Chapter 3  Loads

Contents
3.1 Scope 3.1-1

3.2 Definitions 3.2-1

3.3 Load Designations 3.3-1

3.4 Limit States 3.4-1

3.5 Load Factors and load combinations 3.5-1

3.5.1 Load Factors for Substructure 3.5-2

3.6 Loads and Load factors for construction 3.6-1

3.7 Load factors for Post-tensioning 3.7-1

3.7.1 Post-tensioning Effects from Superstructure 3.7-1
3.7.2 Secondary Forces from Post-Tensioning, PS 3.7-1

3.8 Permanent Loads 3.8-i

3.8.1 Deck Overlay Requirement 3.8-i

3.9 Live Loads 3.9-1

3.9.1 Live Load Designation 3.9-1
3.9.2 Live Load Analysis of Continuous Bridges 3.9-1
3.9.3 Loading for Live Load Deflection Evaluation 3.9-1
3.9.4 Distribution to Superstructure 3.9-1

3.10 Pedestrian Loads 3.10-1

3.11 Wind Loads 3.11-1

3.11.1 Wind Load to Superstructure 3.11-1
3.11.2 Wind Load to Substructure 3.11-1
3.11.3 Wind on Noise Walls 3.11-1

3.12 Noise Barriers 3.12-1

3.13 Earthquake Effects 3.13-1

3.14 Earth Pressure 3.14-1

3.15 Force Effects due to superimposed deformations 3.15-1

3.16 Other Loads 3.16-1

3.16.1 Buoyancy 3.16-1
3.16.2 Collision Force on Bridge Substructure 3.16-1
3.16.3 Collision Force on Traffic Barrier 3.16-1
3.16.4 Force from Stream Current, Floating Ice, and Drift 3.16-1
3.16.5 Ice Load 3.16-1

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3-i

May 2008
Contents Chapter 3

3.99 Bibliography 3.99-1

Appendix A
Appendix 3.1-A1 Torsional Constants of Common Sections 3.1-A1-1

Appendix B
Appendix 3.1-B1 HL-93 Loading for Bridge Piers 3.1-B1-1

Page 3-ii Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

3.1  Scope
AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Specifications shall be the minimum design
criteria used for all bridges except as modified herein.

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.1-1

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Page 3.1-2 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

3.2  Definitions
The definitions in this section supplement those given in LRFD Section 3.
Permanent Loads – Loads and forces that are, or are assumed to be, either constant upon completion
of construction or varying only over a long time interval.
Transient Loads – Loads and forces that can vary over a short time interval relative to the lifetime of
the structure.

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.2-1

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Page 3.2-2 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

3.3  Load Designations

Load designations follow LRFD Article 3.3.2 with the addition of:
PS = secondary forces from post-tensioning

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.3-1

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Page 3.3-2 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

3.4  Limit States

The basic limit state equation is as follows:
Σηiγi Qi ≤ φRn
where:
ηi = Limit State load modifier factor for ductility, redundancy,
and importance of structure
γi = Load factor
Qi = Load (i.e., dead load, live load, seismic load, etc.)
φ = Resistance factor
Rn = Nominal or ultimate resistance
This equation states that the force effects are multiplied by factors to account for uncertainty of in
loading, structural ductility, operational importance, and redundancy, must be less than or equal to the
available resistance multiplied by factors to account for variability and uncertainty in the materials
and construction.
Use a value of 1.0 for ηi except for the design of columns when a minimum value of γi is appropriate.
In such a case, use ηi = 0.95. Columns in seismic designs are proportioned and detailed to ensure the
development of significant and visible inelastic deformations at the extreme event limit states before
failure.

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.4-1

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Page 3.4-2 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

3.5  Load Factors and load combinations

The limit states load combinations, and load factors (γi used for structural design are in accordance
with the LRFD, Table 3.4.1-1. and BDM Table 3.5‑1. For foundation design, loads are factored after
distribution through structural analysis or modeling.

DC Use One of
DD These at a Time
DW
EH
EV LL
ES IM
EL CE
Load CR BR
Combination SH PL
Limit State PS LS WA WS WL FR TU TG SE EQ IC CT CV
Strength-I γp 1.75 1.00 – – 1.00 0.5/1.20 γTG γSE – – – –
Strength-II γp 1.35 1.00 – – 1.00 0.5/1.20 γTG γSE – – – –
Strength-III γp – 1.00 1.40 – 1.00 0.5/1.20 γTG γSE – – – –
Strength-IV γp – 1.00 – – 1.00 0.5/1.20 – – – – – –
Strength-V γp 1.35 1.00 0.40 1.00 1.00 0.5/1.20 γTG γSE – – – v
γEQ
Extreme Event-I γp 1.00 – – 1.00 – – – 1.00 – – –
=0.5
Extreme Event-II γp 0.5 1.00 – – 1.00 – – – – 1.00 1.00 1.00
Service-I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.30 1.00 1.00 1.00/1.20 γTG γSE – – – –
Service-II 1.00 1.30 1.00 – – 1.00 1.00/1.20 – – – – – –
Service-III 1.00 0.80 1.00 – – 1.00 1.00/1.20 γTG γSE – – – –
Service-IV 1.00 – 1.00 0.70 – 1.00 1.00/1.20 – 1.00 – – – –
Fatigue-LL, IM
– 0.75 – – – – – – – – – – –
and CE only

Load Combinations and Load Factors

Table 3.5‑1

The live load factor for Extreme Event-I Limit State load combination, γEQ as specified in the BDM
Table 3.5.1 for all WSDOT bridges shall be taken equal to 0.50. The γEQ factor applies to the live
load force effect obtained from the bridge live load analysis. Associated mass of live load need not be
included in the dynamic analysis.
The AASHTO LRFD Specifications allow the live load factor in Extreme Event-I load combination,
γEQ, be determined on a project specific basis. The commentary indicates that the possibility of partial
live load, i.e., γEQ < 1.0, with earthquakes should be considered. The application of Turkstra’s rule
for combining uncorrelated loads indicates that γEQ = 0.50 is reasonable for a wide range of values of
average daily truck traffic (ADTT). The NCHRP Report 489 recommends live load factor for Extreme
Event-I Limit State, γEQ equal to 0.25 for all bridges. This factor shall be increased to γEQ equal to
0.50 for bridges located in main state routes and congested roads.
Since the determination of live load factor, γEQ based on ADTT or based on bridges located in
congested roads could be confusing and questionable, it is decided that live load factor of γEQ equal to
0.50 to be used for all WSDOT bridges regardless the bridge location or congestion.

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.5-1

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

The load factors γTG and γSE are to be determined on a project specific basis in accordance with
Articles 3.4.1 and 3.12 of the LRFD Specifications. Load Factors for Permanent Loads, γp are
provided in LRFD Table 3.4.1-2.
The load factor for downdrag loads shall be as specified in the AASHTO specifications Table 3.4.1-2.
The Geotechnical Report will provide the down drag force (DD). The down drag force (DD) is a
load applied to the pile/shaft with the load factor specified in the Geotechnical Report. Generally,
live loads (LL) are less than the down drag force and should be omitted when considering down
drag forces. In other words, the live loads reduce down drag forces and are ignored for the structural
design. The WSDOT BDM Section 8.6.2 provides a more in-depth discussion of Down Drag.
The Load Factors for Superimposed Deformations, γp are provided in Table 3.5‑3.

