Crack Grade B 1

Part B: Food Safety Eco System in India: Food Processing and Preservation

Food preservation: Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food in
such a way as to stop or greatly slow down its spoilage and to prevent food borne illness
while maintaining the food item’s nutritional value, texture and flavor.

Food processing: Food processing is the set of methods and techniques used to
transform raw ingredients into food for consumption by humans or animals. The food
processing industry utilizes these processes. Food processing often takes clean,
harvested or slaughtered and components convert into attractive and marketable food
products.

Modern food processing technology in the 19th and 20th century was largely
developed to serve military needs. In 1809 Nicolas Appert invented a vacuum bottling
technique that would supply food for French troops, and this contributed to the
development of tinning and then canning by Peter Durand in 1810. Although initially
expensive and somewhat hazardous due to the lead used in cans, canned goods would
later become a staple around the world. Pasteurization, discovered by Louis Pasteur in
1862, was a significant advance in ensuring the micro-biological safety of food.
Industries : Food processing industries and practices include the following:
• Cannery
• Industrial rendering
• Meat packing plant
• Slaughterhouse
• Sugar industry
• Vegetable packing plant

Principles of food processing: Most food processes utilize six different unit operations:
heat transfer, fluid flow, mass transfer, mixing, size adjustment (reduction or
enlargement), and separation.

Blanching : Blanching is used to destroy enzymatic activity in vegetable and some fruits
prior to other processing like freezing or dehydration or canning or thermal processing.
The purpose of blanching is to achieve several objectives.
• To soften the tissue to facilitate packaging.
• To avoid damage to the product.
• To eliminate air form the product.
• To preserve the natural colour
• To destroy or retard certain undesirable enzymes.
• To help preserve natural flavour.

Blanching is achieved in hot water for a short period of time or in an atmosphere of

steam.

In water blanching, the product is moved through water usually maintained at a

temperature between 88 and 99 degree C.
In steam blanching the product is carried on a belt through a steam chamber into
which live steam is constantly injected. The steam chamber is hooded and equipped with
exhaust and also a drain for the condensate. The time temperatures are regulated for
each specific product to achieve the desired enzyme inactivation, colour preservation and
other characteristics.

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Blanching perhaps represents the least severe heat of the above processes; however,
nutrient loss during blanching can occur due to reasons other than heat, such as
leaching. With steam blanching, it is possible to significantly reduce the effluent volume,
as well as leaching losses.

The individual quick blanching (IQB) technique is an innovation based on a two-stage

heat-hold principle and has been shown to significantly improve nutrient retention. The
vegetables are heated in single layers to a temperature high enough to inactivate the
enzymes, and in the second stage they are held in a deep bed long enough to cause
enzyme inactivation.
Depending on the method of blanching, commodity and nutrient concerned, the loss due
to blanching can be up to 40% for minerals and vitamins (especially vitamin C (Ascorbic
acid) and thiamin), 35% for sugars, and 20% for proteins and amino acids. Blanching
can result in some undesirable color changes resulting from the thermal degradation of
blue/green chlorophyll pigments to yellow/ green pheophytins.

*Leaching is a process of extracting a substance from a solid material that is dissolved

in a liquid.

EQUIPMENT FOR BLANCHING: Steam Blanchers and hot water Blanchers

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For commercial blanching typical times at 212 0 F ( 1000 C) are given in the Table:

Pasteurization : It is the process of heating a food-usually a liquid-to or below its boiling

point for a defined period of time. The purpose is to destroy all pathogens, reduce the
number of bacteria, inactivate enzymes and extend the shelf life of a food
product.Pasteurization inactivates most viable vegetative forms of microorganisms but
not heat-resistant spores. Originally, pasteurization was evolved to inactivate bovine
tuberculosis in milk.

Pasteurization treatment is able to kill most heat resistant non spore forming organisms
like Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Coxiella burnetti. The negative effects of
pasteurization are: certain preformed products of microbial origin are not inactivated
during pasteurization, e.g. Staphylococcal toxins and aflatoxins

Heat resistance of different microorganisms is different. Microorganisms are more

heat resistant than their spores. Heat resistance of vegetative yeast is 50-58 ° C in
10-15 min and the ascospores is 60 ° C for 10-15 min. However, yeast and spores are
killed by pasteurization.

