as in the lungs, at the mucosa and at the skin insensible water loss takes
place. Insensible water loss is simply water that is lost from the body without
the individual’s conscious recognition. Insensible water loss removes about
10% of the total metabolic heat produced by the body, but this mechanism for
heat loss is relatively constant, even during activity. Therefore, when the
body needs to lose more heat quickly, insensible water loss is vastly
inefficient. Instead, as internal body temperature increases, sweat production
also increases. As sweat reaches the skin, it is converted from a liquid to a
vapor by heat from the surface of the skin. Evaporation of 1 L of sweat
results in the loss of 580 kcal.

BONUS: Yet another way the body can affect heat loss is by the use of body
hair. Although this mechanism is of little value in humans, as was
preordained, the use of body hair (and fur) is of great value to animals,
especially those living in cold environments. In cold weather, skin hairs in
both humans and animals stand up (called piloerection), which causes
entrapment of the air in the hair web. The trapped air forms an insulating
layer due to the blood exchanging heat with the warmer microclimate created
by the hair web, rather than the colder environment of the air outside of the
web.

Table 1: Estimated Caloric Heat Loss at Rest and During Prolonged Exercise
(70% of VO2max)

 Rest Exercise
Mechanism of heat loss % total kcal/min % total kcal/min
Conduction and 20 0.3 15 2.2
convection
Radiation 60 0.9 5 0.8
Evaporation 20 0.3 80 12
Total 100 1.5 100 15
Adapted from C.V. Gisolfi and C.B. Wegner, 1984.

Table 1 represents the estimated caloric heat loss both at rest and during
prolonged bouts of exercise at 70% of VO2max. At 70% VO2max, heat
production is ten times higher than at rest. The values presented in Table 1
are averages, because individual metabolic heat production varies with body
size, composition, and temperature. Environmental conditions, such as air
velocity, humidity, and sun exposure will also affect these values.

Humidity and Heat Loss

Humidity (water vapor content of air) plays a significant role in heat loss,
especially by evaporation. In high humidity climates, the air already contains
many water molecules, which decreases the air’s capacity to accept more
water. This is due to the concentration gradient, which is decreased in cases
of high humidity. The high humidity limits sweat evaporation, and hence,
heat loss. On the other hand, low humidity promotes heat loss through
evaporation, especially during exercise. Nonetheless, low humidity
environments are not without their problems to the athlete. If water from the
skin evaporates faster than sweat production, severe dryness of the skin may
occur.

Humidity plays a deeper role than most athletes realize. Humidity affects an
individual’s perception of thermal stress. Consider the two following
scenarios:

Exposure to dry desert air (90°F) with 10% relative humidity (low) compared
with the exposure to air at the same temperature (90°F) with 90% relative
humidity (high). An individual will sweat profusely in the desert air (due to
the concentration gradient being low in the dryer air). Evaporation in the dry
air will occur so quickly that the individual may not even be aware of the
presence of sweat. In the air that is 90% saturated with water, very little
sweat is allowed to evaporate. The result is a continuous bath of sweat
dripping from the skin. As a result, there is little heat removal, and the
comfort level of the individual decreases.

Even at moderate environmental temperatures, humidity is of primary

concern during activity due to the fact that evaporation is the primary method
of internal heat removal. Fortunately, God designed our mechanisms of heat
removal to be very effective, even when environmental conditions are less
than ideal.

Control of Heat Exchange

Normally, internal body temperature is kept at a steady 98.6°F. During

activity, the body is often unable to dissipate heat as rapidly as it is being
produced (heat is one of the byproducts of the ATP producing metabolic
pathways). As a result, an athlete can develop a heightened internal
temperature sometimes exceeding 104°F with temperatures above 107.6°F in
active muscles! The metabolic pathways in skeletal muscles can become
more efficient with a slight increase in local temperature, but core
temperature above 104°F can display adverse affects upon the nervous
system and can even further inhibit the mechanisms designed to release
internal heat into the external environment. In order to keep the body working
efficiently; it must be designed with an internal mechanism that regulates
internal temperature. Enter the hypothalamus gland.

This author discussed the hypothalamus gland in-depth in Endocrine Insanity

Part I:

 The hypothalamus is the controller of the endocrine system. It's the king of
the crop. The hypothalamus is the connection from the endocrine system to
the brain. Parts of the hypothalamus that are visible in basal and mid-
sagittal views of the gross brain include the mammillary body and the
infundibulum (tuber cinereum).

 The hypothalamus is a region of the brain located just above the pituitary
gland. In fact, it’s intimately related to the pituitary and connected via the
hypophyseal stalk. The hypothalamus releases six hormones, which regulate
function of the pituitary gland.
 Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH) is a tripeptide hormone released by
special hypothalamic secretory cells. TRH moves down the hypophyseal stalk
via the hypothalamal-hypophyseal tract and into the anterior pituitary gland.
Here, TRH stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and
prolactin.

 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is a peptide hormone consisting

of ten amino acids. GnRH stimulates the release of LH and FSH from the
anterior pituitary; thus indirectly increasing increased testosterone levels in
males and increased estrogen and progesterone levels in females.

 Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) is a very large, powerful and

complex hormone. GHRH consists of two peptides, one containing 40 amino
acids, and the other containing 44. As the name indicates, GHRH stimulates
the anterior pituitary to release GH. GHRH is secreted in pulses preceding
the GH release pulse.

 Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is a peptide consisting of 41 amino

acids. The hypothalamus secretes CRH into the hypophysial portal blood.
CRH then stimulates the release of ACTH (adrenocorticotropin hormone) in
the anterior pituitary.

Somatostatin is a mixture of two peptides. One containing 14 amino acids

and the other, 28 aminos. Somatostatin can also be called growth hormone-
inhibiting hormone (GHIH) due to its effects on the release of GH.
Somatostatin inhibits the release of both GH and TSH by the anterior
pituitary.

Dopamine derives from the amino acid tyrosine and acts as an

inhibiting hormone, much like somatostatin. But rather than
inhibiting GH and TSH, dopamine inhibits prolactin production by
the anterior pituitary.

Dopamine also effects breathing, as stated here by Doctors T.

Nishino and S. Lahiri:

The steady-state relationship between chemoreceptor activity and

 ventilation shows that the ventilatory equivalent for carotid
chemoreceptor activity is increased during dopamine infusion
because of its greater inhibitory effect on carotid chemoreceptor
activity than on ventilation with the decrease of arterial O2 tension.

As you can see, the hypothalamus strictly regulates the anterior

pituitary. This regulation, or control, is called homeostatic control.
The hypothalamus’ neuroendocrine role in conjunction with the
pituitary gland and the autonomic nervous system (ANS) control the
hormone levels all throughout the body. I discuss how in Part 2 of
this series [38].