PS CR, SH
Superstructure 1.0 1.0
Fixed (bottom) substructure
0.5 0.5
supporting Superstructure (using Ig only)
All other substructure supporting Superstructure (using Ig or Ieffective) 1.0 1.0
Load factors for Superimposed Deformations
Table 3.5‑3

3.5.1  Load Factors for Substructure

Table 3.5‑4 provides general guidelines for when to use the maximum or minimum shaft/pile/column
permanent load factors for axial capacity, uplift, and lateral loading.
In general, substructure design should use unfactored loads to obtain force distribution in the
structure, and then factor the resulting moment and shear for final structural design. All forces and
load factors are as defined previously.

Axial Capacity Uplift Lateral Loading

DCmax, DWmax DCmin, DWmin DCmax, DWmax
DCmax, DWmax for causing shear DCmax, DWmax for causing shear DCmax, DWmax causing shear
DCmin, DWmin for resisting shear DCmin, DWmin for resisting shear DCmin, DWmin resisting shear
DCmax, DWmax for DCmax, DWmax for DCmax, Dwmax for
causing moments causing moments causing moments
DCmin, DWmin for DCmin, DWmin for DCmin, DWmin for
resisting moments resisting moments resisting moments
EVmax EVmin EVmax
DD = varies DD = varies DD = varies
EHmax EHmax if causes uplift EHmax

Minimum/Maximum Substructure Load Factors for Strength Limit State

Table 3.5‑4

In the table above “causing moment” and “causing shear” are taken to be the moment and shear
causing axial, uplift, and lateral loading respectively. “Resisting” is taking to mean those force effects
that are diminishing axial capacity, uplift, and lateral loading.

Page 3.5-2 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

3.6  Loads and Load factors for construction

Unless otherwise specified, the load factor for construction loads and for any associated dynamic
effects shall not be less than 1.5 in Strength I. The load factor for wind in Strength III shall not be less
than 1.25.
When investigating Strength Load Combinations I, III, and V during construction, load factors for the
weight of the structure and appurtenances, DC and DW, shall not be taken to be less than 1.25.
Where evaluation of construction deflections are required by the contract documents, Load
Combination Service I shall apply. Construction dead loads shall be considered as part of the
permanent load and construction transient loads considered part of the live load. The associated
permitted deflections shall be included in the contract documents.
For falsework and formwork design loads, see standard specifications 6-02.3(17)A.

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.6-1

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Page 3.6-2 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

3.7  Load factors for Post-tensioning

3.7.1  Post-tensioning Effects from Superstructure
When cast-in-place, post-tensioned superstructure is constructed monolithic with the piers, the
substructure design should take into account frame moments and shears caused by elastic shortening
and creep of the superstructure upon application of the axial post-tensioning force at the bridge ends.
Frame moments and shears thus obtained should be added algebraically to the values obtained from
the primary and secondary moment diagrams applied to the superstructure.
When cast-in-place, post-tensioned superstructure are supported on sliding bearings at some of the
piers, the design of those piers should include the longitudinal force from friction on the bearings
generated as the superstructure shortens during jacking. When post-tensioning is complete, the full
permanent reaction from this effect should be included in the governing AASHTO load combinations
for the pier under design.

3.7.2  Secondary Forces from Post-Tensioning, PS

The application of post-tenstioning forces on a continuous structure produces reactions at the
structure’s support and internal forces that are collectively called secondary forces.
Secondary prestressing forces (i.e. secondary moments) are the force effects in continuous members,
as a result of continuous post-tensioning. In frame analysis software, the secondary moments are
generally obtained by subtracting the primary (P*e) from the total PS moments. Whether or not this
is appropriate when using linear-elastic analysis is debatable, but accepted for lack of a better method.
A load factor, γPS, of 1.0 is appropriate for the superstructure. For fixed columns a 50% reduction
in PS force effects could be used given the elasto-plastic characteristics of the soil surrounding the
foundation elements.

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.7-1

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Page 3.7-2 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

3.8  Permanent Loads

The design unit weights of common permanent loads are provided in Table 3.8‑1.

ITEM LOAD
Reinforced Concrete 160 lb/ft3
Concrete Overlay 150 lb/ ft3
Stay-in-Place Form for Box Girder (applied to slab area less
5 lb/ft2
overhangs and webs)
Traffic Barrier ( 32” - F Shape ) 470 lb/ft
Traffic Barrier ( 42” - F Shape ) 730 lb/ft
Traffic Barrier ( 34” – Single Slope ) 505 lb/ft
Traffic Barrier ( 42” – Single Slope ) 690 lb/ft
Wearing Surface – Asphalt Concrete Pavement (ACP) 125 lb/ft3
Wearing Surface – Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) 140 lb/ft3
Soil, Compact 125 lb/ft3
Permanent Loads
Table 3.8‑1

3.8.1  Deck Overlay Requirement

Vehicular traffic will generate wear and rutting on a concrete bridge deck over the life of a bridge.
One option to correct excessive wear is to add a Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) overlay on top of the
existing concrete deck. This type of overlay requires less construction time and is less expensive
compared to removing a portion of the deck and adding a modified concrete overlay. The initial
bridge design needs to incorporate the future overlay dead load.
Concrete bridge deck protection systems shall be in accordance with the requirements of BDM
Section 5.7.4 for new bridge construction and widening projects. To accommodate a future deck
overlay, bridges shall be designed as shown in the following Table.

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.8-1

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Future
Concrete Overlay shown
Superstructure Type Design
Cover in the plan
Overlay
System 1:
  • Precast concrete, steel I or box girder with cast-
in-place slab 2 ½” (Including
  • Precast slabs with cast-in-place slab ½” wearing None 2” HMA
  • Reinforced and post-tensioned box beams and surface)
slab bridges
  • Mainline Bridges on State Routes
System 1:
2 ½” (Including
  • Undercrossing bridge that carries traffic from a
½” wearing None None
city street or county road
surface)
  • Bridges with raised sidewalks
System 2: 1 ¾” (Including 1 ½”
  • Decks of segmental bridges with transverse ¼” wearing Modified None
post-tensioning surface) Concrete Overlay
System 3:
2“ 3” HMA None
  • Deck bulb tees, Double tees and tri-beams
Bridge Overlay Requirements
Table 3.8‑2

The effect of the future deck overlay on girders camber, "A" dimension, creep, and profile grade need
not be considered in superstructure design.
Deck overlay may be required at the time of original construction for some bridge widening or staged
construction projects if ride quality is a major concern.

Page 3.8-2 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

3.9  Live Loads

3.9.1  Live Load Designation
Live load design criteria are specified in the lower right corner of the bridge preliminary plan sheet.
The Bridge Projects Unit determines the criteria using the following guideline:
• New bridges and Bridge widening with addition of substructure – HL-93
• Bridge superstructure widening with no addition of substructure – Live load criteria of the
original design
• Detour and other temporary bridges – 75% of HL-93

3.9.2  Live Load Analysis of Continuous Bridges

The HL-93 live load model defined in the LRFD specifications includes a dual truck train for negative
moments and reactions and interior piers. The application of the dual truck train is somewhat unclear
as specified in LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.1. WSDOT interprets that article as follows:
For negative moment between the points of contraflexure under a uniform load on all spans, shear,
and reactions at interior piers only, 90 percent of the effect of two design trucks spaced a minimum
of 50.0 ft. between the rear axle of the lead truck and the lead axle of the rear truck, combined with
90 percent of the effect of the design lane load. The distance between the 32.0-kip axles of each truck
shall be taken as 14.0 ft. The two design trucks shall be placed in different spans in such position to
produce maximum force effect.
Negative moment, shear, and reactions at interior supports shall be investigated a dual design tandem
spaced from 26.0 ft. to 40.0 ft apart, combined with the design lane load specified in LRFD Article
C3.6.1.3.1. For the purpose of this article, the pairs of the design tandem shall be placed in different
spans in such position to produce maximum force effect.