Heat resistance of mold is 600 C in 5 to 10 min and asexual spores are more heat
resistance than the ordinary mycelium and require a temperature 5-10°C higher
for their destruction. Aspergillus, Muco, ,Penicillium are more resistant than yeast.

Heat resistance of bacteria and bacterial spores is different. Cells high in lipid content
and capsule containing bacteria are harder to kill. Higher the optimal and maximal
temperature for growth , the greater the resistance to killing. The most common
application is pasteurization of liquid milk.

Heat resistance of microorganisms and their spores is expressed in terms of their

thermal death time (TDT). Thermal Death Time (TDT) is the time taken to kill a given

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number of microorganisms or spores at a certain temperature under specified
conditions.

Fat-soluble vitamins A,D,E and K are relatively insensitive to heat, and generally
there are no losses of these vitamins when milk is pasteurized. The extent of loss in
thiamin, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and folic acid due to pasteurization is less than
10%. Vitamin C can be lost up to 25%. In milk, pasteurization has no pronounced
effect on colour. Colour differences between raw and pasteurized milks are attributed
mainly to the homogenization.

Aseptic Preservation– Methodology:

Aseptic processing comprises the following:
Sterilisation of the products before filling.
Sterilisation of packaging materials or containers and closures before filling
Sterilisation of aseptic installations before operation (UHT unit, lines for products,
sterile air and gases, filler and relevant machine zones)
Maintaining sterility in this total system during operation

Homogenization The process of making a stable emulsion of milk fat and milk serum
by mechanical treatment and rendering the mixture homogenous is homogenization.
This is achieved by passing warm milk or cream through a small aperture under high
pressure and velocity. High-pressure homogenizers, low-pressure rotary type
homogenizers and sonic vibrators are used for the purpose.

A newer method called flash pasteurization involves shorter exposure to higher

temperatures, and is claimed to be better for preserving fashion and taste in some eggs.

Current recommendations for pasteurization are based on low temperature-long-time

(LTLT) method of holding at 62.8°C for 30 min to eliminate pathogenic bacteria that may
be present such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Coxiella burnett. The index
organism for pasteurization is taken as Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

In high temperature short time pasteurization (HTST), milk is heated to 71.7°C for
15 sec. As pasteurized milk is not sterile it must be quickly cooled after pasteurization to
prevent multiplication of surviving bacteria. The effectiveness of pasteurization is
evaluated by phosphatase test (alkaline phosphatase activity in milk).

In ultrahigh temperature (UHT) pasteurization milk and milk product they are heated
to at least 120-1380 C for 2-4 seconds and packaged aseptically resulting in a shelf
stable product that does not require refrigeration until opened.

Sterilization (Retorting): Sterilization refers to any process that eliminates, removes,

kills, or deactivates all forms of life and other biological agents (such as fungi, bacteria,
viruses, spore forms, prions, unicellular eukaryotic organisms such as Plasmodium,
etc.)
Sterilization processes are more severe with respect to the heat treatment given
generally to achieve commercial sterility. Obviously, these products will be subjected to a
nutrient loss. The following nutrients are more sensitive to destruction by heat: vitamins
A, B1, B6, B12, C, D, E, folic acid, inositol, and pantothenic acid, and amino acids such
as lysine and threonine.

All canned foods are sterilized in a retort (a large pressure cooker) and called
commercial sterilization which indicates that no viable organisms are present. This
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process enables food to have a shelf life of more than two years. Foods that have a pH
of more than 4.6, such as meat and most vegetables must undergo severe heating
conditions to destroy all pathogens. These foods are heated under pressure to
121°C for varying times.

Canning is a preservation method that involves placing foods in jars or similar

containers and heating them to a temperature that destroys micro-organisms that cause
food to spoil. During this heating process air is driven out of the jar and as it cools a
vacuum seal is formed. This vacuum seal prevents air from getting back into the product
bringing with it contaminating micro-organisms.