Not mentioned in the above excerpt is the role of the hypothalamus in

thermoregulation. Sensory receptors, called thermoreceptors, are fine-tuned
sensory machines that can detect changes in body temperature and instantly
relay said messages to the hypothalamus gland. In response to the
thermoreceptor’s incoming messages, the hypothalamus activates
mechanisms that regulate internal body temperature. The hypothalamus has a
type of internal memory bank where the optimal body temperature is stored.
If this temperature has not been reached, the hypothalamus will act to see that
it is. The smallest deviation from the optimal body temperature will trigger
the thermoregulatory center of the hypothalamus to initiate these
mechanisms.

Any changes in body temperature will be picked up by two different sets of

thermoreceptors: central receptors and peripheral receptors. Central
thermoreceptors are located within the hypothalamus, and are thus “central”
to the thermoregulatory system. Central thermoreceptors monitor the
temperature of the blood as it circulates throughout the brain. The central
receptors are sensitive to temperature changes as little as .018°F. Peripheral
receptors are located in the skin. These receptors provide the hypothalamus
and cerebral cortex with information about external temperature, thus
allowing the individual to consciously perceive temperature so that the
individual can voluntarily control exposure to heat and cold environments.
During massive sweat evaporation, however, the skin can feel cold while the
interior of the body is hyperthermic (overheated). In this case, the peripheral
receptors would incorrectly notify the hypothalamus and cerebral cortex that
the individual is cold, when in fact the body may be nearing a critically high
temperature.

 
When body temperature fluctuates, it can be restored to normal levels via the
actions of four effector mechanisms.

Sweat glands: When either the skin or the blood is heated above normal
equilibrium levels, the hypothalamus will initiate impulses to the sweat
glands, instructing them to actively secrete sweat that moistens the skin. The
hotter the internal temperature, the more sweat is produced. Evaporation will
take over once the sweat reaches the surface, as discussed earlier in this
journal entry.

Smooth muscle around arterioles: When the skin or the blood is heated, the
hypothalamus will not only send impulses to sweat glands, but also to smooth
muscle tissue in the walls of the arterioles that supply the skin with blood,
causing them to vasodilate (increase in diameter). This reaction will
subsequently increase local blood flow to the skin. The blood carries heat
from the deep interior of the body, and is more able to release that heat if
blood flow to the surface of the skin is increased.

Skeletal muscle: When more body heat needs to be generated, skeletal

muscle can be called into play. In a cold environment, the peripheral
thermoreceptors will relay the signal to the hypothalamus. The central
thermoreceptors will also notify the hypothalamus if blood temperature drops
below normal. In response to this neural input, the hypothalamus activates the
brain centers that control muscle tone. These centers will stimulate small and
rapid neuromuscular reactions (shivering). This increased muscle activity will
generate heat (as noted before, heat is a byproduct of the energy producing
pathways).

Endocrine glands: The effects of several hormones can cause groups of cells
to increase their metabolic rates. Increased metabolism affects heat balance
because it also increases heat production. Cooling the body stimulates the
release of thyroxine from the thyroid gland. Thyroxine can elevate the
metabolic rate throughout the body by more than 100%. Catecholamines
(such as epinephrine and norepinephrine) have the capacity to mimic and
enhance the activity of the sympathetic nervous system. Thus, they can
directly affect the metabolic rate of virtually all of the body’s cells.
 Special Insert – Hormone Profile – Thyroxine (T4):

 Thyroxine is a hormone produced in the thyroid gland (see Endocrine

Insanity Part I for more about this gland). The follicle cells within the thyroid
gland secrete thyroxine and triiodothyronine. The thyroxine molecule
contains four atoms of iodine (hence the nickname T4). T4 accounts for over
90% of the thyroid’s hormonal secretions. Thyroxine’s primary function is to
accelerate cellular reactions within most body cells. T4 also increases body
metabolism by increasing the rate at which cells use organic molecules and
oxygen to produce heat and ATP. Another function of T4 is to make the body
more sensitive to the actions of the sympathetic hormones (the effect if which
is to increase cardiac output). T4 also helps to control homeostasis,
modulating the skeletal and central nervous systems, stimulating protein
synthesis, and helping the body maintain a proper water balance.

The entire process of thyroxine secretion is controlled by endocrine

biofeedback and involves two hormones: thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH) and thyrotroponin-releasing hormone (TRH). TSH is
released when thyroxine levels in the blood fall. Other factors that
influence the release of thyroxine include stress, cold temperature (as
measured by the thermoreceptors) or pregnancy. When blood
concentrations of thyroxine rise, TSH production is reduced. TRH is
inhibited as long as thyroxine levels are high in the blood. Once they
fall, TRH output is increased, which in turn increases the secretion of
TSH (by the anterior pituitary gland)—the end result is a greater
thyroid gland activity.

T4’s use in bodybuilding: Bodybuilders have long since taken

advantage of this hormone to increase metabolism, especially during
pre-contest preparation. One side-effect of a pre-contest diet is a
slowdown of activity of the thyroid gland, which decreases the total
metabolic output of the body (lowering resting metabolic rate).
Another side-effect of a pre-contest diet is a slowdown in
thermogenesis—the process by which excess calories are converted to
heat rather than stored as fat.

During a pre-contest diet, it may be useful for the athlete to ingest an

iodine supplement, which will promote the synthesis of T4 [18,34].
 

Physiological Responses to Exercise in Heated Environments

In cold environments, your body will see great benefit from producing heat
during activity because it helps maintain normal core body temperature.
Metabolic heat load places a considerable burden on the mechanisms that
control internal body temperature in any environment, however. In this
section, the effects of heat on cardiovascular function, energy production, and
bodily fluid homeostasis will be analyzed.

Cardiovascular Function

It is well established that exercise places considerable demand on the

cardiovascular system. During activity, when the demand of body
temperature regulation is highest, the cardiovascular system can become
burdened during exercise in a heated environment. The circulatory system, as
mentioned briefly earlier, transports heat generated by the ATP-producing
metabolic pathways to the surface of the body, where the heat can then be
transferred to the external environment. To accomplish this task during
exercise in the heat, a large portion of cardiac output must be taken up by the
skin and the exercising muscles. Because the volume of blood in circulation
is limited, exercise poses a complex problem: An increase in blood flow to
one of these areas automatically decreases blood flow to the others. This can
lead to potentially problematic situations.

 
For example, a cyclist is riding at a fast pace on a hot day. The exercise
increases the demand for blood flow and oxygen delivery to the leg muscles.
The exercise also increases metabolic heat production. The excess heat can
only be dissipated if blood flow to the skin increases, where it can be
transferred to the external environment; however, blood flow to the skin
cannot increase as much as needed if the leg muscles are to receive all the
blood flow necessary to continue energy production. In short, the metabolic
demands of the working muscles impair heat transfer to the skin.

