POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND CITIZENSHIP

POLITICAL SCIENCE
- Study of political structures (e.g. TYPES: public ad, law, urban
development and etc.)
- Divided by natural (e.g. biology etc. ) and social science (e.g.
anthropology)

- is the branch of knowledge that deals with systems of government;

the analysis of political activity and behavior.
- Political science is above all the study of power: how it is created,
exercised, justified, and challenged.
- The discipline of Political Science analyses the processes by which
resources are allocated and values are developed and discussed
within a political system. The discipline explores concepts like power,
authority, legitimacy, social class, gender, ethnicity, political
participation on the one hand, and institutions like state, government,
political parties, pressure groups and international organizations on
the other. The discipline also deals with political ideas and ideologies
relating to issues like political justice, ideologies and political ideas
such as liberty, democracy, morality, and equality.

POLITICS
-interaction between people (leader and subordinate)
- is an art and science concerned with guiding or influencing
governmental policy, and concerned with winning and holding control over
a government.
- Politics is the science of government. As a science, it is a
systematic body of knowledge (for the most part, practical) that deals with
the government and regulation, maintenance and development, and
defense and augmentation of the state. It also deals with the protection of
the rights of its citizens, safeguarding and enhancement of morals, and
harmony and peace of human relations.
PUBLIC AD – management of government affairs
 - Marx defines administration as - Administration is determined action
taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose. It is the systematic ordering
of affairs and the calculated use of resources aimed at making those
happen which one wants to happen.
- Frederic k Lane defines administration as organizing and maintaining
human and fiscal resources to attain a group’s goals.
-  Public administration consists of all those operations having for their
purpose the fulfillment or enforcement of public policy . 