Why canning?
01.Suitable for high and low acidic foods
02. Prevents contamination
03. Enhances shelf life

The canning process itself consists of several stages:

 Cleaning usually involves passing the raw food through tanks of water or under
high-pressure water sprays, after which vegetable or other product is cut, peeled,
cored, sliced, graded, soaked, and pureed, and so on.
 Almost all vegetables and some fruits require blanching by immersion in hot water
or steam; this process serves as an additional or final cleansing operation.
 The filling of cans is done automatically by machines; cans are filled with solid
contents and, in many cases, with an accompanying liquid (often brine or syrup)
in order to replace as much of the air in the can as possible.
 The filled cans are then passed through a hot-water or steam bath in an exhaust
box; this heating expands the food and drives out the remaining air.
 Immediately after the cans are exhausted, they are closed and sealed.
 The sealed cans are then sterilized; i.e., they are heated at temperatures high
enough and for a long enough time to destroy all microorganisms.
 The cans are then cooled in cold water or air, after which they are labeled.

The thermal processes of canning are generally designed to destroy the spores of the
bacterium C. botulinum. This microorganism can easily grow under anaerobic
conditions, producing the deadly toxin that causes botulism.

Water-bath canning: This method sometimes referred to as hot water canning, uses a
large kettle of boiling water. Filled jars are submerged in the water and heated to an
internal temperature of 212°F for a specific period of time. This method is used for
processing high-acid foods, such as fruit, items made from fruit, pickles, pickled food,
and tomatoes.

Pressure canning: Pressure canning uses a large kettle that produces steam in a locked
compartment. The filled jars in the kettle reach an internal temperature of -24 °C under
a specific pressure (stated in pounds) that is measured with a dial gauge or weighted
gauge on the pressure-canner cover. A pressure canner should be used for processing
vegetables and other low-acid foods, such as meat, poultry and fish.

Preservation by Freeze Drying: The process of freeze drying or lyophilization is

commonly used these days for preservation. The food is deep frozen, after which the
water is drawn off by a vacuum pump in a machine. The dry product is then sealed in
foil and is reconstituted with water. This method is very useful for storing, transporting
and preserving bacterial cultures. Drying or dehydration involves the removal of
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water from the food by controlled processes. This may be done by evaporation due
to heating of the product, e.g., drying of fruits, osmotic dehydration, e.g. brining
of fish and sublimation, or freeze drying e.g. in the drying of coffee.

The different methods of freezing are generally grouped as :

1. Air freezing
2. Plate freezing
3. Liquid immersion freezing
4. Cryogenic freezing

Air freezing: Air freezing is one of the most common methods of commercial freezing.
The material, packaged or unpackaged, is frozen by exposure to air at temperatures
ranging from -18 0 C to -400C.

Plate freezing: In this type of freezer, the food, generally in regular-sized packages, is
frozen by contact with a metal plate, which is cooled either by circulating cold brine or
refrigerant.

Liquid-immersion freezing: As the name indicates, this technique involves immersion

of the product, packaged or non-packaged, in the cooling medium. The process is
relatively fast, because heat transfer from direct contact liquid medium is much more
efficient than from air. Aqueous solutions of propylene glycol, glycerol, sodium chloride,
calcium chloride, and sugars have been tried (for example, in the freezing of orange juice
concentrates).

Cryogenic freezing: Cryogenic freezing provides for a very rapid freezing by virtue of the
very low temperatures of the cooling medium. Liquid nitrogen and liquid or solid carbon
dioxide are common cryogenic freezing agents.

Ultraviolet-C (UV-C) radiation: Nonionizing, artificial ultraviolet-C (UV-C) radiation is

extensively used in a broad range of antimicrobial applications including disinfection of
water, air, food preparation surfaces, food containers and surface disinfection of
vegetable commodities.
The ultraviolet light acts as an antimicrobial agent directly due to DNA damage and
indirectly due to the induction of resistance mechanisms in different fruit and vegetables
against pathogens. Exposure to UV-C also induces the synthesis of health-promoting
compounds such as anthocyanins and stilbenoids. However, high UV doses, can cause
damage to the treated tissue.