In order to maintain cardiac output while shunting blood to the periphery, the
cardiovascular system has to make some incredible adjustments. The
subsequent redistribution of blood reduces the overall volume of blood that
returns to the heart, which reduces the end-diastolic volume. This, in turn,
reduces stroke volume.

 Stroke volume (SV) is the amount of blood ejected from the left ventricle
during contraction, the difference between the end-diastolic volume and the
end-systolic volume (Heart Rate x Stroke Volume = Cardiac Output).

With the slow decline of end-diastolic volume, coupled with the gradual
increase in heart rate throughout the early stages of activity, cardiac output
can remain reasonably constant, even with the decrease of stroke volume.
This phenomenon is known as cardiovascular drift.

Eventually, the body is unable to compensate for the increased metabolic and
heat removal demands of exercise in the heat. As a result, neither the muscles
nor the skin are able to receive adequate blood supply to continue their
metabolic processes. This leads to a decrease in performance, and can make
the athlete susceptible to overheating. Above 80% of maximal cardiac output,
blood flow to the skin will decrease due to the blood being diverted to the
muscles. As a result, adequate heat will not be able to dissipate into the
external environment. Performance will be adversely affected.

Energy Production

In addition to increasing body temperature and heart rate, exercise in heated

environments also increases total oxygen uptake, which causes the working
muscles to utilize more glycogen and to produce more lactate compared with
exercise in cold environments [22]. Repeated bouts (15 minutes) of exercise
in the heat (104°F) increases heart rate and oxygen uptake significantly
compared with exercise in a cool environment (48°F). As described earlier, a
warmer environment places greater stress on the cardiovascular system,
which in turn increases heart rate. Further, increased sweat production and
respiration requires more energy, thus requiring a higher oxygen uptake.

Exercise in the heat hastens glycogen depletion and increases muscle lactate
levels, both of which are antecedents of sensations of fatigue and exhaustion.
Increased muscle temperature may impair skeletal muscle function and
metabolism, which can also lead to fatigue [21]. Moreover, increased
carbohydrate utilization appears to be directly linked to the increased
secretion of epinephrine with elevated body temperature (hyperthermia).
 

Bodily Fluid Homeostasis

In heated environments, it is not uncommon for the external temperature to

exceed that of the temperature of the skin and the internal temperature of the
body. These conditions, as discussed earlier, make heat dissipation by way of
evaporation all that more important, since heat dissipation via radiation,
convection and conduction are rendered less effective. In fact, radiation,
convection and conduction can lead to heat gain in a heated environment,
further inhibiting the body’s ability to dissipate excess heat from its core. An
increased reliability on evaporation leads to increased sweating.

The sweat glands are controlled by the hypothalamus, which is activated by

stimulation from the thermoreceptors. Once the thermoregulatory portion of
the hypothalamus is alerted of a higher blood temperature, impulses are
transmitted from the hypothalamus through the sympathetic nerve fibers to
the millions of sweat glands distributed over the body’s surface. Sweat glands
are tubular structures that extend through the dermis and the epidermis, and
open onto the surface of the skin.

The sweat substance is formed by the secretory portion of the sweat gland.
As the filtrate sweat passes through the duct of the gland, sodium and
chloride are gradually reabsorbed back into the surrounding tissues, and then
into the blood. During light sweating, the filtrate sweat travels slowly through
the tubules, which gives the sodium and chloride more time to reabsorb. The
sweat that is formed during light sweating therefore contains very little
sodium and chloride by the time it reaches the surface of the skin. When
sweating is heavy, however, the filtrate moves more quickly through the
tubules; therefore the sweat that reaches the surface is high in sodium and
chloride content.

Table 2: Sodium, Chloride, and Potassium Concentrations in the Sweat of

Trained and Untrained Subjects during Exercise.

Subjects Sweat Na+ Sweat Cl- Sweat K+

(mmol/L) (mmol/L) (mmol/L)
Untrained males 90 60 4
Trained males 35 30 4
Untrained 105 98 4
females
Trained females 62 47 4

Adapted from the Human Performance Laboratory, Ball State University

Table 2 illustrates the mineral content of both trained and untrained

male and female subjects. It is apparent that the values are significantly
different. The reason being, with training and repeated exposure to heat,
the hormone aldosterone can strongly stimulate the sweat glands,
causing them to reabsorb more sodium and chloride. Potassium, calcium
and magnesium are not reabsorbed by the sweat glands; therefore their
concentrations in the sweat remain constant.

Special Insert – Hormone Profile – Aldosterone and Anti-Diuretic Hormone

Aldosterone is a naturally occurring steroid hormone, which is

produced and secreted by the adrenal cortex. The stimulation and
release of this hormone is initiated by the Na+/K+ ratio of the body
and also by the hormone angiotensin (an octapeptide produced in the
blood from an inactive precursor—angiotensinogen—by the enzyme
renin secreted by the kidney).

Aldosterone’s primary effect is on the kidney tubules, where it stimulates

sodium retention and potassium excretion. The kidney ducts are stimulated to
reabsorb sodium back into the bloodstream. At the same time, aldosterone
stimulates the transport of potassium ions from the kidney tubules into the
urine. Aldosterone acts on sweat glands in a similar manner, conserving
sodium and secreting potassium to create a normal acid-base balance as well
as normal electrolyte balance in the body’s fluids.

Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH) is a peptide based hormone composed

of nine different amino acids. ADH is produced by the posterior
pituitary and is released in the bloodstream to act on the kidneys. Its
main mechanism of action is to increase the permeability of the
kidney tubules, thereby allowing water to be reabsorbed into the body
rather than excreted with urine. ADH secretion can even be
influenced by blood hemorrhaging or anything causing a drop in
blood pressure. The body responds by conserving water to maintain
fluid balance. Increased water loss due to evaporation from the skin
will also cause ADH to be released. The opposite may also be true. If
excess water is consumed, ADH secretion will be inhibited.

Alcohol poses an additional problem, especially in relation to ADH.

The increased fluid present when consuming an alcoholic beverage,
and alcohol’s diuretic effects, lead to increased fluid removal from the
body. Alcohol also acts as an ADH blocker, however. Thus, the
mechanism by which the kidneys reabsorb water is shut down. This
poses some potentially serious problems to the athlete [21].

When performing activities in hot environments, the body can lose more than
1L of sweat per hour per square meter of body surface. This is an
astronomical amount. The average sized individual (110-165 lb.) might lose
1.6 to 2.0 L of sweat (or about 2.5% to 3.2% of total body weight) each hour!
A high rate of sweating reduces blood volume, which in turn limits the
volume of blood available to supply the needs of the working muscles and to
prevent heat buildup, which reduces performance potential. This is more
prominent in endurance athletes. Marathon runners have been known to lose
as much as 10% of their bodyweight during a marathon in a heated
environment (that is an excess of 3 to 4 L of sweat an hour). Such severe
dehydration can limit subsequent sweating and make the athlete easily
susceptible to heat related illnesses.

