Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis

Need to predict & understand stress/strain distribution within

the pavement structure as they (σ & ε) relate to failure
(cracking & rutting)
Numerical Models
Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis • Need model to compute deflections (δ) and strains (ε)
• Numerous models available with different:
– Capabilities
– Underlying assumptions What would be an
– Complexity ideal model?
Dr. Christos Drakos – Material information requirements
IDEAL MODEL
Predicts Input Parameters
University of Florida
• Stresses • Static & dynamic loads
• Strains • Material properties
• Traffic However, can obtain
• Environment reasonable estimates!
No current model meets these requirements!

Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
1. Available Models
Falling Weight Deflectometer
• Multilayer Elastic Theory
• Finite Element Methods
• Viscoelastic Theory (time and temp.-dependent behavior)
• Dynamic Analysis (inertial effects) • Small trailer
• Dropping Weight
• Thermal Models (temperature change)
• Geophones
• Deflection Basin
Most widely used
• Reasonable Results
• Properties Relatively Simple to Obtain
How do we get E? Before
& after construction
E&ν Before: lab testing (MR)
After: field testing (FWD) Uses elastic theory to predict the deflection basin for the given load. Then
iterates with different moduli configurations until the calculated deflection
basin matches the measured.

Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
2. Multilayer Elastic Theory 2. Multilayer Elastic Theory (cont.)
a = radius a = radius

q = pressure q = pressure
Properties @ A = Properties @ B
E 1, ν 1 z1 E1, ν1 z1

Same properties in all directions

E 2, ν 2 z2 Point B E2, ν2 z2 Point B
Point A Point A

E 3, ν 3 Hooke’s Law E3, ν3

z3 z3
Assumptions (p. 60): Assumptions (cont.):
∞ • Each Layer ∞ • Surface stresses
1
– Continuous ε z = (σ z − ν (σ r + σ t )) – Circular
– Homogeneous E – Vertical
Why do we want full
– Isotropic – Uniformly distributed
friction between layers?
– Linearly Elastic • Full friction between layers
– Material is weightless & infinite in areal extend • Each layer continuously supported
– Finite thickness (except last layer)
Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis

Units Guidelines 3. One-layer System

• Stress: 3.1 Based on Boussinesq (1885)

lbs Half-space: infinite
– Reported in psi: psi = Point load on an elastic half-space area & depth
in 2 • Examine σ distribution along Z & X
• Strain: in 3 1 P
µε = microstrain = ×10 −6 P σz =
– Reported in µε: 5
in σz 2π z2
⎡ ⎛r⎞ 2
⎤ 2

⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
• Deflections: in σz z ⎢⎣ ⎝ z ⎠ ⎥⎦
– Reported in mils: mils = Z
1000
r Where:
– σz = Vertical stress
For homework, exams, and projects, you are expected to σz
– r = Radial distance from load
convert all of your answers to these units. – z = Depth
– P = Point load
X
Notice that the stress distribution
is independent of E

Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
3.2 One-layer Solutions (Foster & Ahlvin) 3.2 One-layer Solutions (Foster & Ahlvin)
Developed charts to determine σz, σt, σr, τrz & w (ν=0.5) Charts follow similar outline
Figures 2.2 – 2.6 • Axisymmetric loading:
2a – σz = Vertical stress Depth (z) and offset
– σr = Radial stress (r) are expressed in
q – σt = Tangential stress radial ratios
– τrz = Shear stress
– w = Deflection
• Pre-solved @ radial distances
σz z a
q
τrz 0
Depth

1a
σr σt 2a

r 3a 2a 1a 0
Offset

Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
3.2.1 Vertical Stress (cont)
3.2.1 Vertical Stress 33 × 80
z/a = 6/6 =1 σz
Given: a × 100% ≅ 33 σz = = 26.4psi
q
r/a = 6/6 =1 q 100
– Load, P = 9000 lbs
– Pressure, q = 80 psi
σz z=6”
Find:
– Vertical Stress, σz @ z=6” & r=6”
r=6”

First, we need to calculate the radius:

P 9000 9000
q= = a= ≅ 6in
A π × a2 π × 80

z/a = 6/6 =1
Figure 2.2 (vertical stress distribution)
r/a = 6/6 =1
Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
3.2.2 Deflection (cont.)
3.2.2 Deflection
Flexible Plate Rigid Plate a = 6”
How can we use one-layer
q = 80 psi theory to estimate the deflection
Rubber q q Steel
h1= 4” of the system?
h2= 8” Pavement
Deflection Profile Structure
h3= 12”
We can assume the pavement
Ground Reaction
structure to be incompressible
Which deflection is higher? A
WRigid ≅ 79% ⋅ WFlexible Basically: δ surface ≡ δ A
∞
W0 =
( )
2 1 − ν 2 qa
W0 =
(
π 1 − ν 2 qa )
For this case (assuming one-layer):
E 2E
q× a
W0 =
1.5qa
W0 =
1.18qa δA = ×F Get F from Fig 2.6
E E E

Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
3.2.2 Deflection (cont.) 3.2.2 Deflection (cont.)
a = 6”
Given: • Examine two cases:
z/a=24/6=4 q = 80 psi
r/a=0 h1= 4”
Clay Dense Sand
Find: h2= 8” E=2,500 E=25,000
F=0.37
80 × 6 80 × 6
h3= 12” w= 0.37 = 0.071 w = 0.37 = 0.0071
2500 25000
A
w=71 mils (High) w=7.1 mils (Low)

Subgrade quality is very important in pavement design

Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
4. Stresses & Strains for Design 4.2 Tensile Strain
• Purpose of the pavement structure: • Tensile strain at the bottom of AC layer; used in pvt design as
– Protect the subgrade; reduce stresses to a tolerable level to prevent the fatigue cracking criterion
excessive settlement or collapse • Two types of strain:
4.1 Vertical Stress – Overall minor principal strain, ε3
• Vertical stress on top of subgrade; important in pvt design as – Horizontal ‘principal’ strain, εt (not an actual principal strain)
it accounts for permanent deformation (rutting)
Horizontal ‘principal’ strain (εt) used as a design criterion.
• Allowable σz depends on E of the subgrade material
Vertical compressive strain (εc) used as a design criterion a
a q
– To combine the effect of stress (σ) and
q
stiffness (E) ε E1 h1
– Effect of horizontal stress is relatively small; E1 h1
vertical strain caused primarily by vertical E2 h2
stress E2 h2
1 σ E3
ε z = (σ z − ν (σ r + σ t )) ≅ z εc E3
E E ∞
∞
Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
4.2.1 Overall Principal Strains 4.2.1 Horizontal ‘Principal’ Strain
• Based on all 6 components of normal and shear stresses – σx, • Based on the horizontal normal and shear stresses only – σx,
σy, σz, τxy, τxz, τyz σy, τxy
− Solve cubic equation to get σ1, σ2, & σ3 • Horizontal ‘principal’ strain (εt) is slightly lower than the minor
1 principal strain (ε3)
− Then calculate principal strains ε 3 = (σ 3 − ν (σ1 + σ 2 ))
E – ε3 ≥ ε t
• Maximum horizontal strain on the X-Y plane
Minor principal strain (ε3) considered to be tensile strain
• Always acts on the horizontal plane
because tension is negative
• Used by the program KENLAYER to predict fatigue failure
a What is the orientation of ε3? a
q q 2
εx + εy ⎛ ε − εy ⎞
εε3 AC Minor principal strain (ε3) does not always act on εt AC εt = − ⎜ x 2
⎟ + γ xy
3 the horizontal plane 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠

Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
5. Two-layer Theory (Burmister) 5.1 Two-Layer Deflections
Developed solutions for: • In one-layer theory we assumed that all layers could be
• Vertical deflections (flexible & rigid) represented as one a
• Vertical stresses (limited # of cases) – δsurface = δtop of the subgrade
q
− σ & δ highly dependent on stiffness ratio E1/E2 • For two-layer theory we have:
– Vertical Surface Deflection h1 E1
– Vertical Interface Deflection
E2
5.1.1 Surface Deflections
Notice the qa
importance of • Flexible Wmax = 1.5 F2 ∞
E2
stiffness ratio in
qa
reducing stresses. • Rigid Wmax = 1.18 F2
E2

Why use E2 for surface deflection?