Low-dose gamma irradiation is very effective reducing bacterial, parasitic, and

protozoan pathogens in raw foods. Irradiation was approved by the FDA for use on fruits
and vegetables at a maximum level of 1.0 kGy. It has already been tested in minimally
processed fruit and vegetables observing that dose of 2.0 kGy strongly inhibited the
growth of aerobic mesophilic and lactic microflora in shredded carrots.

pH CONTROL: Almost every food, with the exception of egg whites and soda crackers,
has a pH value of less than 7. Foods can be broadly categorized on the basis of their pH
as high acid, acid, medium acid or low acid. Examples of each
category include:
• High acid (pH: 3.7): apples, lemons, raspberries
• Acid (pH: 3.7 to 4.6): oranges, olives, tomatoes (some)
• Medium acid (pH: 4.6 to 5.3): bread, cheese, carrots
• Low acid (pH: over 5.3): meat, fish and most vegetables

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Minimal processing technologies: Minimal processing‘ describes non-thermal

technologies to process food in a manner to guarantee the food safety and preservation
as well as to maintain as much as possible the fresh-like characteristics of fruits and
vegetables. Traditional thermal processing techniques can be both beneficial to foods in
such areas as preservation and flavor formation but detrimental in damaging other
sensory and nutritional properties.

Emerging Methods of Food Preservation:

Photochemical processes:
Light pulses have been used successfully as a new technique for the inactivation of
bacteria and fungi on the surface of food products when the major composition of the
emitted spectrum is UV light. Some studies have focused on the microbial and sensory
quality of fresh-cut vegetables using intense light pulses combined with MAP (Modified
atmosphere packaging). Light pulses has been used to successfully inactivate
Escherichia coli on alfalfa seeds and Aspergillus niger spores on corn meal.

Non photochemical processes:

Acidic electrolyzed water (AcEW) produced by the electrolysis of an aqueous sodium

chlorite solution as a disinfectant for minimally processed vegetable products has been
successfully applied.

Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) has been recognized as a strong oxidizing agent with a broad
biocidal effectiveness due to the high oxidation capacity of about 2.5 times greater than
chlorine.

Pediocin and nisin applications in combination with organic acids caused a significant
reduction of native microflora and inoculated populations on fresh produce.

High hydrostatic pressure: The application of high hydrostatic pressure for processing
food products consists of a pressure treatment in the range of 4000-9000 atmospheres
for 1-20 min. High pressure processing is a non thermal processing. It was first
commercialized in Japan in the early 1990s for pasteurization of acid foods for chilled
storage.

Hydrostatic pressure may be generated by the addition of free energy, e.g., heating
at constant volume or mechanical volume reduction. It is now technically feasible to
reach pressures up to several gigapascals and to keep it constant for a comparably long
time in specially designed vessels made from highly alloyed steel.

The high hydrostatic pressure is used to inactivate microbial growth as well as

certain enzymes to prolong the shelf-life of the food products, although the
microbial inactivation will depend on the pH, food composition, osmotic pressure
and the temperature of the environment.

The extension of shelf-life or the elimination of microbial pathogens can be achieved

since the viability of vegetative microorganisms is affected by inducing structural
changes at the cell membrane or by the inactivation of enzyme systems which are
responsible for the control of the metabolic actions. It is known that Gram negative
bacteria are inhibited at lower pressure than Gram positive bacteria.

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The inhibition of microbial spores can be managed by combining the high pressure
treatment with chilling temperatures.

Microbially derived hurdles: Antibiotics, bacteriocins, competitive flora, protective

cultures.

ULTRASONIC FOOD PROCESSING: Ultrasound is an efficient non-thermal alternative.

Ultrasonic cavitation creates shear forces that break cell walls mechanically and improve
material transfer. Generally, ultrasound equipment uses frequencies from 20kHz to
10MHz.

Higher-power ultrasound at lower frequencies (20–100kHz), which is referred to as

power ultrasound‘‘, has the ability to cause cavitation that could be used in food
processing to inactivate microorganisms.

Low frequency ultrasound refers to pressure waves with a frequency of 20 kHz or more.
Ultrasonic waves generate gas bubbles in liquid media, which produce a high
temperature and pressure increase when they immediately burst. When the bubbles
produced during ultrasonic treatment collapse, the compression/expansion cycles
generated are thought to be responsible for cell disruption, microbial and enzyme
inactivation in preservation of fruit juices and sauce.

Ultrasound has potential to destruction of food borne pathogens like E.coli,

Salmonella, Giargia, poliovirus etc. This method has application in the preservation of
jam, marmalade or toppings e.g. for ice cream, fruit juices and sauces, meat products
and dairy.