GOVERNANCE
- is the act or manner of governing or controlling.
- Governance is commonly defined as the exercise of power or
authority by political leaders for the well-being of their country’s
citizens or subjects. It is the complex process whereby some sectors
of the society wield power, and enact and promulgate public policies
which directly affect human and institutional interactions, and
economic and social development. The power exercised by the
participating sectors of the society is always for the common good, as
it is essential for demanding respect and cooperation from the
citizens and the state. As such, a great deal about governance is the
proper and effective utilization of resources.
LEADERSHIP
- is the art of motivating a group of people to act towards achieving a
common goal. In a business setting, this can mean directing workers
and colleagues with a strategy to meet the company's needs.
- the action of leading a group of people or an organization.
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
Anarchy
Anarchism refers to the absence of government, a condition in which a
nation or state operates without a central governing body. This denotes an
absence of public utilities or services, a lack of regulatory control, limited
diplomatic relations with other nation-states, and in most instances, a
society divided into different, locally-ruled settlements (or fiefdoms).
Aristocracy
Aristocracy refers to a form of government in which wealthy nobles are
given power over those in lower socioeconomic strata. Positions of
leadership are reserved for those of an elite ruling class, a status which is
typically hereditary. The privileged ruling class is viewed, in this system, as
possessing the education, upbringing, and genetic traits required for
rulership. Aristocracy promotes an inherent class system that connects
wealth and ethnicity with both the ability and right to rule.
Bureaucracy
Bureaucracy refers to a form of government in which non-elected
government officials carry out public responsibilities as dictated by
administrative policy-making groups. In a bureaucracy, rules, regulations,
procedures, and outcomes are formulated to maintain order, achieve
efficiency, and prevent favoritism within the system. Bureaucracies rarely
serve as forms of government on their own but are instead often used as
mechanisms to underlie and strengthen overarching forms of government.
Indeed, bureaucratic streamlining of policy implementation can take place
under the rule of a dictator or a democracy.
Capitalism
Capitalism refers to a form of economy in which production is driven by
private ownership. Capitalism promotes the idea of open competition and
extends from the belief that a free market economy — one with limited
regulatory control — is the most efficient form of economic organization. Its
advocates argue that capitalism promotes economic growth, improved
standards of living, higher productivity, and broader prosperity, whereas
critics argue that capitalism inherently promotes inequality, exploitation of
the labor class, and unsustainable use of resources and land.
Colonialism
Colonialism is a form of governance in which a nation will seek to extend
its sovereignty over other territories. In practical terms, colonialism involves
the expansion of a nation’s rule beyond its borders. This often entails
occupation of indigenous populations and exploitation of resources to the
benefit of the ruling nation. The colonizer will also often impose its own
economy, culture, religious order, and form of government on an occupied
people to strengthen its own authority.
Communism
In its purest form, Communism refers to the idea of common, public
ownership of the economy, including infrastructure, utilities, and means of
production. Communism, as idealized by thinkers Karl Marx and Friedrich
Engels, denotes an absence of class divisions, which inherently requires
the subversion of the ruling class by the working class. As such,
communism often incorporates the idea of revolutionary action against
unequal rule. Communism often positions itself as a counterpoint to the
economic stratification underlying capitalism. This resistance to
stratification sometimes also takes the form of a single-state authority, one
in which political opposition or dissidence may be restricted. This may
manifest in some communist states as a more authoritarian form of
governance, as typified by the Soviet brand of communism that swept the
globe during the mid-20th century.
Democracy
Democracy refers to a form of government in which the people are given a
direct role in choosing their leadership. Its primary goal is governance
through fair representation, a system in which no single force or entity can
exercise unchecked control or authority. The result is a system which
requires discourse, debate, and compromise to satisfy the broadest
possible number of public interests. Democracy is typified by fair and free
elections, civic participation, protection of human rights, and the rule of law.
Federalism
Federalism is a form of government that both combines and divides powers
between a centralized federal authority and an array of regional and local
authorities. This is typically a system in which a set of states, territories, or
provinces are both self-governing and beholden to the authority of a broad,
unifying government structure. This is considered a balance in approach
that provides roughly equal status of authority to two distinct levels of
government.
Feudalism
Feudalism is a social structure revolving around land ownership, nobility,
and military obligation. Though not a formal way of governing, feudalism
refers to a way of life in which sharp, hierarchical divisions separate noble
classes, clergy, and peasantry. Opportunities for movement between these
hierarchies is largely impossible. In this system, peasants typically
provided labor and military service in exchange for occupancy of land and
protection from outside forces under the authority of a noble lord. In turn,
lordships, or fiefdoms, often engaged one another politically, economically,
and militarily. Feudalism was a highly decentralized and agrarian way of
life supplanted when the European monarchies created the infrastructure
to impose central rule over their various dominions.
Kleptocracy
Kleptocracy is a form of government in which the ruling party has either
come to power, retained power, or both, through means of corruption and
theft. This is not a form of government that a ruling class would ever self-
apply but a pejorative term used to describe a group whose power rests on
a foundation of embezzlement, misappropriation of funds, and the transfer
of massive amounts of wealth from public to private interests. These
private interests will typically overlap the ruling party’s own economic
interests.
Meritocracy
Meritocracy refers to a system in which authority is vested in those who
have demonstrated the merits deemed pertinent to governing or public
administration. Often, these merits are conferred through testing and
academic credentials and are meant to create an order in which talents,
abilities, and intellect determine who should hold positions of leadership
and economic stewardship. The result is a social hierarchy based on
achievement.
Military Dictatorship
A dictatorship is a nation ruled with absolute power, in the absence of a
democratic process, and typically under the thumb of a single authority
figure. In a military dictatorship, this authority usually heads the nation’s
armed forces. A military dictatorship often comes to power by subverting
the existing seat of government — sometimes though claims of corruption,
weakness, or ineffectiveness — and which subsequently uses the military
to establish its own brand of law and order. Military dictatorships will
frequently prioritize law and order over due process, civil liberties, or
political freedoms. Dissent or political opposition can be dangerous or even
deadly for those living under a military dictatorship.
Monarchy
Monarchy refers to a form of rule in which absolute power and authority are
held by a single member of a royal bloodline. In a monarchy, the individual
in the seat of power is often believed to have been placed there by “divine
right,” or the will of God. In a monarchical society, power is inherited within
a line of succession that relates to one’s bloodline and birth-order within
the ruling royal family. Though the monarchy has historically indicated
absolute power, the concept has become increasingly diluted with the
evolution of democratic principles. Today, some monarchies exist but are
merely symbolic, whereas others coexist within constitutional structures.
However, until the 19th century, monarchy was the most common form of
government in the world.
Oligarchy
Oligarchy refers to a form of government in which a smattering of
individuals rule over a nation. In many ways, oligarchy is a catch-all for any
number of other forms of governance in which a specific set of qualities —
wealth, heredity, race — are used to vest power in a small group of
individuals. So, forms of government regarded as aristocratic, plutocratic,
or totalitarian, for instance, can be referred to as oligarchic. Oligarchies are
often characterized by tyrannical or authoritarian rule and an absence of
democratic practices or individual rights.
Plutocracy
Plutocracy refers to a system of rule in which power is determined as a
direct function of wealth. Plutocracy mirrors the economic hierarchy of
aristocratic systems but lacks the philosophical imperatives used to justify
the latter. Whereas aristocratic forms of governance justified economic
hierarchy by presuming an equivalence between wealth, heredity, and the
qualification to lead, plutocracy refers in simpler terms to the ascendance
of the wealthy to positions of power. Think of it as the difference between
“old money” and “new money.” As with the phrase “new money” itself,
plutocracy is rarely a term that a ruling class will self-apply. Rather, it is
often used as a derogatory term meant to highlight the inequality inherent
in capitalist societies.
Republicanism
Republicanism, the form of government — not to be conflated with the
Republican political party specific to U.S. politics — refers to a system in
which power is vested in the citizenry. In technical definition, a republic is a
nation in which the people hold popular sovereignty through the electoral
and legislative processes as well as through participation in public and civic
life. In its earliest form, the republic was perceived as a counterbalance to
monarchy, an approach which merged monarchy and aristocracy with
some trappings of democracy.
Socialism
Socialism refers to a form of government in which the people own the
primary means of production. A counterpoint to the competitive nature and
unequal proclivities of capitalism, socialism has existed in many forms and
to widely variant degrees of strictness throughout history and around the
world. From small communal societies to state-level governments that
provide encompassing public services such as universal healthcare, the
concept of socialism permeates governments the world over. By contrast to
the less compromising and often more authoritarian nature of communism,
socialism tends to be a malleable concept. Some adherents view socialism
as referring to a strict policy of shared ownership and equal distribution of
resources, while others believe free market capitalism can coexist with
socialist forms of public administration. To wit, the Social Security system
of the declaratively capitalist United States is inherently socialist in nature.
Theocracy
Theocracy refers to a form of government in which a specific religious
ideology informs the leadership, laws, and customs of a nation. In many
instances, there will be little to no distinction between scriptural laws and
legal codes. Likewise, religious clergy will typically occupy roles of
leadership, and in some instances, the highest office in the nation.
Because religious law usually extends from writings and traditions that are
many centuries old, and therefore impose practices that may not conform
with present-day standards of ethical justice or constitutional law,
theocracies frequently run afoul of organizations and agencies advocating
for global human rights.
Totalitarianism
Totalitarianism is an authoritarian form of government in which the ruling
party recognizes no limitations whatsoever on its power, either in the public
life or private rights of its citizens. Power is often vested in the hands of a
single figure, an authority around whom significant propaganda is built as a
way of extending and retaining uncontested authority. Totalitarian states
often employ widespread surveillance, control over mass media,
intimidating demonstrations of paramilitary or police power, and
suppression — usually violent — of protest, activism, or political opposition.
Tribalism
Tribalism refers to a form of governance in which there is an absence of
central authority and where, instead, various regional tribes lay claim to
different territories, resources, or domains. In this system, trade,
commerce, and war may occur between different tribes without the
involvement or oversight of a unifying structure. This was a particularly
common way of life in the premodern world, where different families and
clans would establish a set of common rules and rituals specific to their
community. While many tribes have forms of internal leadership — from
councils and chiefdoms to warlords and patriarchs — tribes are also
distinct for having relatively limited role differentiation or role stratification
within. In some regards, this can make the customs internal to some tribes
particularly egalitarian. That said, tribalism as a way of life has been
threatened, and in many parts of the world extinguished, by modernity,
development, and the imposition of outside authority.

