Overview

Describing and Interpreting Data

The manner in which you analyze data depends on the type of data/variables that you are evaluating.
There are several different classifications that are used in classifying data.

Variable
 A variable is an item of data
 Examples of variables include quantities such as: gender, investment type, test scores, and weight.
The values of these quantities vary from one observation to another.

Types/Classifications of Variables
 Qualitative: Non-numerical quality
 Quantitative: Numerical
 Discrete: counts
 Continuous: measures

Qualitative Data
 This data describes the quality of something in a non-numerical format.
 Counts can be applied to qualitative data, but you cannot order or measure this type of variable.
Examples are gender, marital status, geographical region of an organization, job title….
 Qualitative data is usually treated as Categorical Data.
With categorical data, the observations can be sorted according into non-overlapping categories or by
characteristics.
 For example, shirts can be sorted according to color; the characteristic 'color' can have non-
overlapping categories: white, black, red, etc. People can be sorted by gender with
categories male and female.
 Categories should be chosen carefully since a bad choice can prejudice the outcome. Every
value of a data set should belong to one and only one category.
 Measurement Scale
 Nominal: classifies with no ranking (e.g. color, investment type...)
 Ordinal: classifies with ranking (e.g. product satisfaction, grades…)
 Analyze qualitative data using:
 Frequency tables, Contingency tables (for 2 variables)
 Modes - most frequently occurring
 Graphs: Bar Charts, Pie Charts, Pareto Charts

Quantitative Data
 Quantitative or numerical data arise when the observations are frequencies or measurements.
 Discrete Data
 The data are said to be discrete if the measurements are integers (e.g. number of employees
of a company, number of incorrect answers on a test, number of participants in a
program…)
 Continuous Data
 The data are said to be continuous if the measurements can take on any value, usually
within some range (e.g. weight). Age and income are continuous quantitative variables.
For continuous variables, arithmetic operations such as differences and averages make
sense.
 Analysis can take almost any form:
 Create groups or categories and generate frequency tables.
 Effective graphs include: Histograms, Stem-and-Leaf plots, Dot Plots, Box plots, and
XY Scatter Plots (2 variables).
 All descriptive statistics can be applied.

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 Measurement Scale
 Interval: ordered and difference between variables is meaningful (e.g. standardized scores...)
 Ratio: ordered and difference between variables is meaningful, true 0 in measuring

Note: Some “quantitative” variables can be treated only as ranks; they have a natural order, but these
values are not strictly measured (ordinal data). Examples are: 1) age group (taking the values child,
teen, adult, senior), and 2) Likert Scale data (responses such as strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree,
strongly disagree). For these variables, the distinction between adjacent points on the scale is not
necessarily the same, and the ratio of values is not meaningful.
 Analyze using:
 Frequency tables
 Mode, Median, Quartiles
 Graphs: Bar Charts, Dot Plots, Pie Charts, and Line Charts (2 variables)

Tables

Frequency Table/Frequency Distribution

A frequency or relative frequency table is used to summarize categorical, nominal, and ordinal data. It is
also be used to summarize continuous data when the data set has been divided into meaningful groups.

Count the number of observations that fall into each category. The number associated with each category
is called the frequencyand the collection of frequencies over all categories gives the frequency
distribution of that variable. Generally, a frequency distribution has 5 to 15 classes.
 It presents data in a useful form and allows for a visual interpretation.
 It enables analysis of the data set including where the data are concentrated / clustered,
the range of values, and observation of extreme values,

Frequency Table for Qualitative Data

Color Preferences of Customers

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Frequency Distribution for Quanitative Data

Table 1
Frequency Distribution
of Time (min)

Time Count Note Table1

110 1 There are 8 classes. The frequency of the first
115 2 class is 1; i.e. there is 1 value within the class;
the class has a midpoint of 110.
120 4
125 3
130 5
135 3
140 4
145 2
150 1

The relative frequency is a number which describes the proportion of observations falling in a given
category. Instead of counts, we report relative frequencies or percentages.

CEO Compensation (x$1 mil.)

Contingency Table
A contingency table cross tabulates data using two or more categorical variables to allow for analysis of
relationships between the variables.

Table C: Employee Time at Company (. 3 yrs.) by Prior Related Experience Rating

Count of Prior Related Exp.

Rating Stayed3Yrs  
Prior Related Exp. Rating No Yes Grand
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 Total
Very Good 8 6 14
Good 16 15 31
Fair 8 9 17
Minimal 2 2 4
Grand Total 34 32 66

Graphs
Note Excel will create any graph that you specify, even if the graph that you select is not appropriate for
the data. Remember - consider the type of data that you have before selecting your graph.

Graphs Used for Categorical/ Qualitative Data

Pie Charts
A circle is divided proportionately and shows what percentage of the whole falls into each category. The
size of each slice of the pie varies according to the percentage in each category.
 These charts are simple to understand.
 They convey information regarding the relative size of groups more readily than does a table.