3.9.3  Loading for Live Load Deflection Evaluation

The loading for live load deflection criteria is defined in LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.2. Live load deflections
for the Service I limit state shall satisfy the requirements of LRFD 2.5.2.6.2.

3.9.4  Distribution to Superstructure

A. Multi Girder Superstructure
The live load distribution factor for exterior girder of multi girder bridges shall be as follows:
• For exterior girder design with slab cantilever length equal or less than one-half of the
adjacent interior girder spacing, use the live load distribution factor for interior girder. The
slab cantilever length is defined as the distance from the centerline of the exterior girder to
the edge of the slab.
• For exterior girder design with slab cantilever length exceeding one-half of the adjacent
interior girder spacing, use the lever rule with the multiple presence factor of 1.0 for single
lane to determine the live load distribution. The live load used to design the exterior girder
shall not be less than the live load used for the adjacent interior girder.
• The special analysis based on the conventional approximation of loads on piles as described
in LRFD Article C4.6.2.2.2d shall not be used unless the effectiveness of diaphragms on the
lateral distribution of truck load is investigated.

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.9-1

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

B. Concrete Box Girders

The load distribution factor for multi-cell cast in place concrete box girders shall be per LRFD
Specifications for interior girders from Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1 for bending moment, and Table
4.6.2.2.3a-1 for shear. The live load distribution factor for interior girders shall then be multiplied
by the number of webs to obtain the design live load for the entire superstructure. The correction
factor for live load distribution for skewed support as specified in Tables 4.6.2.2.2e-1 for bending
moment and 4.6.2.2.3c-1 for shear shall be considered.
DF = Nb x Dfi Live load distribution factor for multi-cell box girder
Where:
Dfi = Live load distribution factor for interior web
Nb = Number of webs
C. Multiple Presence Factors
A reduction factor will be applied in the substructure design for multiple loadings in accordance
with AASHTO.
D. Distribution to Substructure
The number of traffic lanes to be used in the substructure design shall be determined by dividing
the entire roadway slab width by 12. No fractional lanes shall be used. Roadway slab widths of
less than 24 feet shall have a maximum of two design lanes.
E. Distribution to Crossbeam
The HL-93 loading is distributed to the substructure by placing wheel line reactions in a lane
configuration that generates the maximum stress in the substructure. A wheel line reaction is ½ of
the HL-93 reaction. Live loads are consid­ered to act directly on the substructure without further
distribution through the superstructure as illustrated in Table 3.9‑1. Normally, substructure design
will not consider live load torsion or lateral distribution. Sidesway effects may be accounted for
and are generally included in computer generated frame analysis results.

Page 3.9-2 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

Live Load Distribution to Substructure

Table 3.9‑1

For steel and prestressed concrete superstructure where the live load is transferred to substructure
through bearings, cross frames or diaphragms, the girder reaction may be used for substructure
design. Live load placement is dependant on the member under design. Some examples of live load
placement are as follows. The exterior vehicle wheel is placed 2 feet from the curb for maximum
crossbeam cantilever moment or maximum eccentric foundation moment.
For crossbeam design between supports, the HL-93 lanes are placed to obtain the maximum moment
in the member; then re-located to obtain the maximum shear or negative moment in the member.
For column design, the design lanes are placed to obtain the maximum transverse moment at the top
of the column; then re-located to obtain the maximum axial force of the column.

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.9-3

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Page 3.9-4 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

3.10  Pedestrian Loads

A pedestrian load of 0.075 ksf shall be applied to all sidewalks wider than 2.0 ft and considered
simultaneously with the vehicular design live load. For purposes of determining the number of lanes
loaded when combined with one or more lanes of vehicular live load, the pedestrian loads may be
taken to be one loaded lane.
Bridges for only pedestrian and/or bicycle traffic shall be designed for a live load of 0.085 ksf.
Where sidewalks, pedestrian, and/or bicycle bridges are intended to be used by maintenance and/or
other incidental vehicles, these loads shall be considered in the design. The dynamic load allowance
need not be considered for these vehicles and shall not be considered concurrently with the pedestrian
load.
The maintenance vehicle live load shall be:
Sidewalk Width Truck
Less than 6 ft N/A
6ft – 10ft H-5
H-10
Greater than 10ft
UBIT Load (consult the BPO engineer for details)
When a future bridge widening is anticipated, the exterior girders shall be designed with the sidewalk
removed and the full live load considered.

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.10-1

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Page 3.10-2 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

3.11  Wind Loads

3.11.1  Wind Load to Superstructure
For the usual girder and slab bridges with less than 30 ft height above ground, the following
simplified wind pressure on structure (WS), could be used in lieu of the general method described in
LRFD Article 3.8.1.2:
• 0.05 kip per square foot, transverse
• 0.012 kip per square foot, longitudinal
Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.
For the usual girder and slab bridges with less than 30 ft height above ground, the following
simplified wind pressure on vehicle (WL), could be used in lieu of the general method described in
LRFD Article 3.8.1.3:
• 0.10 kip per linear foot, transverse
• 0.04 kip per linear foot, longitudinal
Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.

3.11.2  Wind Load to Substructure

Wind forces shall be applied to the substructure units in accordance with the loadings specified in
AASHTO. Transverse stiffness of the superstructure may be considered, as necessary, to properly
distribute loads to the substructure provided that the superstructure is capable of sustaining such
loads. Vertical wind pressure, per LRFD 3.8.2, shall be included in the design where appropriate, for
example, on single column piers. Wind loads shall be applied through shear keys or other positive
means from the superstructure to the substructure. Wind loads shall be distributed to the piers and
abutments in accordance with the laws of statics. Transverse wind loads can be applied directly to the
piers assuming the superstructure to act as a rigid beam. For large structures a more appropriate result
might be obtained by considering the superstructure to act as a flexible beam on elastic supports.

3.11.3  Wind on Noise Walls

Wind load shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed on the area exposed to the wind, taken
perpendicular to the assumed wind direction. Design wind pressure may be determined using either
the tabulated values given below or the design equations that follow.

Height of structure, Z, at which wind loads are being Wind Velocity (mph)
calculated as measured from low ground, or water level. 80 mph 90 mph 100 mph
0 - 30 ft. 4 psf 5 psf 6 psf
30 - 40 ft. 6 psf 7 psf 9 psf
40 - 50 ft. 8 psf 10 psf 12 psf
Minimum Wind Pressure for City Terrain (Exposure A)
Table 3.11‑1

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.11-1

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Height of structure, Z, at which wind loads are being Wind Velocity (mph)
calculated as measured from low ground, or water level. 80 mph 90 mph 100 mph
0 - 30 ft. 9 psf 12 psf 15 psf
30 - 40 ft. 12 psf 15 psf 19 psf
40 - 50 ft. 14 psf 18 psf 22 psf
Minimum Wind Pressure for Suburban Terrain (Exposure B1)
Table 3.11‑2

Height of structure, Z, at which wind loads are being Wind Velocity (mph)
calculated as measured from low ground, or water level. 80 mph 90 mph 100 mph
0 - 30 ft. 17 psf 21 psf 26 psf
30 - 40 ft. 19 psf 25 psf 30 psf
40 - 50 ft. 22 psf 28 psf 34 psf
Minimum Wind Pressure for Sparse Suburban Terrain (Exposure B2)
Table 3.11‑3