• E2 accounts for most of the deflection (see following example)
• F2 takes into account the stiffness ratio

Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
5.1.2 Surface Deflections Example 5.1.3 Interface Deflections Example
a=6” • For the same example as above F
q=80 psi a=6”
q=80 psi
E1=50,000 psi 6”
E1=50,000 psi 6”
E2=10,000 psi
E2=10,000 psi Offset
∞
h1/a

Given: Given: ∞
h1/a=6/6=1 h1/a=6/6=1 ;r/a=0
E1/E2=5 E1/E2=5
Find: Find:
F2=0.6 F=0.83
qa 6(80) qa 6(80)
Wmax = 1.5 F2 = 1.5 0 .6 W= F= 0.83
E2 10000 E2 10000
Wmax = 0.0432" ≅ 43 ⋅ mils W = 0.0398" ≅ 40 ⋅ mils
Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
5.1.4 Surface Vs Interface Deflections 5.2 Two-Layer Vertical Stress
a=6” What thickness do we have to
Compare the results from the example:
use to protect the subgrade?
• Surface deflection = 43 mils q=80 psi
• Interface deflection = 40 mils Top layer compression = 3 mils
E1=500,000 psi h1

Compression percentages: E2=5,000 psi

3 Maximum allowable ∞
– Top Layer = × 100 ≅ 7%
43 σc for clay = 8 psi

40 Given:
– Subgrade Layer = × 100 ≅ 93%
43 σc/q=0.1
Fig 2.15
E1/E2=100

Find:
a/h1=1.15
6
h1 = = 5.2"
1.15

Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
5.2 Critical Tensile Strain 6. Failure Criteria
a=6” 6.1 Fatigue Cracking Model
q=80 psi
• Based on Miner’s cumulative damage concept
εt E1=200,000 psi 6” – Amount of damage expressed as a damage ratio predicted/allowable
load repetitions
Strain Factor, Fe

f1 = Laboratory to field shift

( ) ( )
E2=10,000 psi −f −f
Nf = f1 ε t 2 E1 3 factor
e = εt= critical
f2 & f3 =Determined from fatigue
∞
( ) ( )
tensile strain −3.291 −0.854
Nf = 0.0796 ε t E1 tests on lab specimens
Given:
E1/E2=20 6.2 Rutting Model
Fig 2.21
h1/a=1 • Allowable number of load repetitions related to εc on top of
Find: the subgrade
Fe=1.2 – Does not account for failure in other layers
q 80
εt = Fe = 1.2 Nd = f4 ( εc )
− f5 f4 & f5= Predicted performance to
E 200000 field observation shift factors
( εc )
−4.477
in Nd = 1.365 × 10 −9
ε t = 0.00048 = 480µε
in

Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
7. Sensitivity Analysis 7.1 Effect of HMA Thickness
• Sensitivity analyses illustrate the effect of various parameters
on pavement responses
• Variables to be considered:
– Layer thicknesses h1 & h2
– Layer moduli E1, E2, & E3

hcr

Tensile Strain (εt) Compressive Strain (εc)

• Critical thickness where εt is max • Increasing h1 effectively reduces εc
• Above hcr, increasing h1 effectively when base is thin
reduces εt
Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
7.2 Effect of Base Thickness 7.3 Effect of Base Modulus

Tensile Strain (εt) Compressive Strain (εc) Tensile Strain (εt) Compressive Strain (εc)
• Increase in h2 does not • Significant decrease of εc when h1 • Increase in E2 significantly • Small decrease of εc when E1 is low
significantly decrease εt especially is low decreases εt when E1 is low
when h1 is large • Limits bending

Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
7.4 Effect of Subgrade Modulus 8. Computer Program KENLAYER
Program should be on a disk at the back of your textbook
8.1 System
• Elastic multi-layer analysis system
• Elastic theory assumptions apply
– Load Æ Circular uniformly distributed

