Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization
1. Introduction
Traffic is the most important factor in pavement design;
thickness is based on the number of load repetitions (traffic)
1.1 Traffic Characterization Procedures
Traffic Characterization a. Fixed Traffic:
• Thickness governed by single-wheel load (use the highest anticipated
load for design)
• Used for heavy load / low volume pavements (i.e. airfields)
Dr. Christos Drakos b. Fixed Vehicle Traffic:
• Thickness governed by # of repetitions of a standard vehicle or axle-
load
University of Florida • Convert all traffic to 18-kip single axle loads
c. Variable Traffic and Vehicle:
• Loads are divided into groups (load spectra) and the corresponding
stresses and strains are used for design
• More appropriate for mechanistic design methods
Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization
Fixed Vehicle Traffic 1.2 Equivalent Axle Load Factor (EALF) a.k.a. (LEF)
• Design is based on the total number of passes of the standard • Defines the damage per pass to pavement by the axle in
axle load (18-kip Equivalent Single Axle Load – ESAL) during question relative to the damage per pass of a standard 18-k
the design period axle
• Covert all traffic to the standard axle load (ESAL)
Load Equivalence Factor (LEF) Depends on:
Nd = 1.365 × 10 −9 ( ε c )
−4.477
• Type of pavement
Nd, Nf = Load cycles to failure • Thickness / structural capacity
Nf = 0.0796 ( ε t ) (E1 )
−3.291 −0.854
= ESAL
• Terminal conditions (definition of failure)
– 20% of lane area with fatigue cracking
Basic premise:
– ½ inch rutting
Must determine how many 18-kip single axle loads would cause
the same damage as one X-kip load • Theoretical analysis Nf(18)/Nf(X)
• Based on experience (AASHO Road Test)
How many ESAL does a 24-kip axle amount to? – Table 6.4 (flexible pavements)
– Table 6.7 (rigid pavements)
Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization
1.3 Theoretical Analysis to get LEF (Mechanistic)
1.3 Theoretical Analysis to get LEF (Mechanistic)
24-kip 18-kip
No. of 18k Single Axle Load to cause specific damage
AC AC LEF =
For the same structure No. of Xk Single Axle Load to cause specific damage
BASE BASE apply 24- & 18-kip load
Issues with theoretical analysis:
SUBGRADE SUBGRADE
• Does the LEF change if we modify structural configuration
∞ ∞
(thickness, modulus, etc.)?
• KENLAYER: • Which one is more critical – fatigue cracking or rutting
– (18-Kip) εt = 200µε → Nf(18) = 1,612,000
analysis?
– (24-Kip) εt = 267µε → Nf(24) = 623,000 Due to the many factors that influence the LEF, it is almost
• So, we can get an equivalent damage factor impossible to select an appropriate a single value that applies
to all situations. For a truly mechanistic design method, each
• Nf(18)/Nf(24) = 2.59
load group should be analyzed separately.
• It would take 2.59 18-kip load single axles to cause the same
damage as one 24-kip axle
Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization
1.3 AASHTO Equivalent Factors (Empirical) 1.3 AASHTO Equivalent Factors (Empirical)
Wx ⎡ L18 + L 2s ⎤
4.79 ⎡10 βx ⎤
G
W18 Wx ⎡ L18 + L 2s ⎤
4.79 ⎡10G βx ⎤ W18
= ⎢ G ⎥[L 2 x ]4.33 EALF = = ⎢ G ⎥[L 2 x ]4.33 EALF =
W18 ⎢⎣ L x + L 2 x ⎥⎦ ⎢10 β18 ⎥ Wx W18 ⎢⎣ L x + L 2 x ⎥⎦ ⎢ β18 ⎥ Wx
⎣ ⎦ ⎣10 ⎦
Where: Where:
Wx = axle applications inverse of equivalency factors pt = "terminal" serviceability index (point at which the
W18 = No of 18kip single axle loads pavement is considered to be at the end of its useful life)
Lx = axle load being evaluated (kips)
L18 = 18 (standard axle load in kips) ⎡ 4.2 − p t ⎤ function of the ratio of loss in serviceability at time, t, to
G = Log ⎢
⎣ 4.2 − 1.5 ⎥⎦
the potential loss taken at a point where pt = 1.5
L2s = code for standard axle = 1 (single axle)
L2x = code for axle load being evaluated
L2x = 1 for single axle ⎡ 0.081(L x + L 2 x )3.23 ⎤ function which determines the relationship
L2x = 2 for tandem axle β = 0.4 + ⎢ 3.23 ⎥ between serviceability and axle load applications
⎣ (SN + 1) L 2 x
5.19
L2x = 3 for triple axle (added in the 1986 AASHTO Guide) ⎦
Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization
1.4 AASHTO Equivalent Factors – Example 1 1.5 AASHTO Equivalent Factors – Example 2
Calculate the LEF for a 30,000 lb single-axle load. The structural number (SN) is equal to three Calculate the LEF for a 40,000 lb tandem-axle load. The structural number (SN) is equal to f ive
(3) and the terminal serviceability is 2.5. (5) and the terminal serviceability is 2.5.