Height of structure, Z, at which wind loads are being Wind Velocity (mph)
calculated as measured from low ground, or water level. 80 mph 90 mph 100 mph
0 - 30 ft. 26 psf 32 psf 40 psf
30 - 40 ft. 29 psf 36 psf 45 psf
40 - 50 ft. 31 psf 39 psf 49 psf
Minimum Wind Pressure for Open Country Terrain (Exposure C)
Table 3.11‑4

Height of structure, Z, at which wind loads are being Wind Velocity (mph)
calculated as measured from low ground, or water level. 80 mph 90 mph 100 mph
0 - 30 ft. 39 psf 50 psf 62 psf
30 - 40 ft. 43 psf 54 psf 67 psf
40 - 50 ft. 45 psf 57 psf 71 psf
Minimum Wind Pressure for Coastal Terrain (Exposure D)
Table 3.11‑5

Design Wind Pressure

For noise walls with heights greater than 50 ft. or subjected to wind velocities other than 80, 90, or
100 mph, the following equations shall be used to determine the minimum design wind pressure to be
applied to the wall:
2
§V ·
P PB ¨¨ DZ ¸¸
© VB ¹
Where
P = design wind pressure (psf)
PB = base wind pressure (psf)
VDZ = design wind velocity at design elevation (mph)
VB = base wind velocity (100 mph) at 30.0 ft height

Page 3.11-2 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

Base Wind Pressure

The base wind pressure, PB, shall be taken as 40 psf for walls and other large flat surfaces.
Design Wind Velocity
The design wind velocity is computed as:
§V · § Z ·
VDZ 2.5V0 ¨¨ 30 ¸¸ ln¨¨ ¸¸
© VB ¹ © Z 0 ¹
Where
V0 = friction velocity (mph)
V30 = wind velocity at 30.0 ft above low ground or above design water level (mph)
Z = height of structure at which wind loads are being calculated as measured from low
ground or water level, > 30.0 ft
Z0 = friction length of upstream fetch (ft), (also referred to as roughness length)
Exposure Categories
City (A): Large city centers with at least 50 percent of the buildings having a
height in excess of 70.0 ft. Use of this category shall be limited to
those areas for which representative terrain prevails in the upwind
direction at least one-half mile. Possible channeling effects of
increased velocity pressures due to the bridge or structure's location
in the wake of adjacent structures shall be accounted for.
Suburban (B1): Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain with
numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of single-
family or larger dwellings. This category shall be limited to those
areas for which representative terrain prevails in the upwind direction
at least 1500 ft.
Sparse Suburban (B2): Urban and suburban areas with more open terrain not meeting the
requirements of Exposure B1.
Open Country (C): Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights generally less
than 30.0 ft. This category includes flat open country and grasslands.
Coastal (D): Flat unobstructed areas and water surfaces directly exposed to wind.
This category includes large bodies of water, smooth mud flats, salt
flats, and unbroken ice.
Friction Velocity
A meteorological wind characteristic taken for various upwind surface characteristics (mph).
Sparse Open
Condition City Suburbs Coastal
Suburbs Country
V0 (mph) 12.0 10.9 9.4 8.2 7.0

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.11-3

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Wind Velocity at 30.0 ft

V30 may be established from:
Fastest-mile-of-wind charts available in ASCE 7-88 for various recurrence
Site-specific wind surveys, or
In the absence of better criterion, the assumption that V30 = VB = 100 mph.
Friction Length
A meteorological wind characteristic of upstream terrain (ft).
Sparse Open
Condition City Suburbs Suburbs Country Coastal
Z0 (ft) 8.20 3.28 0.98 0.23 0.025

Page 3.11-4 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

3.12  Noise Barriers

The design requirement for noise barrier wall on bridges and walls are as follows: 
1. The total height of noise barrier wall on bridges, from top of slab to top of noise barrier wall,
shall be limited to 8’-0”
2. The total height of noise barrier wall on retaining walls, from top of roadway to top of noise
barrier wall, shall be limited to 14’-0”
3. Noise barrier wall thickness shall be 7 inches minimum
4. Two layers of reinforcing bars shall be specified in the cross section, with 1.5” cover, minimum,
over both faces as shown in the attached detail.
5. Wind load shall be based on BDM Section 3.11
6. The vehicular collision force shall be based on the LRFD Table A13.2-1 for design forces for
traffic railing. The transverse force shall be applied horizontally at 3’-6” height above deck.
7. Seismic load shall be as follows:
Seismic Dead Load = A x f x D
Where:
A = Acceleration coefficient from the Geotechnical Report
D = Dead load of the wall
f = Dead load coefficient
Dead Load Coefficient, f
Dead load coefficient, except on bridges – monolithic connection 1.0
Dead load coefficient, on bridges – monolithic connection 2.5
Dead load coefficient, for connection of precast wall to bridge barrier 8.0
Dead load coefficient, for connection of precast walls to retaining
5.0
wall or moment slab barriers
The product of A and f shall not be taken less than 0.10.
8. LRFD Bridge design specifications shall be used for the structural design of noise barrier walls.

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.12-1

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Page 3.12-2 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

3.13  Earthquake Effects

Earthquake Loads (see BDM Chapter 4)

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.13-1

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Page 3.13-2 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

3.14  Earth Pressure

Earthquake Loads (see BDM Chapter 7)

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.14-1

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Page 3.14-2 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

3.15  Force Effects due to superimposed deformations

PS, CR, SH, TU and TG are superimposed deformations. Load factors for PS, CR, and SH, are as
shown in Table 3.5‑3. In non-segmental structures: PS, CR and SH are symbolically factored by a
value of 1.0 in the strength limit state, but are actually designed for in the service limit state. For
substructure in the strength limit state, the value of 0.50 for γPS, γCR, γSH, and γTU may be used when
calculating force effects in non-segmental structures, but shall be taken in conjunction with the
gross moment of inertia in the columns or piers. The larger of the values provided for load factor
of TU shall be used for deformations and the smaller values for all other effects. The calculation of
displacements for TU loads utilizes a factor greater than 1.0 to avoid under sizing joints, expansion
devices, and bearings.
The current LRFD Specifications require a load factor of 1.2 on CR, SH, and TU deformations, and
0.5 on other CR/SH/TU force effects. The lower value had been rationalized as dissipation of these
force effects over time, particularly in the columns and piers.
Changing the load factors for creep and shrinkage is not straight-forward because CR, SH are
“superimposed deformations”, that is, force effects due to a change in material behavior that cause a
change in the statical system. For safety and simplicity in design, they are treated as loads--despite
not being measurable at time t = 0. However, behavior is nonlinear and application of the load factor
must also be considered. Some software will run service load analysis twice: once with and once
without CR, SH effects. The CR and SH can then be isolated by subtracting the results of the two runs.
Other software will couple the CR and SH with the dead load, giving a shrinkage- or creep-adjusted
dead load.
The proposed compromise is to assign creep and shrinkage the same load factor as the DC loads, but
permit a factor of 1.0 if the project-specific creep coefficient can be determined and is then used in the
linear analysis software.
Thermal and shrinkage loadings are induced by movements of the structure and can result from
several sources. Movements due to temperature changes are calculated using coefficients of
thermal expansion of 0.000006 ft/ft per degree for concrete and 0.0000065 ft/ft per degree for steel.
Reinforced concrete shrinks at the rate of 0.0002 ft/ft.