PRINCIPLES:
LAW AND ORDER
In politics, law and order (also known as tough on crime and the War on
Crime) refers to demands for a strict criminal justice system, especially in
relation to violent and property crime, through stricter criminal penalties.
These penalties may include longer terms of imprisonment, mandatory
sentencing, three-strikes laws, and in some countries, capital punishment.
Supporters of "law and order", generally from the right-wing, argue
that incarceration is the most effective means of crime prevention.
Opponents of law and order, typically left-wing, argue that a system of
harsh criminal punishment is ultimately ineffective because it does not
address underlying or systemic causes of crime.
LAW AND LOGIC – HAS 3 SUB LAWS
The law of identity: P is P.
The law of noncontradiction: P is not non-P.
The law of the excluded middle: Either P or non-P.
- The law of identity says that if a statement such as “It is raining” is
true, then the statement is true. More generally, it says that the
statement P is the same thing as itself and its different from
everyhting else. Applied to all realty, the law of identity says that
everything is itself and not something else.
- The law of noncontradiction says that a statement such as “It is
raining” cannot be both true and false in the same sense. Of
course it could be raining in Missouri and not raining in Arizona,
but the principle says that it cannot be raining and not raining at
the same time in the same place.
- The law of the excluded middle says that a statement such as “It is
raining” is either true or false. There is no other alternative.
POLITICS AND ADMINISTRATION DICHOTOMY
- - The Politics-administration dichotomy is a theory that constructs
the boundaries of public administration and asserts the normative
relationship between elected officials and administrators in a
democratic society.[1] The phrase politics-administration
dichotomy itself does not appear to have a known inventor, even
after exhaustive research, the combination of words that make up
the phrase was first found in public administration literature from
the 1940s with no clear originator.