The loss of minerals and water via sweating triggers the release of
aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH maintains fluid balance,
while aldosterone (as discussed above) maintains appropriate sodium levels.
During acute exercise in the heat and during repeated bouts of exercise in a
heated environment, aldosterone limits sodium excretion from the kidneys,
thus causing more sodium to be retained throughout the body, which
promotes water retention. This effect allows the body to retain water and
sodium in preparation for additional exposure to heat and the subsequent
sweat loss.

Further, exercise and body water loss stimulates the posterior pituitary gland
to release ADH. This hormone stimulates water reabsorption from the
kidneys, which will further promote fluid retention. God fashioned in humans
this mechanism to compensate for loss of minerals and water during periods
of heat stress and heavy sweating. It is by this mechanism, this author
believes, that Jesus Christ was able to sustain in the desert in Matthew 4:

 
1
Then was Jesus led up of the Spirit into the wilderness to be tempted
of the devil

This time of testing showed that Jesus really was the Son of God, able to
overcome the devil and his temptations. A person has not shown true
obedience if he or she has never had the opportunity to disobey. We read in
Deuteronomy 8:2 that God led Israel into the desert to humble and test them.
God wanted to see whether or not his people would really obey him.

The devil, also called Satan, tempted Eve in the Garden of Eden, and he
tempted Jesus in the desert. This temptation by the devil shows that Jesus was
human, and it gave Jesus the opportunity to reaffirm God’s plan for his
ministry. Jesus’ temptation was an important demonstration of his
sinlessness. He would face temptation and not give in. Notice that Jesus
wasn’t tempted in the temple or at his baptism, but in the desert (wilderness)
when he was tired, alone, and hungry (he fasted for 40 days and nights,
therefore he would be completely dehydrated, causing ADH and aldosterone
to be in full effect), and thus more vulnerable.

 
2
And when he had fasted forty days and forty nights, he was afterward
an hungered. 3And when the tempter came to him, he said, If thou be
the Son of God, command that these stones be made bread. 4But he
answered and said, It is written, Man shall not live by bread alone, but
by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of God. 5Then the
devil taketh him up into the holy city, and setteth him on a pinnacle of
the temple, 6And saith unto him, If thou be the Son of God, cast
thyself down: for it is written, He shall give his angels charge
concerning thee: and in their hands they shall bear thee up, lest at any
time thou dash thy foot against a stone. 7Jesus said unto him, It is
written again, Thou shalt not tempt the Lord thy God. 8Again, the
devil taketh him up into an exceeding high mountain, and showeth
him all the kingdoms of the world, and the glory of them; 9And saith
unto him, All these things will I give thee, if thou wilt fall down and
worship me. 10Then saith Jesus unto him, Get thee hence, Satan: for it
is written, Thou shalt worship the Lord thy God, and him only shalt
thou serve.

The devil’s temptation focused on three crucial areas: physical needs and
desires, possessions and power and pride. But Jesus did not give in! Jesus
was hungry, dehydrated and weak after fasting for 40 days, but he chose not
to use his divine power to satisfy his natural desire for food. Food, hunger
and eating are all good, but the timing was wrong. Jesus was in the desert to
fast, not to eat. Because Jesus had given up the unlimited, independent use of
his divine power in order to experience humanity fully, he wouldn’t use his
power to change the stones to bread. Jesus was able to resist all of the devil’s
temptations because he not only knew Scripture, but he also obeyed it.
Ephesians 6:17 says that God’s Word is a sword to use in spiritual combat.
Knowing Bible verses is an important step in helping to resist the devil’s
attacks, but the Bible must also be obeyed. Note that Satan has memorized
Scripture, but he failed to obey it.

During the 40 day fast, there is no doubt that the mechanisms to help prevent
water loss were in effect and operating as God had designed them to.

Health Risks during Exercise in Heated Environments

Despite the body’s aforementioned defenses against overheating, excessive

heat production by the active muscles, heat gained from the environment and
conditions that prevent the dissipation of excess body heat may elevate the
internal body temperature to levels that impair normal cellular functions. In
these conditions, excessive heat gains pose serious risk to health. Air
temperature alone is not an accurate index of the total physiological stress
imposed on the body in a hot environment. Four total variables need to be
taken into account:

           

·        Air temperature

·        Humidity

·        Air velocity

·        Amount of thermal radiation

All of these factors influence the degree of heat stress that an individual
experiences.

Measuring Heat Stress

Over the past few decades, major efforts have been brought fourth to
effectively quantify atmospheric variables. In the 1970s, the wet bulb globe
temperature (WBGT) was devised to simultaneously account for conduction,
convection, evaporation and radiation. This instrument is able to provide a
single temperature reading in order to estimate the cooling capacity of the
surrounding environment. The dry bulb measures the actual air temperature
(TDB). The wet bulb is kept moist. As water evaporates from the wet bulb, its
temperature (TWB) will be lower than that of the dry bulb, which effectively
simulates the effect of sweat evaporating from the skin. The difference in
temperature between the two bulbs indicates the environment’s capacity for
cooling via evaporation. Therefore, in still air with 100% humidity, the
temperatures of both bulbs will be equal, since evaporation under these
conditions is impossible. Lower humidity and moving air will promote
evaporation, which will increase the difference in temperature between the
two bulbs. On the machine there is also a black globe which is designed to
reabsorb radiated heat. Therefore, its temperature (TG) is an accurate indicator
of the environment’s capacity for transmitting radiated heat.

The temperatures from these three bulbs can be combined by using the
following equation to estimate the overall atmospheric challenge to body
temperature in a given environment:

WBGT = 0.1 TDB + 0.7 TWB + 0.2 TG

The result is a measurement of thermal stress, which can be used by

educators, athletes and coaches to assess and anticipate the health risks
associated with exercising under certain atmospheric conditions. Table 3
represents the Universal WBGT Index.

Table 3: The Universal WBGT Index.

    Easy Work Moderate Work Hard Work

Heat WBG Work/Rest Water Work/Rest*Water Work/Rest Water
Categor T °F * per per * per
y hour hour hour
1 78-81.9 No limit ½ qt No limit ¾ qt 40/20 min ¾ qt
2 82-84.9 No limit ½ qt 50/10 min ¾ qt 30/30 min 1 qt
3 85-87.9 No limit ¾ qt 40/20 min ¾ qt 30/30 min 1 qt
4 88-89.9 No limit ¾ qt 30/30 min ¾ qt 20/40 min 1 qt
5 >90 50/10 min 1 qt 20/40 min 1 qt 10/50 min 1 qt
* Rest means minimal physical activity and is measured in the shade.