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.15-1

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Page 3.15-2 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

3.16  Other Loads

3.16.1  Buoyancy
The effects of submergence of a portion of the substructure is to be calculated, both for designing
piling for uplift and for realizing economy in footing design.

3.16.2  Collision Force on Bridge Substructure

See LRFD Articles 3.6.5 and 3.14

3.16.3  Collision Force on Traffic Barrier

See LRFD Article 3.6.5.1

3.16.4  Force from Stream Current, Floating Ice, and Drift

See AAHTO LRFD Article 3.9

3.16.5  Ice Load

In accordance with WSDOT HQ Hydraulics Office criteria, an ice thickness of 12 inches shall be used
for stream flow forces on piers throughout Washington State.

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.16-1

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Page 3.16-2 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
3.99  Bibliography
1. AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Design Specifications for Design of Highway Bridges, 2004 and
interims through 2007.

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.99-1

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Page 3.99-2 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
 Appendix 3.1-A1 Torsional Constants of Common Sections
Appendix 3.1-A1 Torsional Constants of Common Sections
bt 3
Appendix 3.1-A1 Torsional Constants of Common Sections
R
Appendix 3.1-A1 bt33
Torsional Constants of Common Sections
R
Appendix 3.1-A1 bt333
Torsional Constants of Common Sections
Appendix 3.1-A1 R bt
Torsional Constants of Common Sections
Appendix 3.1-A1 Torsional
R bt3 3 Constants
Torsional Constants of Common Sections
R 33
bt
3
Appendix 3.1-A1
Appendix 3.1-A1
Appendix 3.1-A1 of Common Sections
Torsional Constants of Common Sections
R
Torsional Constants of Common Sections
bt333 3
R b bt  d t
RR 33
bt
Rb bt 33d3 t 3
R R bt33 3
b  3d t
R R b 33d t 33
R b 3d t
R 3
R
b 3d t 3
b 3d t 3
R b  d t 3
R b 3 d t 3
R 2bbt33dtdt3 3
R b 1 3d t 3 2
R
2bt13333 dt 23
R
2bt133 3 dt 233
R 2bt13  dt 23
R 2bt1 3 dt 2
R 3
2bt13 3 dt 23
R
2bt 3 3 dt 3
R 2bt113  dt 223
R 2bt 33 dt 3
R 2bt 33132 dt2 332
R R 2bt 21tb3ddt2
R b
1
32 d 2
2
2tb3 d
R 2 2
2tb b 2dd2
R 2tb 2 d 2
R 2tb d
R bb 2 d2
2btb dd
R
2btb22 2dd22
2tt1 b2tbt dd  t1 
R 2

R R 2btb2dd 22 2
2ttbt
R1 b2dt btb1t22ddt2d2  tt11 
2 2

R R b  2tb b 2dd 2 2 2
2ttbt
1  dt t  2ddt tt11 2
R 2tt1 b bt1
R b 2 d  t1 2
R tt1 b dt
2bt  1t dtd22   tt1122
R bt dt

bt1 b dt 1t1  td2  tt1112
 t
2 2
2tt
R
2ttbt1 b dt
 t1 2 td2  tt1122
2 2

R 2tt1 b  t  d2  t12
R bt
tt1
2bt bdt1t2t2d tt12 2
R dt1 2 t  t11 2
1 b
2ttbt  t  2dt 24t1t 2 2
R 2Rtt1 b0.dt
 t1 dd  t11
0982
R bt  dt1  t 22  t122
bt  dt1  t 4 t1
R 0.0982 d
R 0.0982d 44
R 0.0982d
R 0.0982d 4
R
R
0.0982
R 0 . 
0982
0.0982 d 2 4d114
d 244  d 4d 4  Page 2
R R
R0.0982 0.0982
0.0982 d 24  d 4
d 4d1  Page 2
R 0.0982d 4
R 0.0982d 44 Page 2
R 0.0982d Page 2
Page 2
Page 2
R 1.0472t 33d Page 2
R 1.0472t d
Page 2
R 1.0472t 3 d Page 2
Page 2
Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.1-A1-1Page 2
May 2008
  ddd 4 
3
R RR0.0982
11..0472
0472 d 42t4t 3
R R0.0982
1.0472 d 2t 33dd114 
R 1.0472t d
Chapter 3 Loads
R 1.0472t 33d
R 1.0472t d
R 1.0472t 3 d
R 1.0472t 3 d
RR 0472dt334d4
1.1406
0
RR 10.0472.1406tdd
R 0.1406d 44
R 0.1406d
R 0.1406d 44
R 0.1406d
R 0.1406d 4
4
ª R 0.1406
3 ª16 b §d§ 4 b 44 ··ºº
RR ab 16 b¨ b ¸
ab 3«ª« 3R 303...36
36a ¨¨¨d11412a4 44 ¸¸¸»º»
1406
¬ 16 R3 0.1406 b ©§d b ¹·¼
R ab 33 «¬ª16  3.36 ab ¨¨©§1  12ba4 4 ¸¸¹·»¼º
R ab ª¬«16 3  3.36 ba §©¨¨1  12ba4 4 ·¹¸¸º¼»
R ab 3 «ª¬16
3 3  3.36 ba ¨§©1  12 b a4 ¸·¹»º¼
R ab ¬« 3  3.36 a ¨©¨¨1  12a4 44 ¸¹¸¸¼»
ª163 ba§ b a ·º
12
R ab 3 «ª¬16  3.363 b3¨¨§©1  b 44 ¸¸·¹»º¼
R ab ¬« R  3S.S36
3 3 aa 3abb©3¨1 12a4 ¹¸¼»
ª 16
3 R abb3¨©2§2 12ba4 4 ¸¹·¼º
ab33¬ª«16  3aaS.36
2
R 2a3 b §¨1  b ·¸º»
R ab «¬ 3R  3.S36 a3 bb3¨¨©21  12a44 ¸¸¸¹»¼
2 3 a3¨
¬ 3R aaS2a3babb3©2 12a ¹¼
R Sa b 2
R a 22  3 b
aSa 3bb3 2
3
R S2 a b 2
R a 2 3b 32
aSa3 3bb3
RR 2SS a b
RR a222Srr 3tbt22
R a2Sr 3b3t
R 2S2r t2
R 2tbSr2 d3d3t 2
RR 222tb
R 2tb bS2r2dddt22
RRR 22btb Sr23ddt 2
b
R 22tbSrd3dt
b
R 2tb 2 d3 2
RR b2Srd3 t Page
Page33
R 2bSr dt
Page 3
Page 3
4b 22 d 22 Page 3
R 4b d Page 3
R b44bb22d2dd22 b
RR b  2d b Page 3
bbt22d2d 2 btb1 Page 3
4tb 2d2 t1
R 4b d
R b tt2d tbt11 Page 3
Page 3
b  2d  b
t t
t 4 t11
a4
R a
R 2aaa44 b
RR 2a  b
22ata 4 btb1
t a t
R tt a4 tt11
R 2a b1
2a  b
t  t1
t t1
2
2 § Sr ·2
4r ¨§ Sr  2a ¸·22
2
4r §©¨S2r  2a·¹¸
R 44rr ¨©§¨ S2r 22aa¸¹·¸
22
R 2a© 22Sr 2¹r 2
RR 2a§©SS r r  2·r¹ 2
42r2a22a¨§tSSS
rr22atr¸·
4r ©¨t 2 r2a2t11¹r¸
R 2Design Manual 
2a©tt Sr t2t1r1¹
Page 3.1-A1-2 Bridge M 23-50.02
R
2a  Sr  2r May 2008
t  t1
 2ta tb1