- From the beginning, we need to understand its definition. Wilson,

who is known as the originator of administrative science, clearly
pointed out that politics and administration are two different fields
of study. He agrees with Bluntschli’s view that administration is not
within the scope of politics. The issue of administrative
management is not a political issue. Although the task of
administrative management is determined by politics, politics does
not have to ask for trouble to directly direct the administrative
agency. “Politics is a major and universal matter.” In terms of
national activities, administration is the activity of the state in
individual and subtle matters. “Politics is the special activity of
politicians and administrative management is the matter of
 technical staff.” It is based on this understanding that Wilson
distinguishes politics from politics.

E- GOVERNANCE
- Electronic governance or e-governance is the application
of information and communication technology (ICT) for
delivering government services, exchange of information, communication
transactions, integration of various stand-alone systems and services
between government-to-citizen (G2C), government-to-business (G2B),
government-to-government (G2G), government-to-employees (G2E) as
well as back-office processes and interactions within the entire
government framework.[1]Through e-governance, government services are
made available to citizens in a convenient, efficient, and transparent
manner. The three main target groups that can be distinguished in
governance concepts are government, citizens, and businesses/interest
groups. In e-governance, there are no distinct boundaries.
SEPERATION OF POWERS
- The separation of powers is a model for the governance of a state.
Under this model, a state's government is divided into branches, each with
separate and independent powers and areas of responsibility so that the
powers of one branch are not in conflict with the powers associated with
the other branches. The typical division is into three branches:
a legislature, an executive, and a judiciary, which is the trias
politica model. It can be contrasted with the fusion of powers in
some parliamentary systems where the executive and legislative branches
overlap.
Separation of powers, therefore, refers to the division of responsibilities
into distinct branches to limit any one branch from exercising the core
functions of another. The intent of separation of powers is to prevent the
concentration of unchecked power by providing for "checks" and
"balances" to avoid autocracy, over-reaching by one branch over another,
and the attending efficiency of governing by one actor without need for
negotiation and compromise with any other.
The separation of powers model is often imprecisely
and metonymically used interchangeably with the trias politica principle.
While the trias politica is a common type of model, there are governments
which utilize bipartite, rather than tripartite, systems as mentioned later in
the article.
- Separation of powers, therefore, refers to the division of
government responsibilities into distinct branches to limit any one branch
from exercising the core functions of another.  The intent is to prevent the
concentration of power and provide for checks and balances.  
The system of separation of powers divides the tasks of the state into three
branches: legislative, executive and judicial. These tasks are assigned to
different institutions in such a way that each of them can check the others.
As a result, no one institution can become so powerful in a democracy as
to destroy this system.
The Three Powers: Legislature, Executive, Judiciary
Checks and balances (rights of mutual control and influence) make sure
that the three powers interact in an equitable and balanced way. The
separation of powers is an essential element of the Rule of Law, and is
enshrined in the Constitution.
Clear Distinctions
The separation of powers is also reflected in the fact that certain functions
must not be exercised by one and the same person. Thus, the Federal
President cannot at the same time be a Member of the National Council, or
a judge who is appointed Minister or elected to be a Member of the
National Council must be temporarily suspended from his/her judicial
duties.
The Legislative Power
The first of the three powers has the task of passing laws and supervising
their implementation. It is exercised by Parliament – i.e. the National and
Federal Councils – and the Provincial Diets.
The implementation of laws is the task of the executive and judicial
branches
The Executive Power
The executive branch has the task of implementing laws. It comprises the
Federal Government, the Federal President and all federal authorities
including the police and the armed forces.
The Judicial Power (Judiciary)
Judges administer justice, viz. they decide disputes independently and
impartially. It is their task to ensure that laws are complied with. Judges
cannot be deposed and cannot be assigned other positions against their
will.
CHAIN OF COMMAND
- In an organizational structure, “chain of command” refers to a
company's hierarchy of reporting relationships – from the bottom to the top
of an organization, who must answer to whom. The chain of command not
only establishes accountability, it lays out a company’s lines of authority
and decision-making power. A proper chain of command ensures that
every task, job position and department has one person assuming
responsibility for performance.
- The order in which authority and power in an organization is wielded
and delegated from top management to every employee at every level of
the organization. Instructions flow downward along the chain of command
and accountability flows upward.
According to its proponent Henri Fayol (1841-1925), the more clear cut the
chain of command, the more effective the decision making process and
greater the efficiency. Military forces are an example of straight chain of
command that extends in unbroken line from the top brass to ranks. Also
called line of command.