L18 := 18 L2s := 1 L18 := 18 L2s := 1
W 18 = predicted number of 18-kip single axle load applications W 18 = predicted number of 18-kip single axle load applications
Lx := 30 pt := 2.5 Lx := 40 p t := 2.5
Wx = predicted number of 30-kip single axle load applications Wx = predicted number of 40-kip tandem axle load applications
Lx = L 30 = 30 L2x := 1 SN := 3 Lx = L 40 = 40 L2x := 2 SN := 5
L2x = 1 (single axle) L2x = 2 (tandem axle)
⎡ 0.081( L18 + L2s) 3.23 ⎤ ⎡ 0.081( Lx + L2x) 3.23 ⎤ ⎡ 0.081( L18 + L2s) 3.23 ⎤ ⎡ 0.081( Lx + L2x) 3.23 ⎤
⎛ 4.2 − pt ⎞ β 18 := 0.4 + ⎢ ⎥ β x := 0.4 + ⎢ ⎥ ⎛ 4.2 − pt ⎞ β 18 := 0.4 + ⎢ ⎥ β x := 0.4 + ⎢ ⎥
G := log ⎜ ⎢ ( SN + 1) 5.19 ⋅ L 3.23 ⎥ ⎢ ( SN + 1) 5.19 ⋅ L 3.23 ⎥ G := log⎜ ⎢ ( SN + 1) 5.19 ⋅ L 3.23 ⎥ ⎢ ( SN + 1) 5.19 ⋅ L 3.23 ⎥
⎝ 4.2 − 1.5 ⎠ ⎣ 2s ⎦ ⎣ 2x ⎦ ⎝ 4.2 − 1.5⎠ ⎣ 2s ⎦ ⎣ 2x ⎦
⎛ G ⎞ ⎛ G ⎞
4.79 ⎜ βx 4.79 ⎜ βx
W 18 Wx ⎛ L18 + L2s ⎞ ⎜ 10 ⎟ ( L ) 4.33
W 18 Wx ⎛ L18 + L2s ⎞ ⎜ 10
EALF ⎜
⎜ G ⎟ 2x
EALF ⎜
⎜ G
(L2x)4.33
Wx W 18
⎝ Lx + L2x ⎠ Wx W 18
⎝ Lx + L2x ⎠
⎜ β 18 ⎜ 10 β 18
⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
−1 −1
⎡ ⎛ G ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ G ⎞ ⎤
⎢ L + L 4.79⎜ β x ⎥ ⎢ L + L 4.79 ⎜ β x ⎥
⎛ 18 2s ⎞ ⎜ 10 ⎛ 18 2s ⎞ ⎜ 10
EALF := ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ( L ) 4.33⎥ EALF = 7.935 EALF := ⎢ ⎜ (L2x)4.33 ⎥⎥ EALF = 2.081
⎢ ⎝ Lx + L2x ⎠ ⎜ G ⎟ 2x ⎥ ⎢ ⎝ Lx + L2x ⎠ ⎜ G
⎢ ⎜ β 18 ⎥ ⎢ ⎜ β 18 ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎦ ⎣ ⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎦
Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization
2. Computation of Design ESALs 2. Computation of Design ESALs
ESAL = Equivalent Single Axle Load Design ESALs:
ESALs = Cumulative ESALs for all vehicles over the entire design m
period (we can also calculate ESAL for specific vehicle type) ESALs = ∑ ESAL (i) m = vehicle types Must calculate ESALs for
each vehicle type
i=1
ESALs = (ADT0)(T)(TF)(G)(Y)(D)(L)*365 ESAL(i) = (ADT0)(T)(Ti)(TFi)(G)(Y)(D)(L)*365
• Where: New terms:
– ADT0 = Initial Average Daily Traffic Ti = Distribution of specific type of truck within all trucks (decimal)
– T = Percent Trucks (decimal) TFi = Truck factor for the specific truck type (decimal)
– TF = Truck Factor (decimal)
– G = Growth Factor 2.1 Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
– Y = Design Period
– L = Lane Distribution Factor (decimal)
Unless otherwise stated, ADT is in all lanes & both directions
– D = Directional Distribution Factor (decimal) Also, ADT includes:
• Cars
• Single-unit trucks & buses
• Multiple-unit trucks
Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization
2.2 Average Daily Truck Traffic (ADTT) or (T)
• Minimum traffic information required for pavement design;