Pie Chart of Color Preferences

Green
8%

Yellow
Red
16%
44%

Blue
32%

Bar Charts
Bar charts also show percentages in various categories and allow comparison between categories.
 The vertical scale is frequencies, relative frequencies, or percentages.
 The horizontal scale shows categories.
 Consider the following in constructing bar charts.
 all boxes should have the same width
 leave gaps between the boxes (because there is no connection between them)
 boxes can be in any order.
 Bar charts can be used to represent two categorical variables simultaneously

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 Color Preference of Customers

15
N
10

0
Red Blue Yellow Green

Color

As presented above, the bar chart is also called a Pareto chart because the vertical bars are plotted in
descending order by frequency (i.e. red is the most frequent selection …green occurs the least frequent.)
They are used to separate the “vital few” from the “trivial many.
Graphs for Measured/Continuous Quantitative Data
 Stem and Leaf
 Histograms
 Percentage Polygons
 XY Scatter Charts (2 variables)
 Line Graphs (e.g. time series)
 Box plots

Stem and Leaf Plots

A stem-and-leaf plot puts data into groups (called stems) so that the values within each group (the leaves)
branch out to the right on each row. The advantage of a stem and leaf plot is that it utilizes the data as a
part of the graph.

Note the first line. The first stem is 10

It is followed by four leaves, each 9.
This means that the original data has
Stem  four values of 10.9

 leaf

Histograms

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Histograms show the frequency distributions of continuous variables. They look similar to Bar Charts,
but they are drawn without gaps between the bars because the x-axis is used to represent the class
intervals (on a continuum). However, many of the current software packages do easily not make this
distinction (e.g. Excel).
 The data is divided into non-overlapping intervals (usually use from 5 to 15).
 Intervals generally have the same length
 The number of values in each interval is counted (the class frequency).
 Sometimes relative frequencies or percentages are used. (Divide the cell total by the grand total.)
 Rectangles are drawn over each interval. (The area of rectangle = relative frequency of the interval.
If intervals are not all of the same length then heights have to be scaled so that each area is
proportional to the frequency for that interval. )
 Shifts in data concentration may show up when different class boundaries are chosen. As the size of
the data set increases, the impact of alterations in the selection of class boundaries is greatly reduced
 When comparing two or more groups with different sample sizes, you must use either a relative
frequency or a percentage distribution

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Histogram of Time for CEO Compensation

Note: XL does not give mid points; it uses bins – which represent a range of values.
 The upper boundary of a bin is explicitly given – no value in the bin exceeds the upper
boundary.
 All the values in the bin are greater than the lower boundary.
 See posted examples for constructing histograms with Excel.

Frequency Polygon for CEO Compensation

Use midpoints to represent the data.

Ogive for CEO Compensation

Cumulative percentages are plotted

along the Y axis.

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XY Scatter Chart
This type of chart should be used with two variables when both of the variables are quantitative and
continuous.
 Plot pairs of values using the rectangular coordinate system to examine the relationship between two
values.

Worker-Hours by Lot Size

180

160
140

120
Hours

100
80
60

40
20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Lot Size

A Line Chart is similar to the scatter chart; however, it can be used when the values of the independent
variable (shown on the horizontal axis) are ranked values (i.e. they do not have to be continuous
variables). It is also used for time series plots.

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Basic Principles for Constructing All Plots
 Data should stand out clearly from background.
 Keep the graph as simple as possible.
 The information should be clearly labeled and include:
 title
 axes, bars, pie segments, etc. - include units that are needed to interpret data
 axis labels
 scale including starting points. The vertical axis will typically begin at 0.
 Sources of data should be identified, as appropriate.
 Do not clutter the graphs with unnecessary information and graphical components that are really not
necessary.
 Do not put too much information or data on one graph.
 Sometimes, you have to try several approaches before selecting an appropriate graph.

Some practical advice for constructing graphs includes the following.

 Every bit of ink on a graphic requires a reason. And nearly always that reason should be that the ink
presents new information. In most cases, non-data ink clutters up the data. Avoid content-free
decoration, including chart junk.
 Type should be clear, precise, and modest. Usually - type in upper and lower case.
 The grid should usually be muted or completely suppressed so that its presence is only implicit - lest
it compete with the data. Dark lines are chart junk. They carry no information, clutter up the graphic
and generate graphic activity unrelated to data information.
 The representation of numbers, as physically measured on the surface of the graphic itself, should be
directly proportional to the numerical quantities represented.
 Clear, detailed, and thorough labeling should be used to defeat graphical distortion and ambiguity.
Label important events in the data.
 Show data variation, not design variation.
 Graphical elegance is often found in simplicity of design and complexity of data

To describe / interpret the data, consider the following.

 Shape of the Distribution
 Symmetry
 Modality: most frequently occurring value
 Unimodal or bimodal or uniform
 Skewness
 Centrality – mid range of values
 Spread – range of values
 Extreme values - outliers

In interpreting graphs, consider:

 Horizontal and vertical scales; what is the relationship - are the distances between, for example, 10
and 20, the same on each axis? A no answer may distort the interpretation.
 The center point - of particular importance in comparing two histograms. Look at the starting point
of the vertical scale - does it start at 0? How could this affect the interpretation of the data?

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