CHECK AND BALANCE

- Checks and balances, principle of government under which
separate branches are empowered to prevent actions by other
branches and are induced to share power. Checks and balances
are applied primarily in constitutional governments. They are of
fundamental importance in tripartite governments, such as that of
the United States, which separate powers among
legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
 CHECKS AND BALANCES
- The ends of government are better achieved if the system of
checks and balances will beobserved.Under the system of checks
and balances, one department is given certain powers by whichit
may definitely restrain the others from exceeding constitutional
authority. It may object orresist any encroachment upon its
authority, or it may question, if necessary any act or actswhich
unlawfully interferes with its sphere of jurisdiction and
authority. (Suarez, 2005).The following are illustrations where
there are checks and balances:1.
-  
- The lawmaking power of the Congress is checked by the President
through its vetopower, which in turn maybe overturn by the
legislature2.
-  
- The Congress may refuse to give its concurrence to an amnesty
proclaimed by thePresident and the Senate to a treaty he has
concluded3.
-  
- The President may nullify a conviction in a criminal case by
pardoning the offender4.
-  
- The Congress may limit the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and
that of inferior courtsand even abolish the latter tribunals5.
-  
- The Judiciary in general has the power to declare invalid an act
done by the Congress,the President and his subordinates, or the
Constitutional Commissions.

BLENDING OF POWERS
With the intricateness of the operations of government, it is unwise and
impracticable toeffect a strict and complete separation of powers. There are
instances when certain powersare to be reposed in more than one
department so they may better collaborate with, and inthe process check
each other for the sake of a good and efficient government. Thus,
thenecessity of blending of powers.Blending of powers is actually sharing
of powers of the different departments of governmentwhereby one
department helps and coordinates with the other in the exercise of a
particularpower, function or responsibility.The following are examples under
the 1987 Philippine Constitution where powers are notconfined exclusively
within one department but are in fact shared:1.
 
-The President and Congress help one another in the making of laws.
Congres enacts thebill and the President approves it.2.
 
-The President prepares a budget and Congress enacts an
appropriation bill pursuant tothat budget.
 
-The President enters into a treaty with foreign countries and the
Senate ratifies the same.4.
 
-The Supreme Court may declare a treaty, international or executive
agreement, or law, asunconstitutional, and it has also the power to declare
invalid any act done by the othedepartments of government.5.
 
-The grant of amnesty by the President is subject to the concurrence
of a majority of all themembers of the Congress

STATUTORY CONSTITUTION
Statutory interpretation is the process by which courts interpret and
apply legislation. Some amount of interpretation is often necessary when a
case involves a statute. Sometimes the words of a statute have a plain and
straightforward meaning. But in many cases, there is
some ambiguity or vagueness in the words of the statute that must be
resolved by the judge. To find the meanings of statutes, judges use various
tools and methods of statutory interpretation, including traditional canons of
statutory interpretation, legislative history, and purpose. In common
law jurisdictions, the judiciary may apply rules of statutory interpretation
both to legislation enacted by the legislature and to delegated
legislation such as administrative agency regulations.