Modified Atmosphere Packaging: Modified Atmosphere Packaging is a way of extending

the shelf life of fresh food products. The technology substitutes the atmospheric air
inside a package with a protective gas mix. The gas in the package helps ensure that the
product will stay fresh for as long as possible.

The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen (O2), moving it from
20% to 0%, In order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and the speed of
oxidation reactions. The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen (N2), commonly
acknowledged as an inert gas, or carbon dioxide (CO2), which can lower the pH or
inhibit the growth of bacteria. Carbon monoxide can be used for keeping the red color of
meat.

There are two techniques used in the industry to pack vegetables namely gas-flushing
and compensated vacuum. For its cheapness the gas-flushing is more widely used. In
gas-flushing the package is flushed with a desired gas mixture, as in compensated
vacuum the air is removed totally and the desired gas mixture then inserted. The
label "packaged in a protective atmosphere" can refer to either of these; an example of a
gas mixture used for non-vegetable packaged food (such as crisps) is 99.9% nitrogen
gas, which is inert at the temperatures and pressures the packaging is subjected to.

A wide variety of products are gas flushed, typical products are: - Fresh meat,
Processed meat, Cheese, Milk powder, Snacks, Fresh pasta, Vegetables, Bread,
Convenience products, Case ready meat, Fresh poultry, Seafood etc.

BIOPRESERVATION: Bio-preservation or biological preservation can be defined as a

preservation method to improve safety and stability of food products in a natural way by

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using desired‘microorganisms (cultures) and/or their metabolites without changing the
sensory quality.

Cultures can be defined as protective or antagonistic micro-organisms that are

added to a food product only to inhibit pathogens and/or to extend the shelf-life,
while changing the sensory properties of the product as little as possible. These
cultures differ from starter cultures in their functional objectives. Starter cultures are,
by definition, used in food fermentations in order to modify the raw material to give it
new sensory properties and this relying on the metabolic activity (acid production) of the
culture, while the preservation effect (antimicrobial action) is of secondary importance.
For a protective culture, the functional objectives are the inverse.

Bio-preservation can be applied in food products by two basic methods:

Adding crude, semi-purified or purified microbial metabolites;
Adding pure and viable micro-organisms .

The use of micro-organisms or their metabolites as food preservatives is not meant as a

primary means of preservation but as a way to contribute to the hurdle approach in food
preservation.

IRRADIATION: Irradiation of food is the exposure of food to ionizing radiation; either

high-energy electrons or X-rays from accelerators, or by gamma rays (emitted from
radioactive sources as Cobalt-60 or Caesium-137). The treatment has a range of effects,
including killing bacteria, molds and insect pests, reducing the ripening and spoiling of
fruits, and at higher doses inducing sterility. The technology may be compared to
pasteurization; it is sometimes called 'cold pasteurization', as the product is not heated.
Irradiation is not effective against viruses or prions, it cannot eliminate toxins already
formed by microorganisms, and is only useful for food of high initial quality.
Food Irradiation Processes:
• Radurization: (0.75-2.5 Kgy): This method mimics pasteurization. It inhibits
sprouting and delays ripening, kills insects and it is used for shelf life extension.
• Radicidation (2.5-10KGy): This method will eliminate spoilage microorganisms and
non spore forming pathogens. Food will not get spoiled but still may contain some
pathogens
• Radapperization (10-50 kGy): This method is also called radiation sterilization.
Here reduction of microorganisms occurs to the point of sterility.
•
Effect of Radiation on Microorganisms : Gram negative bacteria are generally more
sensitive than Gram positive forms, bacterial spores are strongly resistant, yeasts tends
to be rather more resistant than molds and smallest viruses required doses of >200 kGy
to achieve a million-fold reduction in their numbers. The principal targets of irradiation
are nucleic acids and membrane lipids.

Effect of Ionizing Radiation: Causes disruption of internal metabolism of cells, DNA

cleavage, Formation of free radicals, Disrupts chemical bonds.
Sources of radiation used:

Electron irradiation beam: Electron irradiation uses electrons accelerated in an electric

field to a velocity close to the speed of light. Electrons are particulate radiation and,
hence, have cross section many times larger than photons, so that they do not penetrate
the product beyond a few inches, depending on product density.