t t 22
22§§S Srr 1 ··
44rr ¨¨  22aa¸¸ 2
© 22 ¹2
RR 4r22§©§¨SSrr  2a·¹·¸
Loads Chapter 3
4r22aa¨ 2SSrr 2a22¸rr
RR ©©t2  t¹¹2
2a§t Sr t 1·
42ra ¨ SSrr22a2r1r¸ 2
2
2§S 2r  ·
R 4r ©t¨t  2ta1t1¹¸
2a © 2Sr 2r¹
R 
2a t Sr 2t1r

t t
2 2 1
22bb2 dd2
RR
b2bb22 dd2d2
2 b d
RR ttbbb ttddd
b 2 d2
2b d
R ttbb 2 ttdd2
b2b dd
R 
t44bbbb22ddtd2d2
RR
bb t4bb2222dddt2d2 bb
4b d 
RR ttbbb a 2t2t2bddd22 ttb11
R b a2d2b 2 b
R a 4b2bt d2 ct
R ttbba  at 2b2bd 22 tc1
RR tba 4abt2dbdbdt c1b
R ataa  btbb  ctcc
tbb   2t d tb
ttaa ttbdb ttcc1
t b t d t1

R
aac22c2222dd22 Page 44
Page
a b
RR a  2b 22 c2 Page44
RR
aaa2cbcbdd cc2
a  Page
t t
taaaa t22tbbbb tc1tccc1
 Page 4
tt tt11
Page 4
b t 33 3b t 33
R b111t1  322b22 t2222
R a  3c  d 3
R bb1tt133 33b t 3
RR a1 1 2b3b22 tc22
3 
t 3 t11
Multi-Celled Sections
Multi-Celled Sections
Torsion of two or more cells connect at the walls is a statically indeterminate problem. The
Torsion of twoSections
Multi-Celled or more cells connect at the walls is a statically indeterminate problem. The
Multi-Celled
general methodSections
to find the torsional rigidity, R, is as follows:b t 33  3b t 33
general
Torsion method to find the torsional rigidity, R, is asa follows:
R
Torsion of
of two
two or
or more
more cells
cells connect
connect atat the
the walls
walls is
is a statically indeterminate problem.
problem. The
11 11 22 22
statically indeterminate The
general 3
general method
method toto find
find the
the torsional
torsional rigidity,
rigidity, R,
R, is
is as
as follows:
follows:

Multi-Celled Sections
Torsion of two or more cells connect at the walls is a statically indeterminate problem. The
general method to find the torsional rigidity, R, is as follows:

The equation for equilibrium for n cells is:

The equation
n
for equilibrium for n cells is:
2¦ qi :for
Bridge Design n
Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.1-A1-3
M
The (1) is:
Mt t equation
The
May 2008 2i¦
equation
1
q i :for
i
i
equilibrium
equilibrium for
for nn cells
cells
(1)is:
n
i n1
M 2 q: (1)
 Chapter 3 Loads

Multi-Celled Sections
Torsion of two or more cells connect at the walls is a statically indeterminate problem. The general
method to find the torsional rigidity, R, is as follows:

The equation for equilibrium for n cells is:

n
Mt 2¦ q i : i (1)
i 1

Where qi is the shear flow in cell i and Ωi is the area enclosed by the center line of the walls inclosing
the cell, and Mt is the twisting moment applied to the cell.
The The
equations of consistent
equations deformation
of consistent are:
deformation are:
The
S ji qiequations
 S jj q j of S jkconsistent
q k 2: jTdeformation
are: (2)
S ji qi  S1jj q j  S jk q k 2: jT
Where:
S ji  1 ³ S ji dst
S ji  G ³ S ji dst
1G
S jj  1 ³ S jj dst
The equations S jj of consistent
G S ds deformation are:
S ji qi  S jj q j  S jkG1q k³ jj2: t
jT
S jk  1 ³ S jk dst
1 G S ds deformation are:
t G ³
The
S ji equations  ³SSjk ji of dsconsistent jk t
S ji qi  SGjj q j  S jk q k 2: jT
The equations G isisthe of shear
the consistent
shearmodulusmodulus deformation
of of
are:
elasticity
11 G elasticity
SSS jjjiji qi G S jj³GqSSjis tdsdsS isjk shear
ds
qthe 2modulus
:of j T the length
³³ Sjjjiji the k sum of elasticity
of cell wall, common to cells j and i, divided by its thickness
tt is the sum of the length of cell wall, common to cells j and i, divided by its thickness
G1 S ds is the sum of the length of cell wall, common to cells j and i, divided by its thickness
S ji  11 ³³SSS jkjijidsdsds t
ds
is the thesum sumofofthe thelength
lengthof of
cellcell wall, common to cells
j and jk,and k, divided by its thickness
S
S jjjk  G G³³SSjjjk t ds tt
t is wall, common to cells divided by its thickness
G1 ³ S jk dst is the sum of the length of cell wall, common to cell j, divided by theirby
is the sum of the length of cell wall, common to cells j and k, divided its thickness
S jj  1 ³³S jj dstdst is the sum of the length of cell wall, common to cell j, divided
jj ds respective
GS jkis the  Gshear
G
³SSjkjjmodulus
³thicknesses.t
t
is the sum of the length of cell wall, common to cell j, divided by their respective
of elasticity
1 by thicknesses.
T Sistheir ds respective thicknesses.
³SSjkji dst isGthe ³θTisissum the
the
jk t
theangle
ofangle of twist
the length
angleofoftwist twist
ofincell
in in
radians
radians
wall, common to cells j and i, divided by its thickness
radians
G Sis the
³ jk dsdst isshear the sum
Equation
modulus of(2) oflength
thewill elasticity
yield of ncell wall, common
equations to cells jshear
for n unknown and k, divided
flows and bycanitsbethickness
solved for the shear
³³ Sisjijj the
G S t
ds
t
is the
shear
is the flowssum
Equation modulus
sumqiofinthe
of the
(2)termslength
will
of yieldof
elasticity
length for G cell
n
of and
wall,
equations
cell the
common
angle
wall, for n to
of twist
common
cells
unknown j
T. Knowing
to cell
and
shear i, divided
flows
j, dividedTiby and
andtheirby its
can
:i the bethickness
solvedconstant
torsional
respective for the shear
R
flows q in terms for G and the angle of twist T . Knowing T and : the torsional constant R
³³S jkji t may be2 calculated
S is themay sum be calculated
of the length from:
of cell wall, common to cells j and i, divided by its thickness
ds
thicknesses.
i k, divided by its thickness
i i
n from:
T Sis
³ Sjjjkthe dsds is
tt
isangle
the
the R sumsumof2twist of
GT i 1 q :
¦nthe
of qin
thei:
radians
length
length
i ofcell
of cellwall,
wall,common
common to to cell
cellsj, jdivided
and k, divided
by theirby its thickness
respective
thicknesses.
R ¦ i i of cell wall, common to cell j, divided by their respective
³T isS jjthe
Equation
ds
t
is (2)
the will sum GTyield
anglesimplification
ofi 1thenlength
of twist in radians
equations for n unknown shear flows and can be solved for the shear
thicknesses.
flows qi inAterms
Page 3.1-A1-4 for G and of thethis
anglemethod is toT.assume
of twist Knowing thatTithe
andinterior
:i the web members
torsional
Bridge Design are not
constant
Manual  effective in
RM 23-50.02
T is the
may angle
be calculated A simplification
torsion. of twist The
from: torsional
in of thisconstant
radians methodmay is tobeassume that the interior
approximated by: web members are notMay effective
2008 in
Equation (2) ntorsion.
will yield The
2 n equations
torsional for n unknown
constant may be shear flows and
approximated by: can be solved for the shear
2 4A
Loads Chapter 3