RIGHTS- NATURAL AND SECULAR

I KENNAT FIND ANYTHING
 Natural and legal rights are two types of rights. Natural rights are
those that are not dependent on the laws or customs of any particular
culture or government, and so are universal and inalienable (they cannot
be repealed by human laws, though one can forfeit their enforcement
through one's actions, such as by violating someone else's rights.) Legal
rights are those bestowed onto a person by a given legal system (they can
be modified, repealed, and restrained by human laws).

OBLIGATIONS

CLASS SUIT VS LAW SUITE

What is the difference between a class action lawsuit and a personal injury
lawsuit?
There are several different ways in which a person injured by a negligent
party can legally pursue compensation. A class action lawsuit occurs when
a group of people takes action against the same company for the same
source of injury, typically a defective product. The compensation awarded
by the judge or jury is then divided among the group. This is different from
standard personal injury lawsuits in which one plaintiff files a case against a
defendant. Thus, all compensation awarded goes to the plaintiff.
A lawsuit is a proceeding by a party or parties against another in the civil
court of law.[1] The archaic term "suit in law" is found in only a small number
of laws still in effect today. The term "lawsuit" is used in reference to a civil
action brought in a court of law in which a plaintiff, a party who claims to
have incurred loss as a result of a defendant'sactions, demands
a legal or equitable remedy. The defendant is required to respond to the
plaintiff's complaint. If the plaintiff is successful, judgment is in the plaintiff's
favor, and a variety of court orders may be issued to enforce a right, award
damages, or impose a temporary or permanent injunction to prevent an act
or compel an act. A declaratory judgment may be issued to prevent
future legal disputes.

Class action lawsuits are lawsuits brought by one or a few people on behalf
of a larger group of individuals that have been harmed in some way by the
persons or entities being sued. There are benefits to filing or joining a class
action lawsuit, and there are also circumstances in which a class action
may not be as appropriate as filing a private lawsuit.

STATE – if all concepts are present, its called the BIRTH of a state. If one
concept is gone, its called the DEATH of the state.
CONCEPTS OF STATE
- Ethnographic - nation
- Geographic - country
- Political – state
ELEMENTS OF STATE
1. Territory – it is called a territory if land is present because there is no
state in waters.
2. People – human beings are the people
3. Government – should abide/ implement the will of the state
4. Sovereignty – state A believes that B is a state. The belief of A that B
is a state is sovereignty.
TYPES OF PERSONS
JURIDICAL – intangible. Entities created by law. (e.g. corporations,
foundations, associations)
NATURAL – tangible. Human beings.
TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPS
AGENT – follower. Should not do anything against the principal.
PRINCIPAL – boss
The act of the agent is always the act of the principal (unless the agent is
not doing the will of the principal)
OPERATION OF LAW- The operation of the law is automatic, no process
or procedures.
FICTION OF LAW – creation of law
How does a juridical person act? By law through natural persons]

3 INHERIT POWERS – if a state is born, this powers will be visible. But if a

state dies, these powers will be gone
1. Eminent domain – everything is owned by the state (regalia belief etc)
2. Police- power to create or implement law
3. Taxation – power to extract resources from subjects for public use

GOVERNMENT – GRP Government of the Republic of the Philippines

(Republic – Democratic)
Divided in to three equal parts (Major Power; MJ) (MN; Minor Power)
1. Executive – MJ: execute MN: Interpret, enact, symbol: sword
2. Legislative – MJ: enact MN: Interpret, execute. Symbol : purse
(because they take care of the tax and budget)
3. Judiciary - MJ: interpret MN:, enact, execute. Symbol : pen (the
strokes of the pen represents the case law or the actions and
decisions of the supreme court)
Government
1. Separation of powers – each has exclusive powers but everyone is
equal (Article 2 sec 1)
2. Blending of powers – everyone has to coordinate and work for each
other
3. Check and balance – safeguards as to any abuse of the branches
4. Delegation of powers – even though each areahas different powers,
these makes sure that all minor powers are delegated.