everything else can be found in tables
• Very important in pavement design
– Effort to collect actual data
– Table 6.9; guide to distribution of truck types among total amount of
trucks
2.2.1 Example:
• 4000 ADT ; 20% Trucks; Rural System/Principal
• Find the # of 2-axle, 4-tire trucks
# 2-axle, 4-tire trucks = (4000) (0.2) (365)
ADT T
Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization
2.2 Average Daily Truck Traffic (ADTT) or (T) 2.3 Truck Factor (TF)
• Minimum traffic information required for pavement Sum of ESALs divided by the number of trucks weighed (count
design; everything else can be found in Tables of trucks, not axles)
• Very important in pavement design ESALs
TF = What is the importance of TF?
– Effort to collect actual data # of Trucks
– Table 6.9; guide to distribution of truck types among total
amount of trucks For the same ESALs; if TF increases Æ Less # of trucks
If less # of trucks produce the same ESALs Æ More severe loads
2.2.1 Example:
• 4000 ADT ; 20% Trucks; Rural System/Principal • Single TF can be applied to all trucks (weighed average); or
• Find the # of 2-axle, 4-tire trucks separate for each truck type if the growth rates are different
• Table 6.10 (Truck Factors)
– If we use all trucks, we do not have to calculate ESALs
# 2-axle, 4-tire trucks = (4000) (0.2) (365) (0.6) =175,000/year
for each truck type
ADT T Table 6.9
Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization
2.4 Directional Distribution (D)
• Usually assume D = 0.5
Where could that be different?
2.5 Lane Distribution (L)
• Function of ADT & # of lanes (Table 6.14)
Outer traffic
Center traffic • We design for Outer Lane, but
everything is built the same
Inner traffic
• Inner Lane usually under-
loaded
Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization
2.6 Growth Rate Factor (G) 2.7 Example 1
• Assuming a yearly rate of growth (r) 4-lane Rural/Principal
4000 ADT Determine the ESALs for
1
[
G = × 1 + (1 + r )
2
Y
] 20% Trucks
20-year design; r=4%
2-axle, 6-tire trucks
ESAL(i) = (ADT0)(Ti)(TFi)(G)(Y)(D)(L)*365
• Asphalt Institute (Table 6.13); (G)(Y) combined
• Distribution of trucks (Table 6.9)
– Ti = 10% (for 2-axle, 6-tire) * 20% (trucks) = 0.02
• Truck factor (Table 6.10)
– TFi = 0.25
• Growth (Table 6.13)
– GY = 29.78
• Lane Distribution (Table 6.14)
– L = 0.94
ESAL(i)=4000*0.02*0.25*29.87*0.5*0.94*365
= 102,175 ESALs/20 years
Topic 4 – Traffic Characterization
2.8 Example 2
4-lane Rural/Principal
4000 ADT Determine the total ESALs
20% Trucks
20-year design; r=4%
ESALs = (ADT0)(T)(TF)(G)(Y)(D)(L)*365
• Trucks
– T = 20% (trucks) = 0. 2
• Truck factor (Table 6.10)
– TF = 0.38
ESALs = 4000*0.2*0.38*29.87*0.5*0.94*365
= 1.55*106 ESALs/20 years