Equation (2) will yield n equations for n unknown shear flows and can be solved for the shear
flows qi in terms for G and the angle of twist θ. Knowing θi and Ωi the torsional constant R may
be calculated from:
2 n
R
GT
¦q :
i 1
i i

A simplification of this method is to assume that the interior web members are not effective in torsion.
The torsional constant may be approximated by:
4 A2
R
S
¦i t i
i

Where:
A is the area enclosed by the centerline of the exterior webs and the top and bottom slabs
Si is the length of side i
ti is the thickness of side i

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.1-A1-5

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Page 3.1-A1-6 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Appendix 3.1-B1 HL-93 Loading for Bridge Piers
1. Introduction
The purpose of this example is to demonstrate a methodology of analyzing a bridge pier for the
HL-93 live load on two-dimension plane frame in both longitudinal and transverse directions.
First, the longitudinal analysis of the superstructure is analyzed. This analysis produces the live
load reactions at the intermediate piers. Then the reactions are applied in the transverse direction,
for the crossbeam and column design.
2. Bridge Description
3. Analysis Goals
To determine:
• Maximum axial forces and corresponding moments.
• Maximum moments and corresponding axial forces.
• Maximum shears.
4. Material Properties
4.1 Girders
wc = 0.160 kcf
f’c = 7ksi
Ec = 33,000(0.160)1.5 √7 = 5588 ksi
4.2 Slab, Columns, and Cross Beam
wc = 0.160 kcf
f’c = 4 ksi
Ec = 33,000(0.160)1.5 √4 = 4224 ksi
5. Section Properties
Compute the geometric properties of the girder, columns, and cap beam.
5.1. Girder
The composite girder section properties can be obtained from the Section Properties
Calculator in QConBridge program for the longitudinal direction.
A = 1254.6 in2
I = 1,007,880 in3
5.2. Column
Section properties of an individual column are obtained by simple formula for longitudinal
and transverse directions:
For the longitudinal analysis we need to proportion the column stiffness to each girder line.
For longitudinal analysis the section properties of the each column member are:
NOTE
For other column shapes and columns on a skewed bent, the properties of the columns need
to be computed in the plane of the longitudinal and transverse frames respectively for analysis
in each direction.

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.1-B1-1

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

5.3.  Cap Beam

Cap beam properties are obtained by simple formula in transverse direction:
6. Longitudinal Analysis
The purpose of this analysis is to determine the maximum live load reactions that will be applied
to the bent. The results from this analysis will be scaled by the number of loaded lanes causing
maximum responses in the bent and distributed to individual columns, for the transverse analysis.
The longitudinal analysis consists of applying various combinations of design lane and design
trucks. The details can be found in AAHSTO LRFD 3.6.
6.1 Loading
In order to produce the maximum moment and reaction at interior piers, two trucks spaced
at 50 feet minimum are used in the longitudinal direction per LRFD Section 3.6.1.3. The
influence lines of the axial force, moment, and shear at the top and bottom column of the live
loading show the effect of a two-truck loading.
6.1.1  Influence Lines
Figures below are influence lines for axial force, shear, and moment at the top of Pier 2
for a unit load moving along a girder line. The influence lines for the bottom of the pier
will be exactly the same, except the moment influence will be different by an amount
equal to the shear times the pier height.
To achieve the maximum compressive reaction, the lane load needs to be in spans
1 and 2, and the two trucks need to straddle between pier 2 and be as close to each
other as possible. That is, the minimum headway spacing of 50 feet will maximize the
axial reaction.
Maximum shears and moments occur under two conditions. First, spans 1 and 3 are
loaded with the lane load and the two truck loading. The headway spacing that causes the
maximum response is in the range of 180 – 200 feet. Then, a span 2 is loaded with the
lane load and the two truck train. The headway spacing is at its minimum value of 50 ft.
Analytically finding the exact location and headway spacing of the trucks for the extreme
force effects is possible, but hardly worth the effort. Structural analysis tools with a
moving load generator, such as GTSTRUDL, can be used to quickly determine the
maximum force effects.
6.2 Results
A longitudinal analysis is performed using GTSTRUDL. The details of this analysis
are shown.
The result of the longitudinal analysis consists of two-truck train and lane load results.
These results need to be combined to produce the complete live load response. The complete
response is computed as QLL+IM = 0.9[(IM)(Dual Truck Train) + Lane Load].
The dynamic load allowance (impact factor) is given by the LRFD specifications as 33%.
Note that the dynamic load allowance need not be applied to foundation components entirely
below ground level. This causes us to combine the two truck train and lane responses for
cross beams and columns differently than for footings, piles, and shafts.
6.2.1  Combined Live Load Response
The tables below summarize the combined live load response. The controlling load cases
are given in parentheses.

Page 3.1-B1-2 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

Maximum Axial
Top of Pier Bottom of Pier
Corresponding Corresponding
Axial (kips/lane)
Moment (k-ft/lane) Moment (k-ft/lane)
-117.9
Two-Truck Train -146.2 103.4
(Loading case 1014)
-89.1
Lane Load -195.5 141.9
(Loading case LS12)
LL+IM (Column) -221.3 -350.9 251.5
LL (Footing) -186.3 N/A 220.8

Maximum Moment – Top of Pier

Corresponding Axial
Moment (k-ft/lane)
(kips/lane)
Two-Truck Train -582.5 (Loading 1018) -85.8
Lane Load -364.2 (Loading LS2) -49.4
LL+IM (Column) -1025.0 -147.2

Maximum Moment – Bottom of Pier

Corresponding Axial
Moment (k-ft/lane)
(kips/lane)
Two-Truck Train 287.7 (Loading 1018) -85.8
Lane Load 179.7 (Loading LS2) -49.4
LL+IM (Column) 506.1 -147.2
LL+IM (Footing) 420.7 -121.7

Maximum Shear
Shear (kips/lane)
Two-Truck Train 21.8 (Loading 1018)
Lane Load 13.6 (Loading LS2)
LL+IM (Column) 38.3
LL (Footing) 31.9

7. Transverse Analysis
Now that we have the maximum lane reactions from the longitudinal girder line analysis, we need
to apply these as loads to the bent frame.
7.1 Loading
Apply the superstructure live load reactions of the longitudinal direction to substructure
by placing the wheel line reactions directly to the crossbeam and varying the number and
position of design lanes described in chapter 7 of the BDM.
7.2 Results
A transverse analysis is performed using GTSTRUDL. The details of this analysis are shown.
7.2.1  Cap Beam
For this example, we will look at results for three design points, the left and right face of
the left-hand column, and at the mid-span of the cap beam. Note that in the analysis, the
wheel line reactions were applied from the left hand side of the bent. This does not result
in a symmetrical set of loadings. However, because this is a symmetrical frame we expect
symmetrical results. The controlling results from the left and right hand points “A” and
“B” are used.