Heat-Related Injuries

Unfortunately, heat related injuries occur more often than necessary and can
have severe and lasting effects. It is imperative that recognition and
prevention of these injuries be understood in order to decrease the frequency
of their occurrence.

Heat Rash: Heat rash, also called prickly heat, is a benign condition
associated with a red, raised rash accompanied by sensations of prickling and
tingling during sweating. Heat rashes usually occur when the skin is
continuously wet with unevaporated sweat. The rash is generally localized to
areas of the body that are covered with clothing. Continually drying the body
with a towel can help prevent the formation of a rash [58].

Heat Syncope: Also known as heat collapse, heat syncope is associated with
rapid physical fatigue during overexposure to heat. This injury is not to be
confused with heat exhaustion. Heat collapse usually occurs from standing
(not necessarily exercising) in the heat for long periods of time. This causes
peripheral vasodilation of the superficial blood vessels in the skin, causing
hyoptension, or a pooling of the blood in the extremities, which will result in
dizziness, fainting and nausea. Heat syncope can be quickly relieved by
laying in a cool environment and ingestion of fluids [58].

Heat Cramps: Heat cramps are characterized by severe cramping of the

skeletal muscles, particularly the muscles involved in movement during the
activity in which the athlete is participating. This injury is brought on by
mineral loss and dehydration that accompanies high rates of sweating;
however, a complete understanding of the cause-effect relationship has not
been fully established. To treat heat cramps, the athlete must move to a cooler
location and ingest fluids or a saline solution. The intake of fluids to treat
heat injuries has been well known for thousands of years. Luke wrote about it
in Luke 16:24, quoting Jesus:
 

And he cried and said, Father Abraham, have mercy on me, and send
Lazarus, that he may dip the tip of his finger in water, and cool my
tongue; for I am tormented in this flame.

The Jews used to call Abraham their father, and were proud of their descent
from him (Matthew 3:9, John 8:33, 39). The quote, “that he may dip the tip of
his finger in water,” is in allusion to the washings and purifications of the
Jews, and the sprinkling of blood by the finger of the high priest; which were
typical of cleansing, pardon, comfort, and refreshment, by the grace and
blood of Christ. So the water in this sense was not only refreshing to the
body, which was in dire need of internal cooling, but to also wash away sin.

“And cool my tongue” is in reference to cleansing the tongue which has

spoken so many blasphemous things of Christ; saying that he was a sinner, a
glutton, and a winebibber, a Samaritan, and had a devil: that he cast out
devils by Beelzebub, the prince of devils; and that he was a seditious person,
and guilty of blasphemy.

This man could not so much as get a drop of water to cool his tongue, not the
least refreshment nor mitigation of the anguish of his conscience, for the sins
of his tongue.

Heat Exhaustion: This injury is commonly accompanied by such symptoms

as extreme fatigue, breathlessness, dizziness, vomiting, fainting, cold and
clammy skin, or hot and dry skin, hypotension (low blood pressure), and a
weak, rapid pulse. Heat exhaustion is caused by the cardiovascular system’s
inability to adequately meet the body’s needs. Recall that during activity in a
heated environment, the active muscles and the skin, through which heat is
lost, compete for blood volume. Heat exhaustion results when these
simultaneous demands cannot be met. Heat exhaustion will occur when blood
volume decreases via either excessive fluid loss or mineral loss from
excessive sweating. During heat exhaustion, the thermoregulatory
mechanisms of heat dissipation are working optimally, but cannot dissipate
the heat quickly enough due to the insufficient blood volume. Heat
exhaustion is not always associated with a high internal temperature, which
can be misleading to some. It is apparent that individuals who are poorly
conditioned or are not accustomed to exercising in the heat are more
susceptible to heat exhaustion. Treatment for this injury includes rest in a
cooler environment with the feet in an elevated position (above the heart) to
avoid shock. If the athlete is conscious, salt water should be ingested. If the
athlete is unconscious, intravenous administration of a saline solution is
recommended. If left untreated, heat exhaustion can easily lead to heat stroke.

Heat Stroke: Heat stroke is a life-threatening heat disorder that requires

immediate medical attention. Heat stroke is characterized by:

·        Increased internal body temperature to a value exceeding 104°F

·        Cessation of sweating

·        Hot and dry skin

·        Rapid pulse and respiration

·        Hypertension (high blood pressure)

·        Confusion

·        Eventually unconsciousness

If left untreated (especially if the athlete is exercising alone), heat stroke will
progress to a coma, and death quickly follows. Treatment of heat stroke
involves a rapid cooling of the body in a bath of ice water or wrapping the
athlete in cold, wet sheets and fanning the body. Heat stroke is caused by a
complete collapse of the thermoregulatory mechanisms. Body heat
production during exercise depends directly on both exercise intensity and
body weight; therefore, heavier athletes such as bodybuilders run a higher
risk of overheating. Heat stroke does not just occur under excessively hot
external temperatures, but can occur in moderate environmental temperatures
(70°F with a humidity of 30%) as well [15, 77]. Without proper medical
attention, heat stroke survivors can sustain permanent central nervous system
damage.
 

Hyperthermia

Environmental conditions are largely beyond human control. Therefore, in

excessively heated conditions, the athlete must be aware enough to control
his or her intensity in effort to decrease heat production and the risk of
developing hyperthermia. Hyperthermia is simply a high internal body
temperature. It is imperative that athletes and coaches alike are able to
recognize the signs of the early stages of hyperthermia, before it is able to
reach the advanced, life-threatening stages. Table 4 illustrates these
symptoms.

Table 4: Subjective Symptoms Associated with Hyperthermia

Internal Temperature Symptoms

104-105°F Cold sensation over the stomach and back with
piloerection (goose bumps)
105-106°F Muscular weakness, disorientation, and loss of postural
equilibrium
106-107°F Diminished sweating, loss of consciousness, and
hypothalamic control
>108°F Death

Heat disorders can and must be prevented. Competition and practice should
not be held outdoors when the WBGT is more than 82.4°F. Scheduling
practices and events either in the early morning or in the evening avoids the
severe heat stress of the midday. Fluids should be readily available, and
athletes must be required to drink as much as they can every 10 to 20
minutes. It is well established that drinking fluid both before and during
exercise can greatly reduce the negative effects of exercising in a heated
environment. Adequate fluid intake will attenuate the increase in core body
temperature and heart rate normally observed during exercise in the heat.
Clothing must also be considered. The foolish practice of exercising in a
rubberized suit to promote weight loss is an excellent example of how a
dangerous microenvironment (the isolated environment inside the suit) can be
created in which temperature and humidity can reach a sufficiently high level
to block all heat loss from the body. This can rapidly lead to heat exhaustion
and heat stroke. Athletes should wear as little clothing as possible when heat
stress is a potential limitation to thermoregulation. The clothing worn should
also be loose around the skin to allow the unloading of as much heat as
possible. Light colored clothing will reflect heat back into the environment,
while darker clothing will absorb it. Therefore, when exercising in a heated
environment, it is recommended that the clothing not only be loose, but also
light in color.