Tensile Strain (εt) Compressive Strain (εc)

• Minimal effect on εt • As expected, E3 has great effect on
εc independent of what E1 might be

Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
8.2 Loads 8.3 Material Properties
Circular, uniform pressure • Material types
PARAMETER ACTUAL LOAD – 1 = Linear elastic
– 2 = Nonlinear elastic
LOAD=0 Single wheel – 3 = Linear viscoelastic
– 4 = Combination of 2 & 3
Y X – Longitudinal (direction of traffic)
1
Y – Transverse
σ ε 3
LOAD=1 Yw Dual wheel 2
X
Y ε t
Yw 8.4 Input/Output
LOAD=2 Dual tandem
• Program LAYERINP creates the input file
X
• Run KENLAYER to perform the analysis
Xw
• Default name for the output file is LAYER.TXT
Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
8.5 KENLAYER Example 1 8.5 KENLAYER Example 1 (cont.)
Given: a = 4.5” Procedure:
• Three-layer system q = 100 psi • Create input file
• Uniform circular load – LAYERINP.EΧΕ
h1= 6” E1=500,000 psi ; ν1=0.4
• Elastic material • Run the analysis
Calculate: h2= 12” E2=50,000 psi ; ν2=0.5 – KENLAYER.EXE
• Maximum deflection • Retrieve the output
• Critical tensile strain – LAYER.TXT
• Critical compressive strain E3=10,000 psi ; ν3=0.5
Output format:
∞ • Single wheel load is analyzed in axisymmetric space
• Sign convention: Is there a way to find out?
Where would the critical/maximum values occur? – Positive (+) = Compression
– Maximum deflection δmax @ z=0 – Negative (-) = Tension
– Critical tensile strain εt @ bottom of AC layer
– Critical compressive strain εc @ top of subgrade

Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
8.6 KENLAYER Example 2 8.6 KENLAYER Example 2 (cont.)
Given: Procedure:
14” 4”
• Three-layer system q=100 psi • Create input file
• Dual wheel load a=4 in – LAYERINP.EΧΕ
• Elastic material x x x x • Run the analysis
4” E1=500,000 psi
Calculate: ν1 =0.4 – KENLAYER.EXE
1. δmax x x x x • Retrieve the output
2. εt – LAYER.TXT
3. εc 8” E2=15,000 psi
ν2 =0.5 Output format:
x x x x • Dual wheel load is analyzed in spatial coordinates
Where would the E3=5,000 psi Check output • Sign convention remains the same:
critical/maximum ∞
ν3 =0.5 – Positive (+) = Compression
values occur? – Negative (-) = Tension
Plane of
Symmetry

Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
8.6 KENLAYER Example 2 (cont.) 8.6 KENLAYER Example 2 (cont.)
Output format: Output @ Location (0,7,12.05)
• Results for each point (X,Y) at each requested depth (z)
σ1
• Principal stresses and strains σ1 = 6.72 psi Can we use the principal
σ3 stresses to calculate vertical
δ σz σ1 σ2 σ3 εz ε1 ε3 εh σ2 = 2.04 psi
σ2 strain?
σ3 = 1.47 psi

1
Which strain considered critical εz = (σ z − 0.4(σ x + σ y ))
τ σ1 − σ3 for cracking & rutting? E
τmax =
2 1
τmax εz = (6.72 − 0.4(2.04 + 1.47 )) = 993 ⋅ µε
5000
Principal Stresses act on = 992.2 µε (output)
planes where τ = 0
σ3 σ2 σ1 σ
Topic 3 – Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis
8.7 KENOUT
Kenout is a data manipulation program geared to help you post
process your data
Procedure:
• Rename the KENLAYER output file (LAYER.TXT) to something
relevant to your problem (i.e. Example2)
• Run the Kenout.exe program
• The program then asks for the filename to be read (Example2
– no .txt extension needed)
• Then it prompts you to give a new filename to store the
reduced data (i.e. Ex2 – again, no extension needed)
Output format:
• Original file – Example2
• Kenout – KENOUT.EXE
• Modified file – Ex2