Cryogenic Instrumentation

Module 6: Cryogenic Engineering ME 467

Temperature Measurement
Is measured indirectly (unlike say, paramagnetic material etc.
length, mass etc.) from the Pay off functions:
change of other properties: • Accuracy – the departure from
• Length of a Hg column thermodynamic temperature scale
• The electrical resistance of a • Sensitivity – the rate of change of
Platinum wire indicating property with
• Pressure of a near ideal gas temperature
• Thermo electric emf • Reproducibility – the range of
• Equilibrium pressure of a gas indications of temperature when
above a boiling liquid several measurements are made
of the same temperature.
• The difference in thermal
expansion of two metals in a • Stability – changes in the
composite beam indication of the thermometer
over a period of use
• The speed of sound in a gas
• The magnetic susceptibility of
 Temperature scales
𝑻𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝑸𝒓𝒆𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 @𝑻𝒄
• Thermodynamic Temperature Scale, = (refer, 2nd Law of TD/
𝑻𝒉𝒐𝒕 𝑸𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅 @𝑻𝒉
Carnot Cycle)
• Fixed point: triple point of water (273.16 K) (refer, zeroth Law of TD/ Thermometry)
• At 7th General Conference on Weights and Measures (1927), an International
Temperature Scale (ITS-27) was adopted.
• A practical temperature scale that closely approximates the thermodynamic temperature scale
and was easily reproducible.
• Fixed points: 6 fixed points with assigned numerical values
• Defined down to only the NBP of O2
• In the 11th conference in 1960, the triple point of water was selected as the
standard fixed point, International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS-48)
• The 13th conference extended the range to the triple point of H2 (13.81 K) – ITPS-68
The standard measurement instruments,
• Strain free Platinum resistance thermometer
• between triple point of H2 (13.84 K) and freezing point of Antimony (903.89 K)
• Germanium resistance thermometer
• From 4.24 K to 13.84 K
• He4 vapor pressure scale
• From 1.5 K to 4.24 K
• He3 vapor pressure scale
• From 0.8 K to 1.5 K
• Magnetic scale
• From 0.006 K to 0.8 K
• Based on magnetic susceptibility of Cerium Magnesium Nitrate.
Metallic resistance thermometers
• Temperature variation of electrical resistivity of conductors and semi
conductors is the basis
• In addition to Platinum, copper, lead and indium have been used.
• A linear variation of resistance is desirable.
• Typically calibrated by Callendar-van Dusen equation

• Where t is in 0C; A, B, C are constants found by calibration at 3 standard

temperatures, R0 is the resistance at 0 0C and Re is the resistance at t 0C .
• It is important the resistance wire be strain free
Platinum resistance thermometer
A platinum resistance thermometer yields a resistance reading of 38.6
ohms a certain temperature. If the electric resistance at 0 0C is 100
ohms and the constants A, B, C are respectively 3.946 x10-3 0C-1, -1.108
x10-6 0C-2, and 3.33 x10-12 0C-4 ,Determine corresponding temperature
indication.
• Hint: Solve iteratively; start by solving for t, neglecting B & C terms, in
the first iteration. In the second iteration, put the value of t previously
obtained in the B & C terms to solve for t again. Repeat until the value
t in successive iterations are very close (~ 0.01 0C)
• Ans: t = -150 0C
• Sensitivity, S0 = 0.4211 Ω/0C
Semi Conductor Resistance Thermometers
• Electrical resistivity is inversely proportional to temperature at high
temperatures
• At low temperatures, electron furnishing (donors) or accepting (acceptors)
impurities aid conduction.
• Germanium semiconductors are the most widely used.
• A single crystal of Ge is doped with arsenic, gallium or antimony to obtain desired
resistance characteristics.
• Ge is sealed inside a metal case and four leads are attached (two for supplying
operating current, two for measuring voltage)
• Typical operating range between 1.5 K to 100 K
• Carbon resistance thermometers
• High sensitivity, low cost, small size and relatively simple temperature-resistance
curve
Thermocouples
• Can be used as in regular temperature ranges.
• But, during calibration, reference temperature should be selected close to
the measurement range (LN2, LH2, LHe temperatures, depending on the
range of temperature measurement, but not the ice point)
• High temperature difference produce high emf which will require precision reading
of emf for precise measurement of temperature.
• Heat conduction down the thermocouple wire is also reduced.
• If emf is very low thermocouples connected in series (Thermopile) can be
used.
• Conduction down to the cold end bead can warm up the bead and show
erroneous reading of temperature. This can be avoided by insulation
• Calibration equation is given by,
Constant Volume Gas Thermometer
• A bulb containing the gas is
inserted in the region
whose temperature is to be
measured. And the pressure
is measured.
• Calibrated by measuring gas
pressure at a standard
temperature.
• Assuming ideal gas relation,
• We get a linear dependence of temperature on pressure.
• Considering the dead volume gas,

• Solving for temperature,

• Where K is the correction factor

• In addition to dead volume correction, real gas effect may be
considered,
• Virial expansion (real gas equation) is given by,

• Where B, C, D etc. are virial coefficients

• Neglecting from the third term onwards,

• Substituting in the mass equation and solving for temperature we get,

Vapor Pressure Thermometer
• Vapor Pressure (saturation
pressure) is a function of
temperature.
• Bulb contains a pure gas that
can be condensed in the
temperature range of interest.
• High sensitivity.
• No dead volume correction or
real gas correction is required.
• Disadvantage: Limited range (can be made to use from the triple
point to the critical point of the given pure substance)
• When H2 is used as thermometric fluid, catalyst must be used to
promote conversion from normal to equilibrium hydrogen.
• Calibration equation is given by,