Hyponatremia: Hyponatremia is a condition that results in an abnormally

low concentration of sodium in the blood. This can be caused by the
ingestion of too little sodium or by the ingestion of so much water that the
concentration of sodium is decreased. An athlete who experiences a low rate
of sweating that continues to ingest large quantities of water over a several
hour period of exercise is vulnerable to this injury. A very low concentration
of sodium can compromise the central nervous system, thus creating a
potentially life-threatening condition. Hyponatremia can be completely
avoided with adequate ingestion of sodium.

Prevention of Heat-Related Illnesses

All heat-related illnesses are completely preventable if the athlete uses

caution when exercising in a heated environment. An athlete can only
perform at an optimal level when dehydration and hyperthermia are
minimized by the ingestion of ample volumes of fluid during exercise and by
commonsense precautions in keeping cool [51]. In a heated environment, it is
essential that the athlete continually replaces lost fluids by drinking large
quantities of water [16]. Even low level dehydration can impair
cardiovascular and thermoregulatory function and can reduce the capacity to
exercise [35, 50]. The average adult performing minimal physical activity
requires a minimum of 2.5 liters of water a day. A normal sweat loss rate for
a person during an hour of exercise ranges between 0.8 and 3 liters of water.

The body knows the importance of maintaining adequate water saturation

levels. Therefore, it is able to sense when body water drops below 1 to 2
percent and initiates the thirst response. If these thirst signals are ignored, as
they often are, body water will continue to decrease, resulting in dehydration.
Dehydration causes the body to be unable to create enough energy to
maintain performance. Other results of dehydration include nausea, vomiting,
fainting, and a greatly increased risk of developing a heat illness. It is
important to note that an athlete cannot always rely on the thirst response as a
signal to ingest water. By the time the thirst response is initiated, dehydration
is already occurring on a wide-scale level; therefore, athletes must drink
water before they feel thirsty.

Most athletes who drink only when thirsty can only replace about 50% of the
water lost through sweating and evaporation, which is not enough to maintain
homeostasis. There is absolutely no reason for an athlete to become
hypohydrated (lacking water intake) [53]. There are a number of
physiological and potentially pathological effects resulting from a lack of
water intake along with dehydration. These effects include reduced muscular
strength and endurance, decreased blood and plasma volume, altered cardiac
function, impaired thermoregulation, decreased kidney function, reduced
glycogen stores, and a loss of electrolytes [53]. It has been shown that
replacing lost fluids with a sports drink is more effective than using water
alone [43]. Sports drinks are able to replace fluids and electrolytes that are
lost through the sweat during activity and can provide energy to the working
muscles. The small amount of sodium found in most sports drinks will allow
the body to hold onto the fluid consumed rather than losing it through the
urine [51]. Not all sports drinks are the same, however, and many are not
optimal for adequate replenishment. The optimal level of carbohydrates is 14
grams per 8 ounces of water. This results in the quickest fluid absorption.
Therefore, sports drinks should not be diluted with extra water. Further,
sports drinks which contain excessive carbohydrates are absorbed more
slowly, which will negate its effects.

Prevention of heat-related illnesses also depends on heat acclimatization,

which is discussed in-depth below.

Athletes with certain body characteristics can be more prone to heat-related

illnesses. Athletes with a large amount of muscle mass, such as bodybuilders,
are particularly prone to heat-related illnesses [9]. Overweight individuals are
also susceptible. The reason being metabolic heat is produced proportionately
to surface area. Women are less susceptible to heat-related illnesses, as they
are more physiologically efficient in body temperature regulation than men,
even though women possess as many heat-activated sweat glands as men do.
Women in general sweat less and manifest a higher heart rate when working
in the heat [42].

Acclimatization to Exercise in the Heat

Effects of Heat Acclimatization

Repeated, prolonged exercise bouts in a heated environment can cause

adaptations to the heat stress placed upon the body. The thermoregulatory
system can be stressed so that it adapts to the heat demand by enabling the
body to eliminate excess body heat more effectively. This process is known
as heat acclimatization. With this adaptation, many adjustments are made in
both blood flow and sweating. The rate of sweating during activity in the heat
increases with heat acclimatization, and the amount of sweat produced often
increases in the most exposed areas that are most effective at dissipating body
heat. At the onset of exercise sweating will occur earlier in an acclimatized
person, which will improve overall heat tolerance, resulting in a lower skin
temperature. A lower skin temperature will increase the temperature gradient
between the internal temperature to the skin temperature and the external
temperature. Because heat loss is facilitated by blood, less blood needs to
flow to the skin for body heat transfer; therefore more blood will be available
to continue muscular function. In addition, the sweat produced is more
diluted following training in the heat in an acclimatized individual, which
will conserve the body’s mineral stores.  

It can therefore be concluded that an individual’s heat loss capacity at a given

workload can be enhanced by training; body temperatures during exercise
increase less after training in the heat than in before training [36]. Moreover,
in an acclimatized individual, heart rate will increase more slowly after
training in the heat. This particular adaptation is a result of the increased
blood volume, and reduced blood flow to the skin. Both of these changes
increase stroke volume. It is also important to note that these adaptations are
not permanent; blood volume usually returns to its normal levels after 10
days. This is most likely due to the body’s efforts to retain sodium by
expanding plasma volume.

In addition to the aforementioned adaptations to exercise in the heat, the

workload of the individual can be positively affected as well. More work can
be done before the onset of fatigue or exhaustion. Heat acclimatization
reduces the rate of muscle glycogen use by as much as 50% to 60% (note that
heat acclimatization is not related to exercising in the heat during repeated
days of training as mentioned earlier, which quickly depletes muscle
glycogen stores).

Achieving Heat Acclimatization

Heat acclimatization requires much more than merely exercising frequently

in the heat. Rather, it depends on several factors:

·        The environmental conditions during each exercise session

·        The duration of exposure to heat

·        The rate of internal heat production (as related to exercise

intensity)

At this point in time, the research literature is not in total agreement, thereby
making this section of this journal entry subject to reproof. The current
research suggests that an athlete must exercise in a heated environment to
attain heat acclimatization that carries over to exercise in the heat. Simply
sitting in a hot environment (such as a sauna or out in the hot sun) will not
provide these adaptations. Other studies suggest that at least partial heat
acclimatization can be obtained simply through training, even in cooler
environments. Scientists observed that when an athlete becomes acclimatized
to heat stress, they are able to increase their performance in not only heated
environments, but in cooled ones as well.