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Gamma irradiation: Gamma radiation is radiation of photons in the gamma part of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The radiation is obtained through the use of radioisotopes,
generally cobalt-60 or, in theory, caesium-137. Cobalt-60 is intentionally bred from
cobalt-59 using specifically designed nuclear reactors. Caesium-137 is recovered during
the refinement of "spent nuclear fuel", formerly referred to as "nuclear waste". Food
irradiation using Cobalt-60 is the preferred method by most processors, because the
deeper penetration enables administering treatment to entire industrial pallets or totes,
reducing the need for material handling.

Irradiation is most useful in four areas: Preservation, Sterilization, Control

sprouting, ripening, and insect damage, Control of food pathogens such as
Salmonella.

On the basis of the dose of radiation the application is generally divided into three
main categories as detailed under:
• Low Dose Applications (up to 1 kGy)- Delay in fruit ripening, Sprout inhibition
in bulbs and tubers
• Medium Dose Applications (1 kGy to 10 kGy)- meat, poultry and seafoods
• High Dose Applications (above 10 kGy)-meat, poultry and seafoods

Potential uses of Food Irradiation

• Meat, poultry - Destroys pathogenic organisms, such as Salmonella,
Campylobacter and Trichinae
• Perishable foods- Delays spoilage; retards mold growth; reduces number of
microorganisms
• Grain, fruit- Controls insect vegetables, infestation dehydrated fruit, spices and
seasonings , Reduces rehydration time
• Onions, carrots, potatoes, garlic, ginger- Inhibits sprouting
• Bananas, mangos, papayas, guavas, other non-citrus fruits- Delays ripening
avocados, natural juices.

NANO-TECH IN FOOD PROCESSING: Nanotechnology is a powerful new technology for

taking apart and reconstructing nature at the atomic and molecular level. It involves
atomic level manipulation to transform and construct a wide range of new materials,
devices, and technological systems.

Why is it different? Nanotechnology and nanoscience involve the study of phenomena

and materials, and the manipulation of structures, devices and systems that exist at the
nanoscale, <100 nanometres (nm) in size.

Use in food production and processing Industry analysts and proponents predict that
nanotechnology will be used to transform food from the atom up. Tomorrow‘s food will be
designed by shaping molecules and atoms. Food will be wrapped in ―smart‖ safety
packaging that can detect spoilage or harmful contaminants. Future products will
enhance and adjust their color, flavor, or nutrient content to accommodate each
consumer‘s taste or health needs. In agriculture, nanotechnology promises to reduce
pesticide use, improve plant and animal breeding, and create new nano-bioindustrial
product.

Four key focus areas for nanotechnology food research:

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• Nano-modification of seed and fertilisers/ pesticides
• Food fortification‘ and modification
• Interactive smart‘ food
• Smart‘ packaging and food tracking

Safety issues of processed foods available in market:

Foods that are subjected to technological modifications either for preservation or for
converting into ready-to-use/eat foods, eliminating laborious household procedures, are
called “processed foods”. Some of the examples are ready mixes, dehydrated foods, pasta
products, canned foods, confectioneries, bakery, dairy products and breakfast foods.
Manufacture of processed foods requires technology application and machinery, and as
a result, processed foods are expensive.

Frequent consumption of unhealthy processed food increases calorie intake without

providing any nutrients, vitamins and minerals. Apart from being non-nutritious,
processed foods also contain food additives. Food additives consumed beyond
permissible limits may have adverse effects on health. The national food regulatory
authorities periodically review these limits. Thus, consumption of processed foods may
not only affect intake of nutrients, but in addition, increase the risk of exposure to
various chemical additives.

Artificial Sweeteners: One of the most commonly used sweeteners is the controversial
compound aspartame. Aspartame gains its controversy because animal studies have
shown that it can lead to accumulation of formaldehyde after consumption, and one of
the breakdown products of aspartame in the intestine is the toxic compound methanol.
However, low levels of aspartame have not shown direct symptoms in humans, so it is
presumed safe in food products. There is a problem with this assumption, though,
because so many processed products contain aspartame, and therefore people who
consume mainly processed foods may be taking in relatively high levels of aspartame.
Few real data have been collected to look at the level of aspartame the average person
consumes and how this level may affect health, or the long-term effects in humans.