• Where P0 is atm pressure and T0 the normal boiling point. C is a

constant.
• Hint: Newton’s method: iterative

• Ans: T = 15.09 K
Magnetic Thermometer
• For temperature measurements below 1.0 K
• Magnetic materials obey Curie’s law (at relatively high temperatures
and weak fields)

• X – magnetic susceptibility, J – magnetic moment per unit mass, H –

applied magnetic field intensity, C – Curie’s constant (material
property)
• Not applicable at very low temperatures.
Calibration
• 1 – 2, isothermal magnetisation (>
1 K, measured by a He – vapour
pressure thermometer). The
entropy can be determined by the
Brillouin expression from T, J, H
etc.
• 2 – 3, reversible adiabatic removal
of magnetic field. S3 = S2
• We define a magnetic
temperature
• T* not equal to T (not Curie’s Law)
• S vs T* plot formed after a series
of such demagnetisation
• 3 – 4 : addition of energy at zero magnetic field
• We can measure the change in T* due to change in the internal
energy.

• T vs T* calibration curve can be constructed (some examples below)

Flow-Rate Measurement

• Orifice meter
• Venturi meter
• Turbine flow meter
 Orifice Meter
• Calibration curve for water can
be applied directly LO2, LN2,
LH2 (single phase)
• Upstream straight line length
has to be at least 10 times
diameter of pipe & downstream
length 5 times.
• Discharge coefficient accounts
for losses. Is determined by
calibration or ISO-ASME orifice
coefficient expression.
• Pressure taps are D and 0.5 D
up and downstream
respectively.
• Low cost and size, but large
pressure drops
 Venturi Meter
• Avoids large pressure drops of an
orifice.
• Sharp (200 – 220) convergent
section, straight throat(~0.5D),
gradual (50 -70) diverging section.
• Pressure taps @ 0.5D before venturi
and @ the centre of the throat.
• Flow rate measured by the same
expression as the orifice meter.
• Cd is almost unity. Determined by
calibration or by the given
expression.
• Cavitation chances are high.
 Turbine Flowmeter
• Free spinning turbine in the centre of
the flow.
• A magnetic pick-up sensor generates
pulses as the blades cross its field,
frequency of which is indicated by an
oscilloscope or an EPUT meter.
• At Re>6000, volume flow rate is
related to speed n of the turbine by
the given equation.
• Viscosity correction of calibration
factor required for low speeds
• Density (and hence 2 phase flow)
doesn’t affect the performance
• Low inertia of turbine allows good
dynamic response (for transient flows)
 Fluid Quality Measurement
• Important to measure quality for
flow measurement (density can be
found only by knowing quality)
• The dielectric constant of the fluid
varies with quality.
• A concentric cylinder capacitor is
formed by keeping a cylindrical rod
inside the pipe suspended through
insulators (with the pipe wall and the
rod acting as parallel plates)
• The annulus area must be same as
the pipe area to avoid acceleration
or deceleration of fluid.
• The probe capacitance can be
related to quality by static calibration
or the following method,
• The capacitance (C) of a
concentric cylinder capacitor long
enough that end effects can be
neglected is known.
• The dielectric constant (ϵ) is
related to the volume fraction (y)
of liquid and vapor.
• The density (ρ) is also related to
volume fraction.
• Thus from volume fraction and
density quality (x) can be
determined.
• ρ & ϵ also depends on Pressure.
Thus the calibration must be
carried out for the operating
pressure.
• If is ϵ not known Clausius-
Mossotti equation can be used.
(M – molecular weight, α - molar
polarisation)
Liquid Level Measurement
• Hydrostatic Gauges
• Electric Resistance Gauges
• Capacitance Liquid-level Probes
• Thermodynamic Liquid-Level Gauges
Hydrostatic Gauges
• Differential pressure measuring
instruments like Bourdon gauge,
U-tube Manometer, diaphragm
transducer etc. Can be used.
• Pressure pickups (liquid) are
constructed with goosenecks to
avoid liquid drain.
• Problems:
• Low sensitivity (LH2, LHe)
• Pressure oscillations.
 Electric Resistance Gauges
• Heat transfer coefficient of
liquid is 1 or 2 orders of
magnitude higher than that of
vapor.
• For the same heat transfer
rate, wire will have greater T
in vapor.
• Resistance varies with
temperature which can be
measured.
• For vertical arrangement
resistance may be directly
calibrated against level. But
energy dissipated is more.
Capacitance Probes
• Same way as capacitance quality
probe.
• Concentric cylinder capacitor
placed vertically in the container.
• Total capacitance is found by the
given equation.
• Can be solved for liquid level (Lf).
Liquid level can be measured from
the Capacitance value.
• Or level can be calibrated directly
against capacitance.
• Sensitivity is independent of liquid
level and length of the probe.
Thermodynamic Gauge
• Based on the fact that liquid
undergoes large change in volume
when evaporated.
• Thin heated capillary tube (inserted in
the container) connected to a dead
volume (at ambient condition) and a
pressure gauge.
• Initially charged with the same gas as
in storage.
• Condenses when immersed reducing
dead volume pressure.
• Condensation is proportional to the
liquid level.
• Hence liquid level can be calibrated
against pressure. Or by the following
relation. (Ac – area of capillary)
• Density can be found from the
modified ideal gas relation using
supercompressibility factor (z)