If an athlete must compete in hot weather, at least part of their training should
be conducted in the heat of the day. Workouts in the heat over a five to ten
day period will be enough to gain nearly complete heat acclimatization;
however, during this training, workout intensity should be limited to 60% of
max to help prevent excessive heat stress. Also during this training, proper
precautions should be taken to avoid heat injury.

Physiological Responses to Exercise in Cooled Environments

  

For the purpose of this journal entry, cold stress will be referred to as any
environmental condition that causes a loss of body heat that threatens
homeostasis. The two major cold stressors are air and water.

To review briefly, the hypothalamus gland has a temperature set point of

about 98.6°F, but can fluctuate slightly throughout the day without cause for
concern. A decrease in either skin temperature or blood temperature
stimulates the thermo receptors to provide feedback to the thermoregulatory
center within the hypothalamus to activate the mechanisms that will conserve
body heat and increase heat production. The primary mechanisms utilized by
the body to increase internal temperatures in cold environments are shivering,
non-shivering thermogenesis, and peripheral vasoconstriction. Because these
effectors (or mechanisms) of heat production and conservation are often less
than adequate, individuals must rely on clothing and subcutaneous fat to aid
in the insulation of the deep body tissues from the cold external environment.

Shivering: Shivering is a rapid, involuntary cycle of contraction and

relaxation of skeletal muscles. This response can increase the body’s resting
rate of heat production by four or five times that of normal.

Non-Shivering Thermogenesis: This mechanism involves the stimulation of

the sympathetic nervous system to stimulate an increase in metabolic
processes. Increasing the metabolic rate of tissues in turn increases the
amount of internal heat production.

Peripheral Vasodilation: This method is also stimulated by the sympathetic

nervous system. The SNS signals the smooth muscle surrounding the
arterioles in the skin to contract, causing vasoconstriction. This effectively
reduces the blood flow to the shell of the skin and prevents unnecessary heat
loss. The metabolic rate for the skin (although seemingly counter to the non-
shivering thermogenesis mechanism) will decrease, so the skin requires less
oxygen.

Factors Affecting Loss of Bodily Heat

In cold environments, the body’s ability to meet the demands of

thermoregulation is limited. Too much heat loss can occur. The mechanisms
of conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporation are extremely efficient
in heat dissipation; therefore, these mechanisms work counter to the body’s
efforts to conserve heat in a cold environment and can dissipate heat faster
than it is being produced by the body. Thermal balance depends on a wide
range of factors that affect the gradient of body heat production and heat loss.
The larger the difference in temperature of the skin to the external
environment, the more internal heat is lost; however, there are a number of
environmental and anatomical factors that can work to control the rate of heat
loss.

Body Size and Composition: Insulating the body against cold is the most
effective method of protection against hypothermia. Subcutaneous fat
provides such insulation [27]. The thermal conductivity of fat (its ability for
heat transfer) is relatively low; therefore fat impedes heat transfer from the
deep tissues to the skin. To simplify, individuals who have more fat mass
conserve heat more efficiently in cold environments.

The relation of body surface area to body mass also influences the rate at
which heat is dissipated into the external environment. Individuals who are
tall and heavy have a small surface area to body mass ratio, making them less
susceptible to hypothermia. Children and adolescents have a large area to
mass ratio, making it more difficult for children to maintain normal body
temperature in cold environments. There is little observable difference in heat
dissipation based on body size and composition between males and females,
although some evidence suggests that in cold water submersion, females may
have an advantage due to a higher body fat percentage [31].

The body’s insulating shell consists of two main layers: the superficial skin
together with subcutaneous fat, and the underlying muscle. When skin
temperature drops, vasoconstriction in the skin coupled with the involuntary
contraction of the skeletal muscles increase the shell’s total insulating
capacity. It is estimated that vasoconstricted inactive muscle can provide as
much as 85% of the body’s total insulation during exposure to extreme cold.
This represents a resistance to heat loss that is two to three times higher than
that of the overlying fat and skin tissues [58, 61].

Windchill: As with heat, air temperature alone is not a valid index of the
amount of thermal stress from cold experienced by the individual. Wind
creates a chill factor known as windchill. Windchill created the rate of heat
loss via convection and conduction. Moreover, the more humid the external
air, the greater the physiological stress, as outlined above. A dry, still day at
50°F in direct sunlight can be rather comfortable; however, if the temperature
(50°F) is exactly the same, but the conditions are a higher humidity, cloud
cover, and a light wind, the air will be very uncomfortable.

Heat Loss in Cold Water

In water, conduction is the greatest contributing factor to heat transfer. Water

has a thermal conductivity about 26 times greater than that of air. This means
that heat loss via conduction is 26 times faster in water than in air. With all
variables considered, the body transfers heat about four times faster in water
than it does in air of the same temperature. Humans can maintain a normal
internal temperature when submerged in water when they remain inactive in
temperatures down to about 89.6°F. When the water temperature is lower
than this, the body becomes hypothermic at a rate directly proportional to the
duration of their exposure of the thermal gradient [46, 53]. It is obvious that
prolonged exposure to cold water can lead to extreme hypothermia and death.
When submerged in water at 59°F, the body will experience a decrease in
internal temperature of about 3.8°F per hour. If the water temperature was
lowered to 39.2°F, internal temperature will decrease at a rate of 5.8°F per
hour [55]. The rate of heat loss will be further accelerated if the water is
moving, since this promotes the increase in convection. Survival time in cold
water under these conditions is quite brief. Victims can become weak and
lose consciousness within minutes.

If the metabolic rate of the individual is low, such as when at rest, even
moderately cool water can induce severe hypothermia. Exercise in cold water
increases metabolic rate, and can offset some of this heat loss. For example,
heat loss increases in a swimmer moving at high speeds through cold water
(due to convection); however, the swimmer’s accelerated rate of metabolic
heat production easily compensates for the greater heat transfer into the
external environment. When exercise ceases, the skin will cool rapidly, as
well as the internal temperature.

Muscle Function

Cooling a muscle causes it to become weaker and lose flexibility. In response

to muscle cooling, the nervous system will alter the normal muscle fiber
recruitment patterns [20]. There are some scientists that argue this adaptation
will cause the muscle to decrease in efficiency, but this has yet to be
definitively established. It is well established, however, that both muscle
shortening velocity and power can decrease significantly when the
temperature of the muscle is lowered. When an athlete attempts to work at a
high level of performance when the muscle is cool (77°F or less) rather than
when it is warm (95°F), they can experience fatigue earlier. If both the
clothing the athlete is wearing and the exercise metabolism are sufficient in
maintaining internal body temperature while exercising in a cold
environment, exercise performance may be completely unimpaired. Once
fatigue does set in, however, muscle activity will slow and body heat
production will decrease. These effects of fatigue will occur more rapidly
once fatigue is reached in a cold environment, as opposed to a warmer
environment.