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.1-B1-3

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

For shear design of the crossbeam, LRFD specifications section C5.8.3.4.2 allows
determination of the effects for moments and shears on the capacity of a section using the
maximum factored moments and shears at the section. Hence, the results below do not
show the maximum shears and corresponding moments.
The tables below summarize the results of the transverse analysis for the crossbeam. The
basic results are adjusted with the multiple presence factors per LRFD Table 3.6.1.1.2-1.
The controlling load cases are in parentheses.
Point A
Shear (kips) +Moment (k-ft) -Moment (k-ft)
Force Effect 110.7 (Loading 1009) 0 -484.3 (1029)
Multiple Presence
1.2 1.2 1.2
Factor
LL+IM 132.8 0 -581.2

Point B
Shear (kips) +Moment (k-ft) -Moment (k-ft)
Force Effect 155.8 (Loading 2330) 314.3 (Loading 1522) -650.9 (Loading 1029)
Multiple
1.0 1.2 1.2
Presence Factor
LL+IM 155.8 377.2 -781.1

Point C
Shear (kips) +Moment (k-ft) -Moment (k-ft)
Force Effect 87.9 (Loading 2036) 426.4 (Loading 1520) -400.5 (Loading 1029)
Multiple 1.0 1.2 1.2
Presence Factor
LL+IM 87.9 511.7 -480.6

7.2.2  Columns
The tables below show the live load results at the top and bottom of a column. The results
are factored with the appropriate multiple presence factors. The controlling load cases are
in parentheses.
Maximum Axial – Top and Bottom of Column
Top of Column Bottom of Column
Corresponding Corresponding
Axial (kips)
Moment (k-ft) Moment (k-ft)
Force Effect -347.6 (Loading 2026) 34.1 28.4
Multiple Presence
1.0 1.0 1.0
Factor
LL+IM -347.6 34.1 28.4

Maximum Moment – Top of Column

Moment (k-ft) Corresponding Axial (kips)
Force Effect 59.3 (Loading 1009) -265.6
Multiple Presence Factor 1.2 1.2
LL+IM 71.2 -318.7

Maximum Moment – Bottom of Column

Moment (k-ft) Corresponding Axial (kips)
Force Effect -53.6 (Loading 1029) 55.6
Multiple Presence Factor 1.2 1.2
LL+IM -64.3 66.7

Page 3.1-B1-4 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

Maximum Shear
Shear (kips)
Force Effect -1.0 (Loading 1029)
Multiple Presence Factor 1.2
LL+IM -1.2

7.2.3  Footings
In obtaining the footing forces of the loads from the analysis above, the linear elastic
system, the principle of superposition can be used. The footing results are simply the
column results scaled by the ratio of the footing load to the column load. For this case,
the scale factor is 186.3÷221.3 = 0.84.
Maximum Axial – Top of Footing
Axial (kips) Corresponding Moment (k-ft)
LL -292 23.9

Maximum Moment – Top of Footing

Moment (k-ft) Corresponding Axial (kips)
LL -45.0 46.7

Maximum Shear – Top of Footing

Shear (kps)
LL -1.0

8. Combining Longitudinal and Transverse Results

To get the full set of column forces, the results from the longitudinal and transverse analyses need
to be combined. Recall that the longitudinal analysis produced moments, shears, and axial load
for a single loaded lane whereas the transverse analysis produced column and footing forces for
multiple loaded lanes.
Before we can combine the force effects we need to determine the per column force effect from
the longitudinal analysis. To do this, we look at the axial force results in transverse model to
determine the lane fraction that is applied to each column.
For maximum axial load, 2 lanes at 221.3 kips/lane produce an axial force of 347.6 kips. The lane
fraction carried by the column is 347.6/(2*221.3) = 0.785 (78.5%).
Mz = (-350.9 K-FT/LANE)(2 LANES)(0.785)(1.0) = -550.9 K-FT (Top of Column)
Mz = (251.5 K-FT/LANE)(2 LANES)(0.785)(1.0) = 394.9 K-FT (Bottom of Column)
Mz = (220.8 K-FT/LANE)(2 LANES)(0.785)(1.0) = 346.7 K-FT (Footing)
For maximum moment (and shear because the same loading governs) at the top of the column, 1
lane at 221.3 kips/lane produces an axial force of 318.7 kips (318.7/221.3 = 1.44), 144% of the
lane reaction is carried by the column.
Mz = (-1025.0)(1.44)(1.2) = -1771.2 k-ft
Vx = (38.3)(1.44)(1.2) = 66.2 K (Column)
Vx = (31.9)(1.44)(1.2) = 55.1 K (Footing)

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.1-B1-5

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

For maximum moment at the bottom of the column, 1 lane at 221.3 kips/lane produces an axial
force of 66.7 kips (66.7/221.3 = 0.30) 30% of the lane reaction is carried by the column.
Mz = (506.1)(0.30)(1.2) = 182.2 k-ft (Column)
Mz = (420.7)(0.30)(1.2) = 151.4 k-ft (Footing)
Column
Load Cases
Maximum Maximum
Maximum Maximum
Moment Moment Shear
Axial Top Moment Top
Bottom Bottom
Axial (kips) -347.6 -347.6 - 318.7 66.7
Mx (k-ft) 34.1 28.4 71.2 -64.3
Mz (k-ft) -550.9 394.9 -1771.2 182.1
Vx (kips) 66.2
Vz (kips) -1.2

Footing
Load Cases
Maximum Moment
Maximum Axial Shear
Bottom
Axial (kips) -292 46.7
Mx (k-ft) 23.9 -45.0
Mz (k-ft) 346.7 151.4
Vx (k) 72.7
Vz (k) -1.0

9. Skew Effects
This analysis becomes only slightly more complicated when the pier is skewed with respect to
the centerline of the bridge. The results of the longitudinal analysis need to be adjusted for skew
before being applied to the transverse model.
The shears and moments produced by the longitudinal analysis are in the plane of the longitudinal
model. These force vectors have components that are projected into the plane of the transverse
model as show in the figure below. The transverse model loading must include these forces and
moments for each wheel line load. Likewise, the skew adjusted results from the longitudinal
analysis need to be used when combining results from the transverse analysis.
10. Summary
This example demonstrates a method for analyzing bridge piers subjected to the LRFD HL-93
live load.
11. Longitudinal Analysis Details
The following output shows the longitudinal analysis details. In the live load generation portion
of the GTSTRUDL input, you will see multiple trials for live load analysis. Each trial uses a
different range of headways spacing for the dual truck train. The first trial varies the headway
spacing from 180 to 205 feet. Based on this, a tighter range between 193 and 198 feet was used to
get the headway spacing corresponding to the maximum loads correct to within 1 foot.

Page 3.1-B1-6 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008
Loads Chapter 3

12. Transverse Analysis Details

The following output shows the details of the transverse analysis. The interesting thing to note
about the transverse analysis is the live load truck configuration. A technique of treating the
wheel line reactions as a longitudinal live load is used. A two axle “truck” is created. The truck
is positioned so that it is on the left edge, center, and right edge of the design lane. In order to
keep the axles in the correct position, a dummy axle with a weight of 0.0001 kips was used. This
dummy axial is the lead axle of the truck and it is positioned in such a way as to cause the two
“real” axles to fall in the correct locations within the design lanes.
The GTSTRUDL live load generator uses partial trucks when it is bring a truck onto or taking
it off a bridge. As such, less then the full number of axles are applied to the model. For the
transverse analysis, we do not want to consider the situation when only one of the two wheel lines
is on the model. As such, several load cases are ignored by way of the LOAD LIST command on
line76 of the output.

Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02 Page 3.1-B1-7

May 2008
Chapter 3 Loads

Page 3.1-B1-8 Bridge Design Manual  M 23-50.02

May 2008