Coloring Agents: Most processed foods are colored with synthetic or additional coloring
agents. Based on the idea that we "eat with our eyes", many food manufactures choose
to enhance a color, even if the initial food is not as colorful. A variety of types of coloring
agents are used, including many synthetic compounds. Besides the issues of ingesting
compounds that are not natural, colorings are often used to improve the color of foods
that have lost color during storage or from heat. The colored compounds in natural foods
are some of the most important phytonutrients, however, and this loss of color can mean
a loss of nutrient value, which may be masked by the addition of synthetic compounds.

Some of these coloring additives have been found to promote hypersensitivity reactions
in people, especially children. In sensitive persons, consumption of these artificial
colorings has been linked to ADHD (attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder), asthma,
and inflammatory skin conditions such as urticaria and atopic dermatitis.

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Preservatives: A major concern with processed foods is the use of preservatives. The
most commonly used preservatives are butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and sulfites.

Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT): BHT is controversial; a government-sponsored review

of safety data indicated that no direct toxicity was observed at the permitted levels in a
food, however this report also determined that more studies were needed to assess
safety. Since then, BHT has been shown to induce tumors in the stomach and liver in
animals when used at high levels. Again, although this was allowed in foods at a low
level per each food, it is one of the most common preservatives and is present in many
processed foods. The amount consumed in the entire diet may be higher than the
"permitted" level per food and remains a concern by many scientists.

BHT and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) are being investigated for their ability to
damage genetic material. In addition, research has shown that these compounds can
rupture and damage red blood cells as well as stimulate symptoms of chemical
sensitivity.

Sulfites: Sulfites are also a common preservative. Sulfites are prohibited to be used in
foods that provide the nutrient vitamin B1 because it can destroy this vitamin.
Furthermore, some people are sensitive to sulfites and respond with adverse reactions.
Due to the reports of adverse reactions, the FDA banned the use of sulfites on fruits and
vegetables in 1986, and is still reviewing whether it should be banned from other uses.
Sulfites have been found to aggravate asthma in children and adults. Between five and
ten percent of chronic asthmatics are thought to be sulfite sensitive.

Trans-Fats: Trans-fatty acids are an example of what can happen to essential nutrients
when a food is processed. Also called hydrogenated fats, these fatty acids are found in
margarine, vegetable shortenings, crackers, cookies, snack foods and numerous other
processed foods. Trans-fats are produced by a chemical process in which hydrogens are
added to an unsaturated fatty acid. The food industry uses this process because it
converts a liquid fat to a soft solid form, like margarine, and also because it increases
the shelf-life for fats. In this process, however, the fatty acid molecule shifts structures
to a structure that is not found in the body; that is, the fats in the body occur in what is
called a "cis" 3-dimensional structure, and trans-fatty acids are the opposite of that, and
are a "trans" structure. Chemically, they are different.

Trans-fats have been shown to increase LDL cholesterol (the one associated with
increased risk of heart disease) and decrease HDL cholesterol, the "protective"
cholesterol. So clear is the promotion of high LDL cholesterol levels by trans-fats, and
the resultant association with increased risk for heart disease, that the FDA has been
prompted to require these trans-fats be labeled separately on foods so consumers can
see when they are present. Trans-fats have also been linked to certain cancers, including
breast cancer.

Q. What are the various principles of food processing?

Q. What is pasteurization, explain in details.

Q. Write short notes on following:

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 Crack Grade B 13
1. Canning
2. Dehydration

Q. Write short notes on following:

1. Freezing
2. freeze drying

Q. Write short notes on following:

1. Refrigerated storage
2. modified atmosphere storage

Q. Write short notes on following:

1. Blanching
2. Pasteurization

Q. Write short notes on following:

1. Sterilization
2. Microwave sterilization

Q. What are various thermal food processing methods?

Q. What are various non- thermal food processing methods?

Q. Write short notes on following:

1. Ultraviolet-C (UV-C) radiation

2. Low-dose gamma irradiation

Q. Write short notes on following:

1. Pulsed electric field

2. Hurdle Technology

Q. Write short notes on following:

1. ULTRASONIC FOOD PROCESSING

2. BIOPRESERVATION

Q. Write short notes on following:

1. FOOD PRESERVATİON THROUGH FERMENTATİON

2. IRRADIATION

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 Crack Grade B 14

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