 
Metabolic Responses

It is well-established that prolonged bouts of aerobic activity increase the

mobilization and oxidation of free fatty acids (FFA), much more so than that
of short duration, high-intensity training such as HIIT. The primary stimulus
for this increased lipid metabolism is the release of catecholamines,
specifically epinephrine and norepinephrine, into the vascular system. Cold
environments increase the secretion of these two hormones, but FFA levels
increase much less than during prolonged aerobic exercise in warmer
conditions. As noted earlier, cold exposure initiates vasoconstriction of the
vessels in the skin and subcutaneous tissues, yet it is in the subcutaneous
tissue that is the major storage site for lipids (in the form of adipose tissue).
Therefore, the vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to the area from which the
FFA would be mobilized. It can be concluded that FFA levels do not increase
as much as the elevated levels of catecholamines would indicate.

Blood glucose levels also play a major role in tolerance to cold temperatures
and also to exercise endurance. Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) suppresses
the shivering response to cold and significantly reduces internal temperature,
both of which are detrimental to performance and overall health in a cold
environment. Blood glucose levels are maintained reasonably well with a diet
with a proper balance of proteins, carbohydrates and fats. Low-carbohydrate
diets, such as Atkins and CKD diets will significantly reduce the body’s
ability to maintain constant body temperature when exposed to cold
environments, which in turn will severely inhibit performance. Muscle
glycogen, on the other hand, is used at a higher rate in cold temperatures
(especially cold water) than in warmer conditions [77].

Brown fat can aid in increasing internal temperature, as it produces a large

amount of heat during ß-oxidation. In brown fat, mitochondria density is high
and oxidizes the fat in such a way as to produce a great deal more heat than
ATP. Brown fat is predominantly found in younger animals and humans, but
some adults may keep brown fat after adolescence.

Health Risks during Exercise in Cooled Environments

  

Hypothermia

Individuals who are immersed in near-freezing water will die within mere
minutes when the internal body temperature decreases below 77°F. In some
very extreme cases, individuals have survived internal temperatures as low as
64.4°F [53], and in one case occurring in 1958, a woman was deliberately
cooled to an internal temperature of 48.2°F under anesthesia and was finally
revived after a cardiac arrest lasting about 60 minutes [55].

With these extreme cases aside, the body begins to lose hypothalamal control
over thermoregulation once the internal temperature drops below 94.1°F.
Control is completely lost once internal temperature drops below 85.1°F.
This loss of function is associated with the slowdown of metabolic reactions
to one half their normal rates for every 18°F decrease in cellular temperature.
As a result, the cooling of the body can result in a coma and then death.

Excessive exposure to cold environments can cause damage to both

peripheral tissues and the life-supporting cardiovascular and respiratory
systems. The most significant affect of hypothermia is on the heart. Deaths
associated with hypothermia are a result of cardiac arrest while respiration
was still somewhat functional. Cooling of the internal cavity influences the
sinoatrial node, which controls the nerve impulses leading to the heart to set
heart rate. Cooling of heat tissue leads to a progressive decline in heart rate
and then to cardiac arrest [40]. A decrease in core temperature, coupled with
a decrease in heart rate, significantly lowers cardiac output.

There is some question as to whether or not rapid, deep breathing (as in

exercise) in cold environments can damage the respiratory tract; however, it
has been shown that the cold air is rapidly warmed in the trachea, even when
the air inhaled is less than –13°F [75]. Even at this temperature, the air can be
almost instantaneously warmed to an adequate 59°F by the time it has
traveled about 5 cm into the nasal passage. Therefore, there is absolutely no
shred of damage posed by inhalation of cold air, although heavy breathing
through the mouth has been shown to cause a minor degree of irritation to the
mouth, pharynx, trachea, and even bronchi when the air temperature is below
10°F. Nonetheless, no major damage is incurred. Excessive exposure to cold
environments can also affect respiratory function by decreasing the rate and
volume of respiration.

Treatment of hypothermia includes protecting the victim from further

exposure to the cold and providing dry clothing and warm beverages. Cases
of severe hypothermia must be handled with caution to help prevent a cardiac
arrhythmia. This requires the victim to be slowly warmed.

Frostbite

Skin exposed directly to a cold environment can freeze when external

temperatures reach just below 32°F. Due to the heat retention mechanisms
the body initiates during exposure to cold environments, the air temperature
actually required to freeze body parts such as the fingers, nose and ears is
about –20°F. During this type of extreme cold, vasoconstriction in the skin
will become so effective that blood flow to the extremities may cease,
causing the tissues to die from a lack of oxygen and nutrients. This is known
as frostbite. If not treated promptly, frostbite can lead to conditions such as
gangrene and a loss of tissue (forced amputation). Frostbitten body parts must
be left untreated until given a chance to thaw.

Acclimatization to Exercise in Cooled Environments

To date, information about acclimatization to cold environments is somewhat

limited; however, the available data suggests that chronic daily exposure to
cold water will increase subcutaneous body fat [31]. Most of the research
regarding cold acclimatization originates from the study of Australian
Aborigines who are normally exposed to low temperatures at night and high
temperatures during the day [67]. Compared with individuals who are
unacclimatized, the Aborigines were able to sleep more comfortably in the
cold with little protection from the environment, and only minor changes in
their metabolism and internal temperatures were recorded. The
unacclimatized subjects, on the other hand, experienced significant distress
and considerable difficulty in maintaining a constant body temperature.

Some data suggests that chronic exposure to cold environments alters

peripheral blood flow and overall skin temperatures, yet other studies suggest
that appendages (such as the hands) that are chronically exposed to cold
temperatures show an increase in vasodilation and local warming of the
exposed skin.

Conclusions

Maintaining homeostasis is of prime importance when exercising in both hot

and cold environments. Failing to do so will result in a decrease in
performance and an increase in the risk of developing potentially fatal
situations. These conditions are amplified in athletes such as bodybuilders,
due to the intensity of training, the pre-contest water depletion and the larger
than average surface area of bodybuilding athletes. All heat- and cold-related
illnesses are completely preventable, and there is no reason an athlete should
become predisposed to said illnesses due to a lack of fluid ingestion.

By gaining an understanding of how the body’s thermoregulatory

mechanisms act, the well-informed athlete can make better decisions when it
comes to training in extreme environments to ensure operation at peak
performance in the safest possible manner. Bodybuilders are known for going
to extremes to achieve seemingly inhuman physiques, but there is no reason
to go to such extremes when it comes to proper fluid ingestion.